Adam Barkman and Kyle Alkema
Early in The Phantom Menace, the Jedi Knights are described as “the guardians of peace and justice of the galaxy.” This is echoed early in A New Hope, when Obi-Wan Kenobi tells Luke Skywalker, “For over a thousand generations the Jedi Knights were the guardians of peace and justice in the Old Republic, before the dark times, before the Empire.” So whichever of the two trilogies you start with, the initial image of the Jedi is identical. The Jedi – upholders of peace and justice – align themselves with the light side of the Force, while the Sith align themselves with the dark side. Although the Jedi are guardians of the galaxy, they refrain from ruling directly, acting as willing servants of the Old Republic. The Sith, however, are only too happy to rule and mete out their own brand of justice.
In his Republic, Plato (429–347 BCE) has his mentor, Socrates, search for a definition of justice through conversation with various characters. Let's take Socrates and Plato, his star padawan, as our guides in illuminating the nature of justice in relation to both the latter's hypothetical Republic as well as the Old Republic of the Star Wars galaxy.
In the Republic, Socrates's search for justice follows many paths, one of which explores the different types of political states. Socrates argues that there are five, arranged in a hierarchy from best to least.
Democracy, that modern champion of liberty, comes in surprisingly low on Socrates's list: second from the bottom. While democracy is fair in theory because of its commitment to equality, Socrates argues that it fails in practice whenever there's an abuse of power.1 Imposed equality leads to anarchy. The ruled become like the rulers, and the rulers like the ruled; fathers become like children, and children like fathers; then the same follows with teachers and pupils, young and elders, and finally slaves and freemen.2 Too much freedom leads to too much slavery, opening up the door for a tyrant to reach in and snatch power.
The Old Republic, as a representative democracy, aims at pure democracy but will always fall short since it's impossible for each rational being on thousands of planets to have a say in everything. In The Phantom Menace, the Galactic Senate degenerates into endless bickering and debating that fail to lead to positive action, while Senator Palpatine blames the weakness of democracy on a lack of care for the common good. The bureaucrats, says Palpatine, rule the Senate, and they're not concerned with acting for the good of the people. Queen Padmé Amidala of Naboo can only reply to Palpatine, “It is clear to me that the Republic no longer functions.” This allows Palpatine to weave his web and gain more power for himself.
In Attack of the Clones, Anakin Skywalker and Senator Amidala demonstrate the trajectory of Plato's thinking when they engage in a semi-serious debate about the politics of the Republic. Anakin, in contrast to Padmé, has lost faith in the power of the Senate to make constructive decisions. According to Padmé, it's not the system that's the problem, but rather the reality that people can't always come to agreement. Anakin's quick retort is that someone should make them agree – “someone wise.” She can only say in response, “Sounds an awful lot like a dictatorship to me.” This conversation foreshadows Palpatine seizing power from the virtually powerless Senate, exactly as Plato might predict in this situation.
Democracy leads to tyranny, says Plato, when an evil man seizes power.3 Too much liberty, ironically, leads to enslavement. The tyrant begins as a champion of the people, raised up as their hero. In a time of need, the tyrant springs up as a protector, a guardian.4 He always seems pleasant and respectful at the outset, and everyone is fooled.5 The smiles are fake, though, and hide the true nature of a monster – for Plato, a “werewolf-like creature” – lurking underneath.6
This is precisely how Darth Sidious becomes the Galactic Emperor. In the guise of the wise and benevolent Chancellor Palpatine, he seems only to care for the good of the Republic. Secretly, however, he pulls the strings that begin with the conflict between the Trade Federation and Naboo, prompting Queen Amidala to introduce a vote of “no confidence” against Chancellor Valorum, paving the way for Palpatine to become the new Chancellor. He then stays in power long after his term should've ended by maintaining conflict in the galaxy, ensuring that he remains the people's hero. He instigates the Separatist movement through his apprentice, disaffected Jedi Master Count Dooku; influences Gungan Representative Jar Jar Binks to initiate a motion granting him emergency powers; establishes the Grand Army of the Republic; and fuels war throughout the galaxy.7 Insidious, to say the least.
In contrast to Socrates, Thrasymachus, one of the antagonists of Plato's Republic, believes that the only proper rulers are those who hold and wield power for their own happiness.8 For Thrasymachus, injustice is stronger than justice, and the power deriving from injustice can be used to rule over people. An unjust ruler's subjects are forced to attend to their ruler's interests and make him happy – this kind of ruler is a tyrant, a malevolent dictator.9 It's thus fitting not only that Separatist leader Count Dooku takes on the Sith name of “Darth Tyranus,” but also that the Separatists' terrifying battleship at the beginning of the Clone Wars is called Malevolence. Thrasymachus doesn't see the tyrant as bad, though. If someone is able to hold power over people, then by all means it's in his interest to do so and thus he should be a tyrant.
The Sith are selfish tyrants who use their power to pursue their own interests. As Anakin observes shortly before his fall to the dark side, “They think inwards, only about themselves.” Long before the rise of Darth Sidious, the Sith Brotherhood of Darkness tried to prevent fratricidal war among the Sith by giving all Sith the same status, but this was undone by a Sith Lord who instituted the “Rule of Two.” A master would train an apprentice in the ways of the dark side of the Force until the apprentice became more powerful, killed the master, and chose a new apprentice. Plato describes tyrants as treacherous, telling us that they would never know true freedom or friendship. How true this is for the utterly unjust Sith!10 Even though they may think they are free, the Sith can't know true freedom because they're bound by their tyranny and their fear of losing their power. The only path to freedom for tyrants is to give up their power, something the Sith would never do.
Ironically, Anakin's progress to the dark side is largely driven by the tyrant Darth Sidious himself, behind his mask as Chancellor Palpatine. Socrates's words in the Republic sound prophetic here: “They will, therefore, lie at his feet begging and honoring him, taking possession of and flattering beforehand the power that is going to be his.”11 Palpatine recognizes Anakin's potential and can't resist turning him to the dark side. He stokes Anakin's ego by claiming that he'll become “even more powerful than Master Yoda.” He plays on Anakin's frustration with the Jedi Council, whom he believes is holding him back from his full potential. And ultimately he promises Darth Vader the freedom to become a tyrant like his new master.
Plato argues that a tyrant must purge his state of enemies to consolidate his power.12 The Emperor begins his purgation through Order 66, instilled in the ever-obedient clone army, by declaring the Jedi traitors to the Republic. Later, he declares himself sole head of the Galactic Empire when he dissolves the Senate in A New Hope. The newly completed Death Star has given him enough power to use fear to keep everyone in line.
Socrates's and Thrasymachus's different perspectives about justice allow Plato to examine the injustice of tyrants. Sidious and Vader follow the trajectory he lays out: both are initially proclaimed heroes of democracy yet end up being democracy's downfall. The Sith, as tyrants, occupy the other end of the spectrum from the Jedi, the guardians of justice. Perhaps, though, there are more similarities than appear at first glance.
Whereas the Sith crave to be rulers, the Jedi are content to be guardians of their galaxy. According to Plato, this is why the Sith are unjust tyrants and why the Jedi would make the best rulers. Plato's vision of what the best rulers should be like includes envisioning them as both the best philosophers and the bravest warriors – guardians.13 True rulers care only for their subjects; they're servants who sacrifice themselves for the sake of the city. In order to serve, they must be able to defend against the enemies of the state, both inside and outside.
A guardian must be swift, strong, brave, and full of spirit (thumos).14 He must be dangerous to his enemies yet gentle to his friends.15 Guardians must be the greatest and most courageous heroes on the battlefield. All of these qualities are required of the Jedi, who can both serve as wise mediators and also fight bravely when needed: “aggressive negotiations” – that is, negotiations with a lightsaber, as Anakin tells Padmé in Attack of the Clones – are often required when attempting to restore peace and justice.
Though the guardians must be adept at warfare, they must also be able to blend their courage with temperance.16 Courage is bold action in the face of danger, and temperance is proper self-control. Guardians should not be quick to laugh, which may seem strange at first, but their task is a serious and solemn one.17 The Jedi, though they may have a sense of humor, are usually business-first types of heroes. Guardians must be able to obey superiors and be in control of their desires and emotions.18 They must deny themselves possessions, says Socrates, so that they aren't perverted by greed – just as the Jedi give up attachments, even family, in order to serve the Order and the Republic.19
Guardians must also be reluctant to rule, ruling not out of a desire to wield power but out of a sense of duty to serve.20 Mace Windu is reluctant to have the Jedi Council take control of the Republic if Chancellor Palpatine refuses to give up his emergency powers after General Grievous is defeated. The Jedi see it as necessary, but not ideal. The Sith, on the other hand, see this as a power grab: the Jedi must want power, because in their minds everyone wants power. As Palpatine lectures Anakin, “All who gain power are afraid to lose it, even the Jedi.”
Plato stresses the importance of guardians as true philosophers dedicated to the freedom of the state.21 Hence, knowledge trumps mere martial ability. True philosophers are truthful, temperate, selfless, gentle, just, with a keen memory, quick to learn, noble, gracious, and virtuous.22 Quite the list: just how rare would these guardians be?
Socrates distinguishes between those who will be the rare blend of philosophy and spirit and those who are defined more by their strength of spirit than by their talent for philosophy. Those select few who excel in philosophy would be elevated to rulers, and the rest would be their subordinates and be in charge of protecting the state: auxiliaries.23 The rulers would also exemplify true love, which is attached to the highest good, love of beauty and harmony.24 Anakin explains to Padmé that the Jedi are not forbidden to love, but rather, “compassion, which I would define as unconditional love, is central to a Jedi's life.” Attachment and possessions are forbidden for the Jedi, however. Although it's Darth Sidious who tempts Anakin to the dark side through the power it can have over death, it's Anakin's attachment to Padmé that makes the temptation possible. Plato, too, denies his guardians strong exclusive relationships, yet he did allow male and female guardians to enter into partnerships of a sort.
After looking at Plato's views on failed democracy, unjust tyrants, and just guardians, we've come to Socrates's definition of justice. We have justice in the state when each individual is put to the use for which nature intended him, or when one attends to one's own duties.25 When all citizens are content with their station in life, performing their own tasks well and not interfering with the tasks of the other classes, there will be harmony and unity, justice will reign, and the state will be happy. This is in sharp contrast to Sidious's tyrannical declaration, “Once more the Sith will rule the galaxy, and we shall have peace.”
But Socrates is less interested in justice in the state than in the soul. Indeed, all talk about politics in the state has been in order to find it in the soul.26 Everything written about the state must be taken metaphorically. Hence, justice in the state mirrors justice in the soul, where each part of the soul acts in its proper, natural way. Plato divides the soul into three levels: the rational aspect is above the spirited part, which is above the appetitive part – just as the guardians are above the auxiliaries, who are above the rest of the citizens.27 Plato's point is that the happiest person will be the one whose soul is in harmonious order: when reason rules the spirit and the appetite, the soul is just, and this person will act justly. True happiness is a type of flourishing that does not require material wealth. Rather, true happiness is tied to justice, which is wrapped up with wisdom, goodness, and beauty.28
Plato's ideal state is clearly unattainable in this world, as Socrates almost admits in the end. Nor does it seem desirable from our perspective since it goes against most things entailed by the ideals of human rights, equality, and freedom.29 Why do the rulers have the authority to decide who does what? What if the rulers were to tell me that it's in my nature to be a merchant or a producer, for example, but I hate selling or producing things and I desperately want to be a philosopher? The rulers are fallible, too, which Plato admits. People want to choose for themselves, and this seems to be a good thing. If they don't have the potential to achieve their goal, they'll find out soon enough, but they should be welcome to try. Furthermore, despite what Plato might say, greed, envy, and pride will probably always be in conflict with imposed order.
Plato says some things that are a product of his time but cause discomfort today. Though Socrates claims that marriage will be held sacred, he proposes that the rulers will play matchmakers to put the best specimens together and encourage them to have children.30 Socrates and his companions developed a method for encouraging the guardians to breed with each other, thus preventing the “lesser stock” from having children. Under “a throng of lies and deceptions,” the rulers should make it look like chance was responsible, and not themselves.31 The children would then be grouped together and raised by nurses (those who by nature are best suited to take care of the young).32 Similarly, the Jedi identify young children who are strong in the Force at an early age (so early that, by age nine, Anakin is already too old), take them from their families, and raise them with other younglings in the Jedi Temple.
As we have seen, the Jedi are on the side of justice, so long as we understand justice to mean “to treat each as it ought to be treated.” Treating each as it ought to be treated means doing the right thing, and in order to do the right thing you first need to know what the right thing to do is. Yoda teaches Luke Skywalker that he'll be able to know the good from the bad when he is “calm, at peace, passive. A Jedi uses the Force for knowledge and defense, never for attack.” When Palpatine and Anakin discuss the difference between the Jedi and the Sith, Anakin defends the Jedi by saying that “the Jedi use their power for good.” Before his training is completed on Dagobah, Luke wants to leave to help his friends. Yoda and Obi-Wan don't want Luke to leave even though his friends are in trouble – not because they don't care about his friends, but because his training is more important. Luke needs more knowledge of the light side of the Force to protect him from the temptations to tyrannical power proffered by Darth Vader and the Emperor: “If you end your training now,” Yoda warns, “If you choose the quick and easy path, as Vader did, you will become an agent of evil.”
If the good is something we can have some understanding of, then Anakin, Yoda, and Plato are most likely right. The Jedi are selfless servants who sacrifice their lives for the safety and well-being of others, and that seems to be a pretty good thing. Platonic guardians and Jedi alike, therefore, should be the most virtuous of all people – they must exemplify the four cardinal virtues of courage, temperance, wisdom, and justice. Their rational nature should control their feelings and desires: reason looks up at the sun (Plato's metaphor for the highest good), while feelings such as anger, fear, and aggression blind them to the truth and lead to the dark side.33 The best rulers will be the best Jedi who pursue goodness, justice, and wisdom while also being courageous and noble fighters. The Jedi Council are very close to the picture painted by Plato of the ideal guardian-philosophers – the only thing lacking is their power to rule. They are servants of the Republic, which Plato would see as absolutely essential for any guardians, but they also take orders from weak and corruptible Republic politicians.
Plato's views in the Republic mirror the different types of rule in the Star Wars galaxy surprisingly well: democracy is vulnerable, tyrants only care about their own interests, and guardians of peace and justice are the state's best chance for flourishing. While democracy fails, allowing the Emperor to become a malevolent tyrant, the Jedi Council is cut off in its service to the Republic. Perhaps if the Jedi Council had had more power in ruling while still serving the people, then the Sith would've had a harder time establishing themselves.
The conclusion that Socrates reached is that the public tyrant is the most miserable person imaginable, but the guardian – the philosopher who rules by serving – will be the happiest.34 The happiness of the individual and the happiness of state and society are linked. If Plato was right that a society denying goodness and truth runs the risk of losing sight of the most important things, then happiness is at stake for all of us.
If Plato was right, does this mean that democracy is doomed to failure? That seems unlikely, but the warning is relevant. Democracy triumphs over tyranny at the end of Return of the Jedi. We'll have to wait and see what the consequences of this are in Episodes VII through IX. Will Luke Skywalker erect a new Jedi Order with a Jedi Council that pursues true philosophy and holds more power? One thing is almost certain: the Jedi of the New Republic will still be the guardians of peace and justice. As long as justice is pursued and the importance of truth is maintained, there is a new hope for the future. Truth is a beacon, an ally of the light side, but it can also be endangered. The dark side can cloak the truth in shadows, clouding it from sight.