18
The Study of Gothic Architecture
The understanding of “Gothic” architecture involves the assessment of product and process. The first approach, systematized over the past two centuries, applies a checklist of required features including the pointed arch, lightweight ribbed vault, highly developed buttressing (perhaps including flyers), and structure based upon a skeleton of cut stone (ashlar) rather than the massive rubble walls of earlier “Romanesque.”1 This combination produces a light-filled and spacious interior and jagged exterior massing. The story of Gothic, told in traditional terms, recounts the mid-twelfth-century assembly of these features to create a radically new structural system in and around the Ile-de-France, the perfection of that system c.1200, its “triumph” and “spread” to England, Germany, Spain, and Italy, its transformation over time, and its demise c.1500.
The second approach (process) – manifestly more attractive to modern audiences – focuses upon the cultural framework of architectural production, correlating economic transformations, new agrarian methods, industry, commerce and the growth of towns, technology and rationalized production, the newly expanded mission of the Church and new forms of liturgical and devotional practice, the increasing power of the French monarchy, and supra-regional interactions that led to intense interest in a common set of forms that might be appropriated and exploited to meet a wide range of regional needs. Process meets product, of course, in our own experiential response to the building itself.
The challenge is to deal with the full range of cultural variations that accompanied construction while at the same time recognizing and accounting for the power of that unmistakable Gothic “look.”
The principal resource for the study of Gothic architecture lies in the buildings themselves. More than metonymy where the idea of the Middle Ages can be conveyed by a building or a group of buildings, the edifice provides direct physical access to the spaces, and contact with the material substance of the past. Buildings, moreover, may possess the power to affect us: not just through the miracle of survival and the “message” that might be found “encoded” in their spaces and forms, but also because the artifice of builders who may have endowed the edifice with the power to move us to a sense of the beautiful or sublime. Our first problem is reconciling our experiential responses with the task of dealing with buildings as entities that can go beyond the written document in providing vital access to the past.
The student must form a direct and personal relationship with the raw material of his study, the buildings themselves, visiting as many as possible and developing a systematic way of looking, understanding, documenting, and interpreting what he sees. These abilities cannot be learned entirely in the classroom or from a book; they are acquired through an extended dialectic between the buildings, the written sources, and interactions with the community of scholars: between the active and the contemplative lives. Work must, of course, begin with an evaluation of the extent to which our buildings have been transformed physically, existing now in a context (urban and cultural) that may have little to do with the situation in which they were created.
“Interpretation” brings the assessment of the relationship between the monument and similar contemporaneous edifices (“style”) as well as the search for an understanding of that building in relation to the physical and cultural circumstances that attended its construction and use (“context”). Unable to visit countless edifices, the student quickly becomes dependent upon various kinds of representation. First, are images of buildings made using mechanical means. Slides and photographs have long been accepted – sometimes thoughtlessly – as surrogates for the building.2 And then there are graphic images made manually – plans, sections, axonometric renderings, and, from an earlier age, lithographs, engravings, paintings and sketches.3
“Representation,” of course, brings not only images, but also the secondary sources written by post-medieval (art) historians. As far as the story of Gothic is concerned, the pages of the book impose a linear structure upon the phenomenon with two-dimensional linkages between buildings that are three dimensional, creating deceptive order out of ambiguity and complexity. An impressive array of recently published works combine ever-more spectacular photographic reproductions with texts that provide a predictable set of permutations around themes of “development” and “context.”4
Then, the student must become a historian of medieval life, addressing problems of function, the role of the patron, the artisan, sources of revenue, mechanics of construction, the dynamic political, economic and religious contexts, and what the building might have meant to medieval builder and user.5 This leads to primary written sources from the time of construction, scattered in countless libraries and archives – including great centralized collections (for example, the Public Records Office or the British Library in London, or in Paris the Bibliothèque nationale or Archives nationales) – and also local collections: for example, the French Archives départementales. First consult published anthologies such as Mortet and Deschamps, Frisch, Panofsky, and Frankl.6 The student may then proceed to the inventories of the archive(s) that pertain(s) to the object of his study.
Primary written sources are narrative or non-narrative. The narrative source provides a contemporary account of construction: for example, Gervase of Canterbury’s story of the reconstruction of the cathedral choir,7 or Abbot Suger’s writings on St Denis.8 The non-narrative source results from the process of construction: building accounts, contracts, chapter deliberations, and legal documents. Works that depend heavily upon such sources include Colvin, Ackerman, Panofsky, Murray, and Erskine.9 Of particular importance are building (or fabric) accounts, fiscal documents left by the day-to-day record-keeping for Gothic construction. The earliest such accounts belong to the mid-thirteenth century: the prolific material of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries provides enormous amounts of information about sources of revenue, as well as expenses for artisans and materials.
From the written sources we learn that medieval people might be perfectly aware of the visual differences between “Romanesque” and “Gothic” “styles.” Descriptive epithets for the phenomenon will, of necessity, refer to time (newness) and place. Thus, Gervase of Canterbury provided a systematic comparison between the old cathedral choir and new edifice built after the 1174 fire. By the later thirteenth century we find an epithet that embodies the idea of place and cultural identity: the German chronicler, Burkhard von Hall (d.1300) described the new construction at Wimpfen-in-Tal as “French Work.”10
Graphic sources begin in the first part of the thirteenth century with the famous album or “portfolio” of drawings left by Villard de Honnecourt and his followers.11 By the end of the thirteenth century such plans and drawings become more common; German Late Gothic generated huge amounts of material.12
While we have differentiated three avenues – work on the building, relating that building to others, and locating it within a range of contexts, meanings, and functions – the student will probably undertake all tasks simultaneously. In finding various kinds of working method and synthesizing framework, the student will place himself within the history of interpretation or historiography.
How did “Gothic” get its name? The earliest applications of the epithet to Northern architecture were associated with disapproval fostered in the decades around 1500 by Italian humanists for whom “Germanic” or “Gothic” was synonymous with rustic, or barbaric.13 Raphael, in a letter of 1519, derided a form of architecture said to have resulted from the tying together of the branches of forest trees to create forms akin to pointed arches, yet conceded that such architecture could not be altogether bad, as derived from Nature, the only legitimate inspiration for all art.
Students might be troubled by the apparent absurdity of naming an architectural phenomenon of the twelfth and later centuries after fifth-century Germanic invaders of the Roman Empire – the Goths who fostered no tradition in stone architecture. Yet despite attempts to find an alternative (“Saracenic,” “Ogival,” “Pointed”), “Gothic” has stuck. Indeed, with its power to collapse time and to link form with alleged ethnic roots and function, this is a most powerful and appropriate epithet. The elements of the classical orders embodied in the first mid-twelfth-century “Gothic” buildings pointed emphatically to the past – the Late Roman Empire and Gothic migrations that had seen the first establishment of the Northern Church through the agency of the saints. And there is a distinct possibility that ideas concerning natural origins (the forest) were deliberately nurtured by the patrons and builders of Late Gothic churches in Germany and possibly elsewhere.14
One is led to expect an “end” to Gothic in the early sixteenth century, followed by a period of negative reaction, then revival in the late eighteenth to nineteenth centuries.15 Yet the Northern skyline was still dominated by the churches and cathedrals of the earlier age. And by the seventeenth century local antiquarians began to unravel the history of the monuments that formed local identity – the writing of the history of Gothic architecture had begun.16
A series of interlocking concerns led people to look at Gothic architecture with new vision.
Romanticism in literature
Expressions of appreciation of Gothic were rendered eloquent by (for example) Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749–1832) and Johann Gottfried von Herder (1744–1803).17 Gothic was viewed as a personal affective experience as well as the expression of cultural or national identity (German, English, French, etc.).
The French Revolution lent additional poignancy to the romantic yearning for the past. François René Chateaubriand (1768–1848) expressed it most beautifully:
One could not enter a Gothic church without a kind of shudder and a vague consciousness of God. One would find oneself suddenly carried back to the times when cloistered monks, after they had meditated in the forests of their monasteries, cast themselves down before the altar and praised the Lord in the calm and silence of the night.18
Scientific approaches
These sought to identify the internal logic (system) of a building and to locate it within a class or “type,” matching parallel methods in the natural sciences. Classification was only possible when large numbers of edifices had been “collected” as specimens – visited, studied and published. John Britton (1771–1857) pioneered the mass production of cheaply produced engravings.19 The similar enterprise for French monuments came a little later with the Voyages pittoresques.20 Thomas Rickman (1776–1841) provided the equipment necessary to classify the hundreds of monuments that were now becoming available in published form based upon the establishment of “styles” with common characteristics that could be fixed chronologically.21
By the early nineteenth century it was realized that Gothic should be assessed as an organic system responding to functional, aesthetic, and structural requirements. The breakthrough to the critical monograph may be associated with names like Johannes Wetter (1806–97) and Robert Willis (1800–78). Wetter aligned the forms of Mainz Cathedral with datable monuments elsewhere, analyzing its structure as a skeleton of stone efficiently conceived from the top downwards in relation to vertical load and outward thrust.22 Willis’s monograph on Canterbury Cathedral still provides a model combination of the critical written sources (the Chronicle of Gervase of Canterbury) and careful study of the forms of the building itself.23
The institutionalization of the study of medieval architecture was furthered by the establishment in 1823 of the Société des antiquaires de Normandie, an organization that provided the model for the much more famous Société française d’archéologie, with its Bulletin monumental and Congrès archéologique, which from 1834 met annually in different cities, providing a vital framework for research and publication.
Conservation and restoration
The French Revolution had nationalized assets necessary to sustain the fabric of the Church. The convergence (1830s) of the pressing physical needs of neglected or mutilated edifices with the increasing sensitivity to the cultural value of such monuments led to the development of a métier – that of the restorer. Jean-Baptiste Lassus (1807–57) and Eugène Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc (1814–79) are prime examples of the nineteenth-century restorer in France.24
Rationalism
In 1840 the young Viollet-le-Duc assumed direction of the restoration of La Madeleine at Vézelay.25 The theoretical understanding that he developed and published in his Dictionnaire must be understood in relation to his practice at Vézelay, Notre-Dame of Paris and scores of other projects.26 He concluded that the ribs of a quadripartite vault served as a scaffold to steady the four vault fields during construction. Each of the vault fields was then built up using lightweight mobile wooden centering. Arches and ribs actually carried the vault. Romanesque architecture is capricious, Gothic is rational – pinnacles provided stability for the buttress uprights and all elements were designed around similar rational principles.
Critics argued that flying buttresses do not work by opposing the thrust of the vault by means of a counter-load: they merely transmit the load to the exterior pylons.27 Engaged shafts only appear to carry; they express “aesthetic logic” but perform no structural role. Gables, pinnacles, tabernacles all come under the same understanding. Accusing Viollet-le-Duc of a romanticized notion of mechanics, Pol Abraham and others open the way for the understanding of Gothic as an architecture of illusionism.
Architecture, morality and religion28
In Augustus Welby Pugin’s (1812–52) Contrasts the moral and religious force of Gothic is everywhere manifest: Gothic is the Christian style.29 The linkage between appropriateness of form and Christian dogma led to an outpouring of creativity in England with the establishment of the Camden and Ecclesiological Societies to adjudicate on the creation of “good” buildings. John Ruskin (1819–1900) set out to define guiding principles such as “truth to materials.”30 The needs of growing urban populations in mid-nineteenth-century England and the perceived dangers of socialism/Marxism produced a vast need for new churches, which was met by architects such as George Edmund Street (1824–81), William Butterfield (1884–1900), and George Gilbert Scott (1811–78).31 Gothic was also a force in the establishment of national identity, particularly in England and Germany.
The establishment of an art historical métier: archaeology and theory
The twentieth century was dominated by two streams of thought: “archaeological,” associated especially with the French tradition, and the “theoretical” approaches of German writers. By 1900, in a field dominated by the Ecole des Chartres (1821), with its chair of archaeology (1846), the requirements of the French archaeological study had been clearly established. E. Lefèvre-Pontalis (1862–1923) addressed the question “How should one write a monograph on a church?”32 The elements of the study should include: (1) determination of the campaigns of construction; (2) analytical analysis (dismemberment) of the edifice; and (3) connection of the edifice with a particular school. Methods that included an exacting study of molding profiles, capitals, and tracery as evidence of chronology were similar to those applied in the natural sciences (zoology, botany, and mineralogy) to the understanding of groups of fossils or living organisms, and similar language developed to deal with relationships over time: “change,” “development,” or “evolution.” Such methods produced a procession of studies that remain valuable to our own day, including works by Marcel Aubert (1884–1962), Robert de Lasteyrie (1849–1921), and Camille Enlart (1862–1927).33 Henri Focillon (1881–1951) brought to such work his astonishing powers of observation and analysis, systematizing the overarching theory of form derived from the organic metaphor of evolution or development.34
Paul Frankl (1878–1962) sought to derive Gothic from one basic principle, creating a “system” for classification of style and locating that transcendent “essence” that determines architectural form much as the laws of the natural sciences determine the form of living organisms.35 The essential quality of a thing is revealed by contrasting it with what it is not. Frankl’s creation of three juxtaposed opposites for Romanesque and Gothic – addition/division, structure/texture, and frontality/diagonality provided a powerful expository method for the teacher equipped with two slide projectors.
For Frankl it was the aesthetic implications of the rib that provided the mechanism for change. An internal dialectic imposed reconciliation and integration: each new edifice embodied corrections of the previous one until a synthesis was reached in the nave of Amiens and the choir of Cologne. The extrinsic mechanism lay in cultural history understood as a wheel where the hub is understood as the “spirit of the times.” That central theme was identified in the life and teaching of Jesus Christ. Man is a fragment of creation; the multiple forms of the cathedral expressed this coordination of many elements in one. “Gothic” takes on a metonymic relationship with society as a whole.
Focusing upon St Denis, Sens, and Chartres, Otto von Simson (1912–93) dealt with the image of the cathedral as the revelation of the kingdom of God on earth.36 The vehicle for this revelation was provided by light and the linear forms of diaphanous architecture conceived around clear geometric principles, allowing the cathedral to reflect the Platonic image of the Cosmos.
Erwin Panofsky’s (1892–1968) translation of Abbot Suger’s writings remains an essential text to this day and represented a massive achievement at the time. Gothic Architecture and Scholasticism is a provocative attempt to parallel two of the most important cultural manifestations of the day: the use of unrelenting logic to make “truth” manifest, and the new architectural forms of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries which he saw as bound together in a cause-and-effect relationship.37
American Goths
In the United States a powerful alliance developed between the moral/mystical response to Gothic associated with the work of Henry Adams and the actual construction of Gothic Revival edifices by builders like Ralph Adams Cram.38 Gothic is today alive and well on many an American university campus.39
In the Academy it was the French archaeological approach that dominated. Sumner Mcknight Crosby (1909–82) studied at Yale with Aubert and Focillon, who directed his doctoral thesis (1937) on St Denis. Crosby conducted extensive excavations in the 1930s, completing the first accurate plans and sections of this most important Gothic edifice and reconstructing the history of the monument from the fifth to the twelfth century.40
Robert Branner (1927–73) studied with Sumner Crosby at Yale, completing his dissertation on Bourges Cathedral. Branner brought the archaeological investigation of the single building to a high level of sophistication, looking beyond the traditional parameters of the discipline to find a context for “style” in the form of the patronage of the royal court.41 Closely aligned with the French archaeological tradition, he sharply criticized certain German theorizing approaches. Through his acute powers of observation, his dynamic writing, and his powers as a teacher at Columbia, Branner energized the field through the 1960s until his untimely death.42
Jean Bony’s years at Berkeley also left an important legacy. A critical milestone in the study of Gothic architecture was marked by the 1983 appearance of Jean Bony’s magnum opus.43 Written and re-written over decades, French Gothic Architecture still provides the student with the best demonstration of the use of rhetoric to convey the “look” of an individual building as well as the connective tissue binding together multiple buildings. To demonstrate what Gothic is, Bony turned to Soissons Cathedral, providing a masterly account of the elements that add up to form the system. He tracked the development of each element, concentrating upon spaciousness and linear organization – horizontal and mural as well as vertical. Aware of the dangers of determinism, Bony developed his “accidental” theory – that the new architecture resulted from the attempt to impose a heavy vaulted superstructure in the Anglo-Norman tradition upon a slender infrastructure of the kind favored in and around Paris. Gothic was invented in this atmosphere of danger and went on being invented as a kind of modernism.
Gothic Architecture in the “Crisis” of Art History: Prophets of the Millennium
The 1980s brought a sea change in the conservative world of art historians as “theoretical” approaches developed in contiguous disciplines (literature, philology, philosophy, anthropology, sociology) were enthusiastically (if sometimes naively) applied to visual culture. The imminent millennium provoked a series of forcefully written statements that provide useful stimuli for the student, who should, however, be wary of the sometimes monolithic panaceas recommended.
Willibald Sauerländer’s review of Bony’s French Gothic Architecture provides the most audible initial trumpet blast.44 While he praised Bony’s “brilliant book” as the culmination of the French archaeological approach, Sauerländer focused upon its limitations: excessive concentration upon major monuments in France; the suggestion that the “rise” of the great Gothic cathedrals came from some kind of inner yearning for increased spaciousness. He questioned Bony’s reliance upon figurative language to convey the essential qualities of the building described: of the ambulatory of Chartres Bony had written that it is “as though the interior space, in an effort to expand outwards, had managed to break through the restraining cage of buttresses at three points.” Such words revealed much about modern sensitivities – yet spaces in the Middle Ages were divided by screens and encumbered by liturgical furniture tombs.
Von Simson was also the object of Sauerländer criticism – for having spiritualized the history of architecture, ignoring the technical, material, and historical circumstances. In 1995 Sauerländer berated a discipline that had remained too committed to the “positivistic” approaches advocated by scholars such as Lef èvre-Pontalis. He challenged the assumption that Gothic resulted from a twelfth-century avant-garde or that it expressed a kind of anti-classicism, stressing rather the multiple references to antique architecture in early Gothic buildings, especially the cylindrical column.
Marvin Trachtenberg also aimed to provide the intellectual mechanism necessary for the “redefinition of the Gothic and, consequently, also of the Romanesque.” 45 Interestingly, Trachtenberg emphatically advocated an approach that was diametrically opposed to Sauerländer’s. Whereas the latter found revivalism or historicism as the principal catalyst, the former stressed “medieval modernism” returning to the anti-classical essence of “Gothic” as associated with the destroyers of Rome. For Trachtenberg the essential modernity of Gothic was more germane to the “essence of the matter” than later “scientific” scholarship preoccupied with rib vaulting, skeletal structure, scholasticism, diaphaneity, geometry, diagonality, and so forth.
Michael Davis based his very useful and positive survey of recent trends upon conflicting “prophetic” declarations, juxtaposing Michael Camille’s condemnation of the alleged narrowness and positivism of architectural historians with Alain Guerreau’s call for renewed rigor (“positivism?”) in dealing with the material properties, masonry, mortar, and design principles of the buildings under study.46
In the clash between theorists and formalists, Davis advocated abandoning the story of Gothic told in linear fashion and giving due attention to the regions and to internal connections within those regional entities. Most attractive is Davis’s advice that the student should not be alarmed by “radical” attempts to realign the study of medieval architecture with current monolithic agendas. Instead, the student should disregard the restrictive “border police,” recognizing the astonishing breadth of the discipline, and should continue to experiment with new approaches.
Current Approaches47
The monograph has played, and should continue to play, a most important role, allowing the writer to provide a full introduction to the experience of visiting a particular building using a combination of words and images and opening multiple avenues of scholarly investigation around that building. Such monographs are associated with the scholarly activities of, for example, Seymour, Branner, Wolf, Hamman-McClean, van der Meulen, Bruzelius, Sandron, and Murray.48 Particularly useful are the monographic British Archaeological Association publications, combining description, archaeology, chronology, design and context.49 More recently Gillerman dealt with Ecouis in relation to the artistic activity of the court of Philip the Fair and the devotional program of Engerran de Marigny.50 Brachmann, on Metz, puts the cathedral in its context both historical and architectural. 51
Surveys that set out to present multiple buildings and to find the connective tissue linking these buildings present a particular challenge, since one is forced to attempt to represent a complex three-dimensional phenomenon in the linear format of the book. Recent broad-ranging surveys include Binding, Wilson, Toman, and Coldstream. Grodecki’s older survey is still very useful.52
Regional studies have long formed a key part of the work of medieval architectural historians: one thinks particularly of the Congrès archéologique. Branner’s Burgundian Gothic provided a useful focus upon a regional expression of Gothic. Bruzelius and Krüger have focused on Italian Gothic, Freigang on southern France, Recht on Alsace. There has been recent interest in Central Europe. National studies include Boase and Harvey on English Gothic, Bony and Coldstream on English decorated, Stalley on Ireland, Nussbaum and Busch on German Gothic, and Lambert and Freigang on Spain.53
Artistic Integration generated some useful studies and the student would be well advised to consider the essays in it by Sauerländer, McGinn, Reynolds, Clark, and others.54 However they tended at times to neglect the wealth of existing publications. Recent authors who include a careful treatment of the architectural envelope of the building as well as figurative cycles and/or furniture, include Caviness on St Remi at Reims, Binski on Westminster Abbey, Köstler on St Elizabeth at Marburg, Jung on Naumburg, and Tripps on the figurative outfitting of the Gothic church.55
Primary sources. The work of correlating the primary written sources with the building itself is the most rigorous, but potentially one of the most valuable pursuits of the student of Gothic architecture. Some of the older secondary sources have been cited above; recent work that returns to an intense study of the primary sources includes Bechmann on the portfolio of drawings made by Villard de Honnecourt and his followers. Binding and Speer have assembled important textual material on the medieval experience of art. Coenen has worked on late Gothic master masons’ work books.56 There has been an astonishing recent burst of activity focused upon the written accounts of the administration and consecration of the abbey of St Denis left by the Abbot Suger, including works by Kidson, Neuheuser, Büchsel, Grant, Markschies, Tammen, and Rudoph.57
Liturgy. The best general introductions are provided by Harper and Dix. Reynolds addressed the problems of integrating liturgical studies with architecture.58 One of the most spectacular essays of the recent past was by Fassler, who reinterpreted the north portal of the Chartres west façade in light of liturgical sources.59 On the extent to which liturgical and institutional demands fixed architectural form the architecture of the mendicants provides an interesting case study: see the recent works by Sundt and Schenlun. Kroos published key liturgical sources for Cologne Cathedral, and Speer dealt with the interaction of art and liturgy. Craig Wright provided a delightful introduction to the music and liturgy of Notre-Dame of Paris.60
The search for meaning. The most valuable account of the allegorical meanings attached to the various parts of the church and its furnishings was written by William Durandus, Bishop of Mende (1230–96).61 Some of the meanings listed by Durandus may seem obscure or improbable to the modern reader. The Gestalt language of the cathedral can be just as powerful for the modern viewer as the medieval user. Thus the plan of the church with its rounded eastern end, its transept, and longitudinal nave can be understood as an image of the human body; the church is the body of Christ. Similarly, the boat-like qualities of the edifice point to Noah’s Ark, a prototype for the Church.62 Sedlmayr brought attention to the baldachin: the spatial unit composed of a concave canopy supported upon columns to create the impression of an interior that is not bound to the earth, but which floats, suspended from above creating a portrait (Abbild) of the Heavenly City.63 Bandmann attempted an ambitious survey of the power of the cathedral as a vehicle for meaning.64 Buildings also carry meaning through their resemblance to other buildings – Krautheimer’s pioneering work on the “iconography” of architecture (1942) is still of enormous importance, especially as updated by Paul Crossley.65 Hans-Joachim Kunst dealt with resemblances between buildings in terms of “quotations.”66
Materialism. The economic underpinnings of cathedral construction were discussed by Kraus and by Murray. Warnke provided a sociology of medieval architecture.67 Marxism brought very different results on both sides of the Atlantic. Kimpel, standing in line with Benjamin, emphasized the means of production that facilitated mass production, particularly with respect to the working of stone.68 Abou-El-Haj and Williams, students of Weckmeister, stressing the abusive relations between clergy and townsfolk, presented the cathedral as a sign of crushing control of the means of economic production on the part of the clergy.69 On the legal framework, see Schöller. On the institutional organization of the cathedral, Erlande-Brandenburg. On the business of building, Binding. On the urbanistic context of the cathedral, see Mussat.70
Useful recent work has addressed the material and the artisans of Gothic. On wooden roofs, see Binding. On the artisan, Barral I Altet and Nicola Coldstream. On construction, see Fitchen. On color, see Michler.71
Design and metrology. Pioneering work was done by Bucher. Kidson and Fernie offer useful methodological overviews. Most recently, see the anthology edited by Wu.72
Structure. This field has been dominated by Robert Mark at Princeton and Jacques Heymann at Cambridge.73 Their writings provide an overview of the old debates and the application of new ideas and technologies.
Gender. On women’s space in medieval architecture, see the special edition of Gesta edited by Bruzelius.74
Secular architecture. On Florence, see, for example, Braunfels and Trachtenberg. On castles, see Jean Mesqui. On the interaction between castles and churches, Sheila Bonde. See Albrecht on French palace architecture.75
Anthropology/sociology. See Maines and Bonde on Soissons, Fergusson on Rievaulx, and Bob Scott on the sociology of construction.76
Representation; language. This is a vast and most fertile topic. The recent anthology edited by Crossley and Clarke provides a start.77
“Late” Gothic architecture. The idea of “style” anchors a set of visual forms to a unity of time and place and brings the assumption that a period of experiments (Early Gothic) will be followed by synthesis (High Gothic); routine production (Rayonnant; regional Gothic), decline (Late Gothic,) and death. The earliest definitions of “Flamboyant” or “Late Gothic” depended very much upon a morphology of individual forms, particularly window tracery; Late Gothic was associated with double-curved shapes. The style-based study of Late Gothic led to a futile competition as to whether the French, English or Germans had led the way to a new formal synthesis.78 But there is so much more than this. Germany and England both produced the distinctive forms of “Perpendicular” and “Sondergotik.” Bialostocki79 first laid out a critical and pluralistic interpretative framework and in 1971 Roland Sanfaçon set out to find a broader interpretation of “Flamboyant,” arguing that the definition of a “style” based upon the curves and countercurves of tracery cannot do justice to the originality and real meaning of the phenomenon. He found in the forms of architecture in the years around 1300 the unifying principle of “individualism,” or détente.80 The most recent studies in the field, while still putting Late Gothic buildings in relation to their predecessors, concentrate more on problems of production, patronage, liturgy, devotional practices and urban context.81
Digital studies. The historian must engage in the impossible undertaking of holding each building suspended in the intelligence while it can find its multiple levels of relationship with the hundreds of other buildings under construction at the same time. The most valuable tool in this task will be systematically collected data, the organization of a database and the synthesizing power of the computer. Columbia students and faculty are currently experimenting with a databased corpus of Romanesque churches in central France.82
Half a century ago Paul Frankl wrote:
The essence of Gothic is, in a few words, that cultural and intellectual background insofar as it entered into the building and was absorbed by it: it is the interpenetration, the saturation, of the form of the building by the meaning of the culture.83
Everything has changed, yet little has changed. Today we would assign more importance to the culture and presuppositions of the viewer/interpreter, and we would challenge Frankl’s underlying idea of “style” as Platonic “essence.” As we pursue the question as to how the ideas got into the building, we will learn to deal more fully with the underlying structures and mechanics of human relations. But allow me to end as I began: it is the buildings themselves, with their amazing pull upon the curiosity and the awe of the spectator, that remain the most important raw material of our study. They continue to beckon us to return, even after a lifetime of work, to ask new questions and apply new approaches.
1 [On Romanesque architecture, see chapter 14 by Fernie in this volume (ed.).]
2 The Conway Library at the Courtauld Institute of Art; the Marburg Photo Archive; the Services photographiques of the Caisse National des Monuments Historiques, Paris. The promise of the future lies in the digital collections currently being formed by ArtStore sponsored by the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation.
3 Dehio and von Bezold, Kirchliche Baukunst.
4 See notes 64–8 below.
5 The works of certain historians have proved particularly rich as far as the student of Gothic architecture is concerned: particularly Richard Southern, John Baldwin, Jacques Le Goff, Elizabeth Brown etc. [On patronage, see chapter 9 by Caskey in this volume (ed.).]
6 Mortet and Deschamps, Recueil des textes; Frisch, Gothic Art; Panofsky, Abbot Suger; Frankl, The Gothic.
7 Gervase of Canterbury, Burning and Repair; Willis, Architectural History.
8 Panofsky, Abbot Suger.
9 Colvin, Building Accounts; Ackerman, “Ars Sine Scientia Nihil Est”; Panofsky, Abbot Suger; Murray, Building Troyes Cathedral; Erskine, ed., Accounts.
10 Frankl, The Gothic, pp. 55–6.
11 Bechmann, Villard de Honnecourt.
12 Koepf, Gotische.
13 Rowland, Culture.
14 Crossley, “Return to the Forest.”
15 Frankl, The Gothic. [On revivals of medieval architecture, see chapter 29 by Bizzarro in this volume (ed.).]
16 Edelman, Attitudes.
17 Frankl, The Gothic, pp. 417–22.
18 Chateaubriand, Génie du christianisme; citation from Frankl, The Gothic, p. 482.
19 Britton, Architectural Antiquities.
20 Nodier et al., Voyages pittoresques.
21 Rickman, Attempt to Discriminate.
22 Wetter, Geschichte und Beschreibung.
23 Willis, Architectural History.
24 Leniaud, Cathédrales au XIXe siècle; Viollet-le-Duc.
25 Murphy, Memory and Modernity.
26 Viollet-le-Duc, Dictonnaire raisonné.
27 Critics of rationalism included A. Hamlin, V. Sabouret, and, above all, Pol Abraham (Viollet-le-Duc). See also Masson “Le Rationalisme”; Aubert, “Les plus anciennes Croisées”; and Focillon, “Le Problème de l’ogive.”
28 Watkin, Morality and Architecture.
29 Pugin, Contrasts; True Principles.
30 Ruskin, Seven Lamps of Architecture; Stones of Venice.
31 The standard older source on the Gothic revival is Clark, Gothic Revival. More recently see Brooks, Gothic Revival.
32 Lefèvre-Pontalis, “Comment doit-on rediger la monographie?”
33 Aubert, Monographie; Notre-Dame de Paris; de Lasteyrie, L’Architecture religieuse; Enlart, Manuel d’archéologie.
34 Focillon, Vie des formes; Life of Forms in Art; Art d’Occident; Art of the West.
35 Frankl, The Gothic; Gothic Architecture.
36 Simson, Gothic Cathedra.
37 Panofsky, Gothic Architecture.
38 Jackson Lears, No Place of Grace.
39 Turner, Campus.
40 Crosby, The Royal Abbey.
41 Branner, Saint Louis.
42 Edson Armi, William Clark, Paula Gerson, Meredith Lillich, Georgia Wright, etc., etc.
43 Bony, French Gothic Architecture.
44 Sauerländer, “Mod Gothic”; “Integration.”
45 Trachtenberg, “Gothic/Italian ‘Gothic’”; “Suger’s Miracles.”
46 Davis, “Sic et non.”
47 See especially Crossley’s excellent introduction to the new edition of Frankl, Gothic Architecture.
48 Seymour, Notre-Dame of Noyon; Branner, La Cathédrale de Bourges; Wolf, “Chronologie”; Hamman-McClean, Kathedrale von Reims; van der Meulen, Chartres; Bruzelius, Thirteenth-Century Church; Sandron, La Cathédrale de Soissons; Beauvais Cathedral; Notre-Dame, Cathedral of Amiens.
49 Transactions, Leeds: Ely (1979); Durham (1980); Winchester (1983); Gloucester and Tewkesbury (1985); Lincoln (1986); London (1990); Exeter (1991); Chester (2000) etc.
50 Gillerman, Enguerran de Marigny.
51 Brachmann, Gotische Architektur.
52 Binding, High Gothic; Wilson, The Gothic Cathedral; Toman, ed. The Art of Gothic; Coldstream, Medieval Architecture; Grodecki, Gothic Architecture.
53 Branner, Burgundian Gothic Architecture; Bruzelius, “Ad modum franciae”; “Il gran Rifuto”; Krüger, S. Lorenzo; Freigang, Imitare Ecclesias Nobiles; Recht, L’Alsace gothique; Crossley, Gothic Architecture; Brieger, English Art; Harvey, Gothic England; Coldstream, Decorated Style; Bony, English Decorated Style; Stalley, Cistercian Monasteries of Ireland; Nussbaum, German Gothic Architecture; H. Busch, Deutsche Gotik; E. Lambert, L’Art gothique; C. Freigang, ed., Gotische Architektur.
54 Raguin and Draper, eds., Artistic Integration.
55 Caviness, Sumptuous Arts; Binski, Westminster Abbey; Köstler, Austattung; Jung, “Beyond the Barrier”; Tripps, Der handelne Bildwerk in dem Gotik.
56 Bechmann, Villard de Honnecourt; G. Binding and A. Speer, eds., Mittelalterlicher; Coenen, Spätgotische Werkmeisterbücher.
57 Kidson, “Panofsky, Suger and Saint-Denis”; Neuheuser, “Die Kirchenweihbeschreibungen”; Büchsel, Die Geburt der Gotik; Grant, Abbot Suger; Markschies, Gibt es eine Theologie; Tamman, “Gervasius von Canterbury”; Rudolph, Artistic Change.
58 Dix, Shape of the Liturgy; Harper, Forms and Orders; Reynolds, “Liturgy and the Monument.”
59 Fassler, “Liturgy and Sacred History.”
60 Sundt, “Jacobins Church”; Schenkluhn, Architektur der Bettelorden; Kroos, Dom zu Regensburg; “Liturgische”; Speer, “Kunst als Liturgie”; Wright, Music and Ceremony.
61 Durandus, Symbolism.
62 Zinn, “Hugh of St. Victor.”
63 Sedlmayr, Die Entstehung der Kathedrale.
64 Bandmann, Mittelalterliche Architektur.
65 Krautheimer, “Introduction”; Crossley, “Medieval Architecture.”
66 Kunst, “Freiheit und Zitat.”
67 Kraus, Gold Was the Mortar; Murray, Building Troyes Cathedral; Warnke, Bau und Uberbau.
68 Kimpel and Suckale, Die gotische Architektur.
69 Abou-el-Haj, “Urban Setting”; Williams, Bread, Wine and Money.
70 Schöller, Die rechtliche Organisation; Erlande-Brandenburg, Cathédrale; Binding, Baubetrieb im Mittelalter; Mussat, “Les Cathédrales.”
71 Binding, Das Dachwerk; Barral I Altet, ed., Artistes; Coldstream, Medieval Craftsmen; Fitchen, Construction; Michler, Elisabethkirche zu Marburg.
72 Bucher, “Design in Gothic Architecture” [on this subject in general, see also chapter 25 by Zenner in this volume (ed.).]; Kidson, “Metrological Investigation”; Fernie, “Beginner’s Guide”; Wu, ed., Ad Quadratum.
73 Mark, Experiments in Gothic Structure; High Gothic Structure; Heyman, Arches, Vaults and Buttresses; Courtenay. ed., Engineering of Medieval Cathedrals.
74 Bruzelius, “Monastic Architecture.”
75 Braunfels, Mittelalterliche Stadtbaukunst; Trachtenberg, Dominion of the Eye; Mesqui, Châteaux forts; Château et la ville; Bonde, Fortress-Churches; Albrecht, Von der Burg.
76 Bonde and Maines, “Centrality and Community”; Fergusson and Harrison, Rievaulx Abbey; Scott, Gothic Enterprise.
77 Architecture and Language.
78 Tamir, “English Origin.”
79 Bialostocki, “Late Gothic.”
80 Sanfacon, L’Architecture flamboyante.
81 Neagley, Disciplined Exuberance.
82 <www.learn.columbia.edu/Bourbonnais>
83 Frankl, The Gothic.
B. Abou-el-Haj, “The Urban Setting for Late-Medieval Church Building: Reims and Its Cathedral between 1210 and 1240,” Art History 11 (1988), pp. 17–41.
P. Abraham, Viollet-le-Duc et le rationalisme médiéval (Paris, 1934).
J. Ackerman, “‘Ars Sine Scientia Nihil Est,’ Gothic Theory of Architecture at the Cathedral of Milan,” Art Bulletin 31 (1949), pp. 84–111.
U. Albrecht, Von der Burg zum Schloss. Französische Schlossbaukunst im Spätmittelalter (Worms, 1986).
M. Aubert, Monographie de la cathédrale de Senlis (Senlis, 1910).
——, Notre-Dame de Paris, sa place dans l’histoire de l’architecture du XIIe au XIV siècle (Paris, 1920).
——, “Les Plus Anciennes Croisées d’ogives, leur role dans la construction,” Bulletin monumental 93 (1934), pp. 5–67 and 137–237.
G. Bandmann, Mittelalterliche Architektur als Bedeutungsträger (Berlin, 1951).
X. Barral I Altet, ed., Artistes, artisans et production artistique au moyen âge, Colloque international, Rennes, 1983 (Paris, 1986).
R. Bechmann, Villard de Honnecourt. La pensée technique au XIIIe siècle et sa communication (Paris, 1991).
J. Bialostocki, “Late Gothic, Disagreements about the Concept,” Journal of the British Archaeological Association, 3rd ser., 29 (1966), pp. 76–105.
G. Binding, Baubetrieb im Mittelalter (Darmstadt, 1993).
——, Das Dachwerk auf Kirchen im Deutschen Sprachraum vom Mittelalter bis zum 18ten. Jahrnundert (Munich, 1991).
——, High Gothic. The Age of the Great Cathedrals (Taschen, 1999).
G. Binding and A. Speer, eds., Mittelalterlicher Kunstererleben nach Quellen des 11ten bis 13ten Jahrhunders (Stuttgart, 1994).
P. Binski, Westminster Abbey and the Plantagenets: Kingship and the Representation of Power (New Haven, 1995).
S. Bonde, Fortress-Churches of Languedoc: Architecture, Religion and Conflict in the High Middle Ages (Cambridge, 1994).
S. Bonde and C. Maines, “Centrality and Community, Liturgy and Gothic Chapter Room Design at the Augustinian Abbey of Saint-Jean-des-Vignes, Soissons,” Gesta 29 (1990), pp. 189–213.
J. Bony, The English Decorated Style, Gothic Architecture Transformed, 1250–1350 (Oxford, 1979).
——, French Gothic Architecture of the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries (Berkeley, 1983).
C. Brachmann, Gotische Architektur in Metz unter Bischof Jacques de Lorraine (1239–1260): der Neubau der Kathedrale und seine Folgen (Berlin, 1998).
R. Branner, Burgundian Gothic Architecture (London, 1960).
——, La Cathédrale de Bourges et sa place dans l’architecture gothique (Paris/Bourges, 1962).
——, Saint Louis and the Court Style (London, 1965).
W. Braunfels, Mittelalterliche Stadtbaukunst in der Toskana (Berlin, 1979).
P. Brieger, English Art, 1216–1307, Oxford History of Art (Oxford, 1957).
J. Britton, The Architectural Antiquities of Great Britain, represented and illustrated in a series of views, elevations, plans, sections, and details of ancient English Edifices, with historical and descriptive accounts of each (London, 1807–14).
C. Brooks, Gothic Revival (London, 1999).
C. Bruzelius, “Ad modum franciae: Charles of Anjou and Gothic Architecture in the Kingdom of Sicily,” Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 50 (1991), pp. 402–20.
——, “‘Il gran Rifuto,’ French Gothic in Central and Southern Italy in the Last Quarter of the Thirteenth Century,” in P. Crossley and G. Clark, eds., Architecture and Language: Contructing Identity in European Architecture (Cambridge, 2000), pp. 36–45.
——, “Monastic Architecture for Women, An Introduction,” Gesta, 31 (1992), pp. 73–5.
——, Thirteenth-Century Church at St-Denis (New Haven, 1985).
F. Bucher, “Design in Gothic Architecture: A Preliminary Assessment,” Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 27 (1968), pp. 49–71.
M. Büchsel, Die Geburt der Gotik: Abt Sugers Konzept für die Abreikirche St. Denis (Freiburg-im-Breisgau, 1997).
H. Busch, Deutsche Gotik (Vienna and Munich, 1969).
M. Caviness, Sumptuous Arts at the Royal Abbeys in Reims and Braine “Ornatus elegantiae, varietate stupendes” (Princeton, 1990).
F. R. Chateaubriand, Génie du christianisme (Paris, 1801).
K. Clark, The Gothic Revival: An Essay in the History of Taste (London, 1995).
U. Coenen, Spätgotische Werkmeisterbücher in Deutschland als Beitrag zur mittelalterlichen Architekturtheorie: Untersuchung und Edition des Lehrshriften für Entwurf und Ausführung von Sakralbauten (Aachen, 1989).
N. Coldstream, The Decorated Style: Architecture and Ornament, 1240–1460 (Toronto, 1994).
——, Medieval Architecture (Oxford, 2002).
——, Medieval Craftsmen, Masons and Sculptors (London, 1991).
H. Colvin, Building Accounts of Henry III (London, 1985).
L. Courtenay, ed., Engineering of Medieval Cathedrals (Aldershot, 1997).
S. M. Crosby, The Royal Abbey of Saint-Denis from Its Beginnings to the Death of Suger, 475–1151 (New Haven and London, 1987).
P. Crossley, Gothic Architecture in the Reign of Kasimir the Great: Church Architecture in Lesser Poland, 1320–1380 (Krakow, 1985).
——, “Medieval Architecture and Meaning: The Limits of Iconography,” Burlington Magazine 130 (1988), pp. 116–21.
——, “The Return to the Forest. Natural Architecture and the German Past in the Age of Dürer,” Kunstlerischer Austausch. Akten des XXVIII Internationalen Kongress für Kunstgeschichte (Berlin, 1992), pp. 71–80.
P. Crossley and G. Clark, eds., Architecture and Language: Contructing Identity in European Architecture (Cambridge, 2000).
M. Davis, “Sic et non. Recent Trends in the Study of Gothic Ecclesiastical Architecture,” Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 58 (1999), pp. 414–23.
G. Dehio and G. von Bezold, Kirchliche Baukunst des Abendlandes: historisch and sytematische dargestellt (Stuttgart, 1901).
G. Dix, The Shape of the Liturgy (London, 1945).
W. Durandus, Symbolism of Churches and Church Ornaments: A Translation of the First Book of the Rationale Divinorum Officiorum. With an Introductory Essay, Notes and Illustrations by Jahn Mason Neale and Benjamin Webb (Leeds, 1843; New York, 1973).
N. Edelman, Attitudes of Seventeenth-Century France toward the Middle Ages (New York, 1946).
C. Enlart, Manuel d’archéologie français depuis le temps mérovingien jusqu’à la renaissance, 2 vols. (Paris, 1905).
A. Erlande-Brandenburg, Cathédrale (Paris, 1989).
A. M. Erskine, ed., The Accounts of the Fabric of Exeter Cathedral, 1279–1353, Part I, Devon and Cornwall Record Society, n.s. 24–6 (Torquay, 1981–3).
M. Fassler, “Liturgy and Sacred History in the Twelfth-Century Tympana at Chartres,” The Art Bulletin 75 (1993), pp. 499–520.
P. Fergusson and S. Harrison, Rievaulx Abbey: Community, Memory, Architecture (New Haven, 2000).
E. Fernie, “A Beginner’s Guide to the Study of Architectural Proportions,” in E. Fernie and P. Crossley, eds., Medieval Architecture in Its Intellectual Context: Studies in Honor of Peter Kidson (London, 1990), pp. 229–37.
J. Fitchen, The Construction of Gothic Cathedrals (Oxford, 1961).
H. Focillon, Art d’Occident, le moyen âge, roman et gothique (Paris 1938).
——, The Art of the West, ed. J. Bony, 2 vols. (London, 1969).
——, The Life of Forms in Art, trans. C. B. Hogan and G. Kubler (New Haven and Oxford, 1942).
——, “Le Problème de l’ogive,” Recherche 1 (Paris, 1939).
——, Vie des formes (Paris, 1934).
P. Frankl, Gothic Architecture, Pelican History of Art (Harmondsworth, 1962; new edn. ed. P. Crossley, New Haven, 2000).
——, The Gothic: Literary Sources and Interpretations through Eight Centuries (Princeton, 1959).
C. Freigang, Imitare Ecclesias Nobiles: Die Kathedralen von Narbonne, Toulouse und Rodez und die norfranzösische Rayonnantgotik im Languedoc (Worms, 1992).
——, ed., Gotische Architektur in Spanien/La arquitectura gótica en Espana (Madrid, 1999).
T. Frisch, Gothic Art, 1140–c.1450: Sources and Documents (Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1971).
Gervase of Canterbury, On the Burning and Repair of the Church of Canterbury in the Year 1174, from the Latin of Gervase, a Monk of the Priory of Christ Church, Canterbury, ed. Charles Cotton (Canterbury, 1930; Cambridge, 1932).
D. Gillerman, Enguerran de Marigny and the Church of Notre-Dame at Ecouis: Art and Patronage in the Reign of Philip the Fair (University Park, Penn., 1994).
L. Grant, Abbot Suger of Saint-Denis: Church and State in Early Twelfth-Century France (London, 1992).
L. Grodecki, Gothic Architecture (New York, 1976).
R. Hamman-McClean, Die Kathedrale von Reims, die Architektur (Stuttgart, 1993).
J. Harper, The Forms and Orders of the Liturgy from the Tenth to the Eighteenth Century: A Historical Introduction and Guide for Students and Musicians (Oxford, 1991).
J. Harvey, Gothic England. A Survey of National Culture, 1300–1550 (New York, 1957).
J. Heyman, Arches, Vaults and Buttresses: Masonry Structures and Their Engineering (Brookfield, Vt., 1996).
T. J. Jackson Lears, No Place of Grace: Antimodernism and the Transformation of American Culture (New York, 1981).
J. Jung, “Beyond the Barrier: the Unifying Role of the Choir Screen in Gothic Churches,” Art Bulletin 82 (2000), pp. 622–57.
P. Kidson, “A Metrological Investigation,” Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 53 (1990), pp. 71–97.
——, “Panofsky, Suger and Saint-Denis,” Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 50 (1987), pp. 1–17.
D. Kimpel and R. Suckale, Die gotische Architektur in Frankreich 1130–1270 (Munich, 1985).
H. Koepf, Gotische Planrisse der Wiener Sammlungen (Vienna, 1969).
A. Köstler, Austattung der Marburger Elisabethkirche: zur Asthetisierung des Kultraums im Mittelalter (Berlin, 1995).
H. Kraus, Gold Was the Mortar: The Economics of Cathedral Building (London and Boston, 1979).
R. Krautheimer, “Introduction to the ‘Iconography’ of Medieval Architecture,” Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 5 (1942), pp. 1–33.
R. Kroos, Dom zu Regensburg: vom Bauen und Gestalten einer gotischen Kathedrale (Regensburg, 1995).
——, “Liturgische Quellen zum Kölner Domchor,” Kölner Domblatt 44/45 (1979), pp. 35–203.
J. Krüger, S. Lorenzo in Neapel. Ein Franziskanerkirche zwischen Ordensideal und Herrschaftsarchitektur (Werl, 1986).
H.-J. Kunst, “Freiheit und Zitat in der Architektur des 13. Jahrhundert,” in K. Clausberg, ed., Bauwerk und Bildwerk im Hochmittelalter (Giessen, 1981), pp. 87–102.
E. Lambert, L’Art gothique en Espagne aux XIIe. et XIIIe. siècles (Paris, 1931).
R. de Lasteyrie, L’Architecture religieuse en France à l’epoque gothique, 2 vols. (Paris, 1926–7).
E. Lefèvre-Pontalis, “Comment doit-on rediger la monographie d’une église?” Bulletin monumental 70 (1906), pp. 452–82.
J.-M. Leniaud, Cathédrales au XIXe siècle (Paris, 1993).
——, Viollet-le-Duc, ou, les délires du système (Paris, 1994).
R. Mark, Experiments in Gothic Structure (Cambridge, 1982).
——, High Gothic Structure: A Technological Reinterpretation (Princeton, 1984).
C. Markschies, Gibt es eine Theologie der gotischen Kathedrale. Nochmals Suger von Saint-Denis und Sankt Dionysius vom Areopag (Heidelberg, 1995).
H. Masson “Le Rationalisme dans l’architecture du moyen âge,” Bulletin monumental 94 (1935), pp. 29–50.
J. Mesqui, Châteaux forts et fortifications en France (Paris, 1997).
——, Château et la ville: conjonction, opposition, juxtaposition, Xie–XVIIIe siècle, 125e congrès des sociétés historiques et scientifiques, section archéologie et histoire de l’art, Lille, 2000, ed. G. Blieck and P. Contamine (Paris, 2002).
J. van der Meulen, Chartres. Biographie der Kathedrale (Cologne, 1984).
J. Michler, Elisabethkirche zu Marburg in ihrer ursprünglichen Farbigkeit (Marburg, 1984).
V. Mortet and P. Deschamps, Recueil des textes relatifs à l’histoire de l’architecture et à la condition des architectes en France au moyen âge, Xe–XIIe siècles (Paris, 1911).
K. Murphy, Memory and Modernity: Viollet-le-Duc at Vézelay (University Park, Penn., 2000).
S. Murray, Beauvais Cathedral. Architecture of Transcendence (Princeton, 1989).
——, Building Troyes Cathedral. The Late Gothic Campaigns (Bloomington, 1986).
——, Notre-Dame, Cathedral of Amiens. The Power of Change in Gothic (Cambridge, 1996).
A. Mussat, “Les Cathédrales dans leurs cités,” Revue de l’Art 55 (1982), pp. 9–22.
L. Neagley, Disciplined Exuberance: The Parish Church of Saint-Maclou and Late Gothic Architecture in Rouen (University Park, Penn., 1988).
H. P. Neuheuser, “Die Kirchenweihbeschreibungen von Saint Denis und ihre Aussagefähigkeit für des Schönheitsempfinden des Abtes Suger,” in Mittelalterliches Kunstlerleben, pp. 116–83.
C. Nodier, I. Taylor, and A. de Cailleux, Voyages pittoresques et romantiques dans l’ancienne France (Paris, 1819).
N. Nussbaum, German Gothic Architecture (New Haven, 2000).
E. Panofsky, Abbot Suger on the Abbey Church of Saint-Denis and Its Art Treasures (Princeton, 1979).
——, Gothic Architecture and Scholasticism (Latrobe, 1951).
A. W. Pugin, Contrasts, or a Parallel between the Noble Edifices of the Middle Ages and the Correspondent Buildings of the Present Day during the Present Decay of Taste (London 1836).
——, The True Principles of Pointed or Christian Architecture (London, 1843).
V. Raguin and P. Draper, eds., Artistic Integration in Gothic Buildings (Toronto, 1995).
R. Recht, L’Alsace gothique de 1300 à 1365 (Colmar, 1976).
R. E. Reynolds, “Liturgy and the Monument,” in V. Raguin and P. Draper, eds., Artistic Integration in Gothic Buildings (Toronto, 1995), pp. 57–68.
T. Rickman, An Attempt to Discriminate the Styles of Architecture in England from the Conquest to the Reformation (London, 1817).
I. Rowland, Culture of the Italian High Renaissance (Cambridge, 1998).
C. Rudolph, Artistic Change at Saint-Denis: Abbot Suger’s Program and the Early Twelfth-Century Controversy Over Art (Princeton, 1990).
J. Ruskin, The Seven Lamps of Architecture (New York, 1849).
——, The Stones of Venice (London, 1851–3).
D. Sandron, La Cathédrale de Soissons. Architecture de pouvoir (Paris, 1998).
R. Sanfacon, L’Architecture flamboyante en France (Quebec, 1971).
W. Sauerländer, “Integration: A Closed or Open Proposal?” in V. Raguin and P. Draper, eds., Artistic Intergration in Gothic Buildings (Toronto, 1995), pp. 3–18.
——, “Mod Gothic,” New York Review of Books 17 (Nov. 1984), pp. 43–4.
R. Scott, The Gothic Enterprise: A Guide to Understanding the Medieval Cathedral (Berkeley, 2003).
W. Schenkluhn, Architektur der Bettelorden. Die Baukunst der Dominikaner und Franziskaner in Europa (Darmstadt, 2000).
W. Schöller, Die rechtliche Organisation des Kirchenbaues im Mittelalter vornehmlich des Kathedralbaues (Cologne and Vienna, 1989).
H. Sedlmayr, Die Entstehung der Kathedrale (Zurich, 1950).
C. Seymour, Notre-Dame of Noyon in the Twelfth Century (New Haven, 1939).
O. von Simson, The Gothic Cathedral: Origins of Gothic Architecture and the Medieval Concept of Order (New York, 1964).
A. Speer, “Kunst als Liturgie. Zur Entstehung und Bedeutung der Kathedrale,” in Kein Bildnis Machen. Kunst und Theologie im Gespräch (Würzburg, 1987), pp. 104–8.
R. Stalley, The Cistercian Monasteries of Ireland: An Account of the History, Art and Architecture of the White Monks of Ireland from 1142 to 1540 (London and New Haven, 1987).
R. Sundt, “The Jacobins Church of Toulouse and the Origins of Its Double-Nave Plan,” The Art Bulletin 71 (1989), pp. 185–207.
M. H. Tamir, “The English Origin of the Flamboyant Style,” Gazette des Beaux Arts, ser. 6, 29 (1946), pp. 257–68.
B. R. Tamman, “Gervasius von Canterbury und sein Tractatu de Combustione et Reparatione Cantuariensis Ecclesiae,” in Mittelalterliches Kunsterleben, pp. 264–309.
R. Toman, ed., The Art of Gothic (Cologne, 1998).
M. Trachtenberg, Dominion of the Eye: Urbanism, Art and Power in Early Modern Florence (Cambridge, 1997).
——, “Gothic/Italian ‘Gothic’: Toward a Redefinition,” Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 50 (1991), pp. 22–36.
——, “Suger’s Miracles, Branner’s Bourges: Reflections on “Gothic Architecture” as Medieval Modernism, Gesta 39 (2000), pp. 183–205.
J. Tripps, Der handelne Bildwerk in dem Gotik. Forschungen zu den Bedeutungsschichten und der Funktion des Kirchengebäudes und seiner Ausstattung in der Hoch-und Spätgotik (Berlin, 1998).
P. V. Turner, Campus: An American Planning Tradition (New York, 1984).
E. E. Viollet-le-Duc, Dictonnaire raisonné de l’architecture française du Xe au XVIe siècle, 10 vols (Paris, 1854–68).
M. Warnke, Bau und Uberbau, Soziologie der mittelalterlichen Architektur nach den Schriftquellen (Frankfurt, 1976).
D. Watkin, Morality and Architecture: The Development of a Theme in Architectural History and Theory from the Gothic Revival to the Modern Movement (Oxford, 1977).
J. Wetter, Geschichte und Beschreibung des Domes zu Mainz, begleitet mit Betrachtungen über die Entwicklung des Spitzbogenstiles… (Mainz, 1835).
J. W. Williams, Bread, Wine and Money: The Windows of the Trades at Chartres Cathedral (Chicago, 1993).
R. Willis, The Architectural History of Canterbury Cathedral (London, 1845).
C. Wilson, The Gothic Cathedral: The Architecture of the Great Church, 1130–1530 (London, 1992).
A. Wolf, “Chronologie der esten Bauzeit des Kölner Domes,” Kölner Domblatt 28–29 (1968), pp. 7–229.
C. Wright, Music and Ceremony at Notre-Dame of Paris, 500–1500 (Cambridge, 1989).
N. Wu, ed., Ad Quadratum: The Practical Application of Geometry in Medieval Architecture (Aldershot and Burlington, Vt., 2002).
G. Zinn, “Hugh of St. Victor and the Ark of Noah: A New Look,” Church History 40 (1971), pp. 261–72.