The study of the human brain has a long and august history. In the middle of the fifth century, B.C.E., ancient Greece had three outstanding centers of medical science. The oldest of them was in Crotona, a Greek colony in what is now the Calabria region of southern Italy. Alcmaeon, Crotona’s foremost physician, researcher, and lecturer, wrote the first known treatise stating that the brain is the site of sensation and cognition. As a practicing physician, his approach was entirely clinical, developed through the study of brain-injured patients.
Roughly 600 years later, Claudius Galenus (129–199 C.E.), more commonly known as Galen of Pergamum, used piglets to perform the first recorded experiments on the brain (Gross, 1995). As perhaps the premier medical researcher of the Roman period, he devised a number of experiments to demonstrate that the brain controls all of the muscles through innervation by the cranial nerves and the peripheral nervous system (Frampton, 2008).
Ever since then, this organ—with the consistency of a soft-boiled egg, floating in spinal fluid—has continued to challenge medical researchers. From anatomy to physiology and, much more recently, from neurochemical reactions to electromagnetic fields, slowly, the brain has been yielding its secrets.
The brain’s neurophysiology is expressed via behavior, affect, and attitude. When the brain is in a state of electrochemical stability, affect is regulated, temperature stays constant, the heart rate functions well, digestion promotes energy management, and a person feels well. When the brain is in a state of instability, a pleasant mood is difficult to maintain, negative thoughts are pervasive, temper is short, and thinking may be foggy. Different emotional or behavioral problems may be directly related to different parts of the brain’s electrochemical system which are under- or overfunctioning. Since our task as clinicians is to help people make the changes necessary to experience more fulfilling and productive lives, it is important to grasp the basics of the brain’s organization and operation.
Anatomy of the Brain
There are three major structural regions within the brain: the brainstem, the cerebellum, and the forebrain. The forebrain is composed of the thalamus, the hypothalamus, and the cerebrum. The cerebrum includes the cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, and limbic system.
The brainstem contains the medulla (the upper spinal cord), the pons, and the midbrain. Via the cranial nerves, this structure provides innervation to the face and neck. Additionally, all nerve connections for the motor and sensory systems of the body as a whole pass through the brainstem. It coordinates cardiac and respiratory functions and regulates sleep cycles. The brainstem is also critical in maintaining a person’s consciousness.
The cerebellum is important to motor control; it doesn’t initiate motion, but it assists in motoric coordination, precision, balance, and timing. People with damage to this area make errors in the timing, direction, aim, and intensity of their movements. Recently, cerebellar involvement has been demonstrated in the working memory, that is, the memory involved in implicit and explicit learning and language (Desmond & Fiez, 1998).
The forebrain is the largest part of the brain. Within it, the thalamus relays information between the midbrain and the cerebral cortex, and the hypothalamus controls every endocrine gland in the body. The main function of the hypothalamus, along with the pituitary gland, is to maintain homeostasis by controlling heart rate, vasoconstriction, digestion, and sweating. It also holds temperature, electrolyte balance, fluid volume, blood pressure, and body weight to a precise value called the set point. This is a point that can change over time but stays relatively fixed from day to day. Other structures, such as the amygdala, the hippocampus, and the olfactory cortex, send information to the hypothalamus to assist in the regulation of eating and reproduction. In addition, fibers from the optic nerve go to a small nucleus within the hypothalamus that regulates circadian rhythms.
Wrapped around the evolutionarily older parts of the brain, the most prominent part of the forebrain is the cerebrum. Complex behaviors and functions such as social interaction, learning, working memory, and speech and language are mediated through the cerebrum. As noted, it includes the cerebral cortex, basal ganglia and limbic system.
The cerebral cortex integrates information from all of the sense organs, manages emotions, retains memory, and mediates thinking and emotional expression. It is divided into the right and left hemispheres. Communication between hemispheres is managed by the corpus callosum, which connects the two halves and is the largest white matter structure in the brain. For unknown reasons, it is slightly larger in left-handed people (Driesen & Raz, 1995). The right and left hemispheres of the cerebral cortex are each divided into four lobes: frontal, temporal, parietal, and occipital.
The two frontal lobes are involved in higher mental functions. For example, they facilitate the ability to plan for the future; understand future consequences based on present choices; analyze possibilities as to good, better, and best; learn language (Broca’s region); and modify behavioral impulses to conform to societal norms. They also maintain the memory system and personality traits such as level of self-confidence, independence of judgment, willingness to take risks, and degree of extroversion.
The temporal lobes assist with memory, language comprehension, retrieval of words, and temper control. They also organize the senses of hearing and smell. These structures are found under the temples and behind the eyes. Problems in the left temporal lobe show up in aggression, dark or violent thoughts, sensitivity to slights, mild paranoia, decreased verbal memory, and emotional instability. The right temporal lobe usually facilitates the assignment of meaning to vocal intonation and the perception of melodies, social cues, and facial expressions. Problems with the right lobe often result in social difficulty, trouble processing music, impaired visual memory, and difficulty decoding vocal intonation. Other problems with either lobe may include amnesia, headaches or abdominal pain without explanation, anxiety and fear, visual or auditory distortions, feelings of déjà vu, religious or moral preoccupations, and even seizures.
The parietal lobes support the recognition of touch, pressure, temperature, taste, and pain. They integrate sensory information and are especially critical for spatial sense and navigation. Problems in the parietal lobes may result in difficulty processing information (verbal, written, or mathematical) or comprehending directions, and problems with spatial recognition.
The occipital area of the brain is responsible for visual processing. The eyes send information to these lobes for image construction. Damage to either side of the occipital area can result in impaired vision in both eyes.
The human cortex is also divided into 52 distinct areas (“Brodmann’s areas”) based on structural and functional differences. Because the cerebral cortex operates on a contralateral basis, information from the left side of the body is sent to the right brain, and information from the right side is sent to the left brain. The one system that works ipsilaterally (i.e., on the same side of the body) is the proprioceptive system, which operates from the sensory neurons in the inner ear and in the muscles that give us both our sense of motion and our orientation in space (Weedman, 1997). Proprioception is communicated to both the cerebrum and the cerebellum.
The cerebrum also contains the basal ganglia and the limbic system, which lie beneath the cerebral cortex. The basal ganglia are a group of nuclei strongly connected with the cerebral cortex and associated with a variety of functions, including motor control, resting metabolic rate (the body’s idling speed) (Amen, 1999), and learning. This structure also controls habit-based behavior. Overactive basal ganglia can lead to anxiety issues; when they are underactive, problems with concentration and motor control may be experienced (Amen, 1999).
The limbic system denotes an area containing several brain structures, including the hippocampus, amygdala, gyrus fornicatus, and their connecting structures, all of which form a kind of border around the brainstem. The limbic system appears to affect motivational and emotional states, long-term memory, and olfaction. It is also implicated in the formation of spatial memory and the ability to create cognitive maps for navigation. Additionally, it maintains various autonomic functions.
Other structures beneath the cortex are involved with other functions. Located on the roof of the midbrain are the inferior colliculus, an auditory structure, and the superior colliculus, which is involved with eye movement and visual attention. The visual system has two subsystems: the visual sensory system, which is used to focus, send, and interpret an image, and the ocular motor system, which keeps images from both eyes aligned. Brain injury to this area can cause symptoms such as double vision, light sensitivity, blurred vision, headaches, visual field impairment, or reading problems.
The cingulate gyrus is located in front of and above the corpus callosum. It becomes active when people engage in cognitive tasks such as problem solving. The cingulate gyrus runs through the middle part of the frontal lobes. It acts to help a person stay focused, shift from one thought to another, and to shift behaviors. When this part of the brain becomes overactive, obsessive thinking and compulsive behavior can occur.
Neuroanatomy: The Building Blocks of the Brain
The brain is composed of two kinds of cells: glial cells and neurons. Glial cells are partner cells for the neurons. They physically support the neurons by forming a mesh and regulating the neuronal environment. They act as scrub brushes to eliminate waste and dead cells produced by neurons. Certain glial cells also prevent abnormal communication between neurons in the spinal cord and central nervous system through an insulating material called myelin.
Containing approximately 100 billion neurons, the brain may have more connections than there are stars in the universe (Lubar, 1997). Neurons, or nerve cells, receive and transmit information by electrochemical signaling. Structurally, each neuron is composed of a nucleus surrounded by a branching dendritic formation, which looks somewhat like small tentacles. Each neuron also has an appendage, an axon, which stretches toward, but does not quite touch, the dendrites of nearby neurons. From cell to cell, neurons communicate with each other through a process using both electricity and chemical substances known as neurotransmitters. Across the synaptic space between neurons, electrochemical “sparks” fly: Chemical ions generate an electrical charge that travels along chains of neurons. On one side of each neural synapse is the presynaptic neuron, the axon sending the information, and on the other is the postsynaptic neuron, the dendrite that receives the communication. As neurons “fire” across the synaptic gap, constant feedback and adjustment by the brain serves either to release further transmitters or to inhibit them.
Intricate cell-to-cell communication must occur in the brain for learning to take place. As messages move from neuron to neuron via neurotransmitters, changes can happen within single neurons and among neurons at the synapse itself. Changes can also occur in the circuits of interconnected neurons. Learning sensitizes a circuit to react in a certain pattern in order to produce the memory and/or experience again. Over time, the circuit becomes conditioned, so that its activation requires a smaller and smaller stimulus to set it off.
Neurons are specialized in function and are grouped in the brain accordingly. Two types of neurons that play critical roles in the maintenance of emotional well-being are mirror neurons and spindle neurons.
Mirror neurons fire not only when we ourselves perform an action, but also when we watch someone else perform the same act. Mirror neurons may actually allow learning through the process of mirroring or imitating another’s emotional and behavioral responses to stimuli. Neuroscientist Marco Iacoboni (2008) suggested that when we see others in the grip of a certain emotion, our brains respond similarly in empathic resonance. These neurons may also be partly responsible for the transmission of culture, allowing people to absorb the values and emotional expressions of those around them. Certain social emotions such as shame, embarrassment, disgust, and guilt are associated with activity in the mirror neurons located in the insula (or insular cortex) of the brain. Daniel Siegel suggested that mirror neurons provide a potential neurobiological basis for the psychological mechanisms known as transference and countertransference (2006, p. 1). In addition, Rossi (2006) suggested that mirror neurons may act as a “rapport zone” and that the neural “mirroring system could be an essential mechanism for the sensitive and highly focused empathy between therapist and subject in hypnosis” (p. 264).
Spindle neurons, also known as von Economo neurons, have a spindle-shaped nucleus that tapers to a single axon at one end, with only a single dendrite at the other end. They are exceptionally large cells that transmit signals from region to region across the brain. According to neuroscientist John Allman, spindle neurons function as “air traffic controllers” for emotions and seem to be central to the circuitry for social emotions, including a moral sense (Allman, Atiya, Erwin, Nimchinsky, & Hof, 2001). Moreover, they appear to play a central role in the ability of humans to adapt to unstable situations, cognitive dissonance, and difficult problems (Siegel, 2006).
Neurological and psychological disorders may reflect problems either in the development of, or communication between, neurons. For example, the abnormal development of spindle neurons can result in disorders such as psychosis; a dysfunction in mirror neurons may be implicated in some cases of autism (Oberman et al., 2005). When either the necessary raw products or precursors for producing a neurotransmitter are missing, or the body’s ability to produce a neurotransmitter is impaired, difficulties in neural communication, including lowered or increased levels of neurotransmitters, affect mood, patterns of thinking, and relational approaches.
Neurophysiology: Assembling the Blocks
From an anatomical perspective, the entire human nervous system has two major divisions: the central nervous system (CNS), comprised of the brain and the spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system (PNS), including all the nerves in the rest of the body, whose function is to connect the CNS to the organs and limbs.
From a physiological perspective, the nervous system also has two major divisions: the portion of the nervous system that can be controlled voluntarily and the portion that, at least for most people, cannot be. For the PNS, those two systems are called the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system (ANS), or involuntary system. The somatic nervous system is engaged whenever a person makes a conscious motion, such as walking, speaking, or doing back flips off the high diving board. Of greater interest to the clinician, however, is the ANS, which manages bodily functions that generally occur outside conscious awareness.
Autonomic Nervous System
Like the CNS, the ANS is always “on” to one degree or another, maintaining basic internal bodily processes and working with the somatic (voluntary) nervous system. Functionally, it is further divided into two major subsystems: the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems, which have opposite and complementary purposes.
The sympathetic system controls the fight–flight–freeze response that stimulates dilation of the pupils, increased heart rate, and the suspension of digestion. Although sympathetic neurons are predominantly part of the PNS, the cell bodies of the first neuron (the preganglionic neuron) are located in the CNS, in the thoracic and lumbar sections of the spinal cord. This part of the nervous system uses acetylcholine and norepinephrine as neurotransmitters. People who habitually tend to activate the sympathetic nervous system may find that, over time, it is harder to relax, and sleep and appetite are negatively affected. Sympathetic-dominant individuals often have chronic digestion problems, anxiety, and insomnia.
The parasympathic system controls the “rest-and-digest” response. It works to slow heart rate, constrict the pupils, and stimulate the gut and salivary glands. The first cell bodies of the parasympathetic nervous system are also located in the spinal cord, but in the sacral region and in the medulla.
The third part of the autonomic nervous system is the enteric nervous system, which innervates the viscera (gastrointestinal tract, pancreas, and gall bladder) and releases over 30 neurotransmitters. Underscoring its close connection to the brain proper, the intestine has revealed amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles usually found in the brain and identified in Alzheimer’s disease. Some researchers believe that the diagnosis of this disease may eventually be made with a biopsy of the intestine (Gerson, 1999).
The ANS is involved in conditions such as essential hypertension, panic disorders, generalized anxiety disorder, and obesity. Autonomic inflexibility seems evident in the behaviors and states of clients with these conditions (Friedman & Thayer, 1998; Lyonfields, Borkovec, & Thayer, 1995).
Electrochemical Processes
When a neuron is not firing, it has a “resting potential” of roughly –70 millivolts, measured as the difference in electrical potential between the electrical charge of the ions inside the cell and those outside it (Fisch, 1999). Electrical current flows along the membrane of the cell body and the dendrites. When a neuron sends a signal down an axon, a depolarizing current causes an “action potential,” or release of electrical activity. At roughly –55 millivolts, the neuron reaches its threshold state and fires. In contrast to depolarization, which involves the activation of neurons and the release of neurotransmitters, hyperpolarization dulls the neurons, and they become less responsive to stimulation by other cells. The process of producing electrical current in the body is a fascinating and complex one; for a more complete understanding, we suggest the Textbook of Medical Physiology (Guyton & Hall, 2005).
Rhythms of the Brain
The combined activity of millions of neurons firing in concert produces patterns of electrical activity that can be detected on the surface of the scalp. Because of their cyclic, wave-like nature, the electrical activity is commonly referred to as brain waves. The thalamus is believed to be responsible for generating the particular rhythms of brain waves. Sterman (1995) suggested that the generation of cortical potentials measured on the scalp may come from thalamic oscillatory generators occurring in the brainstem.
Delta frequencies, 1–4 Hertz (Hz; cycles per second), are related to hypothalamic functions and appear in deep, dreamless sleep (stages three and four of sleep). Human growth hormone is released during this deep stage of sleep and promotes healing and regeneration. People with attention-deficit disorder often show high delta frequencies when awake (Gurnee, 2003). Delta waves can also occur in individuals with brain injury or various forms of dementia. When people are close to death, they are primarily in a delta brain rhythm, which is a state of suspended feeling and thinking.
Theta rhythms, at 4–7 Hz, are produced in the limbic system. Someone who has been driving on a long open stretch of freeway and discovers that he or she can’t recall the last 5 miles may be in a theta state. The theta state has also been called the “twilight state” and is experienced fleetingly upon awakening or while going to sleep. Hypnogogic (going to sleep) or hypnopompic (waking up) imagery is often experienced in theta. Past memory seems to reside in this frequency, as well as access to universal symbols (archetypes), imagery, and information. In this state, traumatic memories that were recorded in the hippocampus can be “decharged” and healed. This brain rhythm is also present in deep meditation and in deep hypnosis. People with dominant theta rhythms are likely to be highly intuitive.
The alpha rhythm, at 8–12 Hz and higher in amplitude, originates in the thalamus. The associated mental state is one of being awake but relatively relaxed. This frequency is considered to be the “idling” rhythm. It is important to note that in this state no hunger is experienced. Because the sensation of hunger activates beta frequency, controlling the appetite with alpha states is one key to weight management. People with overly high alpha states often end up anxious when trying to focus. As people age, alpha waves decrease and, once they disappear, death is imminent (Hardt, 2007). Alpha states are important in brain health and can actually rejuvenate an older brain. Seventy-year-old people who were taught to achieve an alpha state using neurofeedback techniques achieved brain-wave patterns commonly associated with 35-year-olds and evidenced renewed energy and motivation (Hardt, 2007).
The beta rhythm, at 12–40 Hz, has a relatively low amplitude and a high frequency. A person focused on his or her work, in conversation, or shopping would be in beta rhythm. This rhythm is needed for focused concentration and for processing linear information. People with predominant beta rhythm activity are action-oriented: movers and shakers. Beta rhythms are also evidenced during periods of high anxiety, stress, paranoia, irritability, and mind chatter. A shortage of beta frequency activity in the brain has been linked to emotional disorders such as depression, attention-deficit disorder, and insomnia.
Gamma frequencies range from 25 to 100 Hz, but are usually over 40 Hz and indicate intensely focused thought. Research has shown that gamma waves are continuously present during neocortical low-voltage fast activity (LVFA), which occurs during active rapid eye movement (REM) sleep. Buddhist monks who had accumulated 10,000–50,000 hours of meditation practice showed these amplitudes when they were meditating on compassion (Lutz, Greischar, Rawlings, Ricard, & Davidson, 2004).
Lubar (1997) suggested that there are three kinds of resonances in the cortex that produce the different frequencies. Local resonance loops occur between narrow macro-columns of neurons and produce gamma frequencies above 30 Hz. Regional resonance loops develop between macro-columns that are several centimeters apart and produce alpha and some beta frequencies. Global resonance loops develop between areas that are wide apart, such as the frontal-parietal and frontal-occipital regions, and are responsible for delta and theta frequencies.
There is an important relationship between levels of neurotransmitters—specifically acetylcholine, norepinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin—and the resonant loops. Increases in serotonin lead to increases in the slower frequencies in the theta and delta ranges by connecting to the global resonant loops. Increases in acetylcholine, norepinephrine, and dopamine favor the regional and local loops, and higher frequencies are stimulated. Optimal functioning allows the brain to access appropriate frequencies for particular tasks. Higher frequencies are appropriate for tasks that require crisp attention; lower frequencies are appropriate for activities such as creative problem solving and sleep.
Another important electrically-based concept regarding brain function is that of coherence, a measure of how well various areas of the brain connect with each another. Lubar (1997) notes that “coherence measures by correlation the amount of phase locking which exists between two EEG signals of specific frequencies and amplitudes over many successive time intervals which are called epochs” (p. 114). According to Robert Thatcher (Evans, 1999), inappropriately low coherence implies that two areas are functionally disconnected. Excessively high coherence means that two areas are somewhat locked in function. For example, when the coherence between Broca’s area, which is responsible for speech, and Wernicke’s area, which is responsible for the interpretation of language, is too high, it can result in speech disorders.
Robert Thatcher (1997) developed a means of evaluating coherence that may explain certain neurological conditions. Thatcher asserted that analysis of the development of electroencephalogram (EEG) coherence could provide information about the “organization and differentiation of intracortical connections during post-natal development” (as cited in Dawson, 1994, p. 232). He proposed that children experience “growth spurts” of cortical connections within the roughly four-year anatomical cycles from ages 1½ to 4, 5 to 10, and 10 to 14. These growth phases assist in connecting the hemispheres of the brain and developing higher cognitive levels of functioning (Dawson & Fischer, 1994). Based on this information, Thatcher developed a database of coherence patterns for children of different ages that is used today to compare normal brain profiles with people who have sustained brain injury or who exhibit brain dysfunction. This means of brain-profile analysis provides a topographical map suggesting where problem areas may exist. Using this analytical tool, the neurofeedback clinician can be much more selective in working with a client to retrain the brain toward stability. This tool is also being used in psychiatry to assist in the choice of pharmaceutical interventions, supplanting the much less efficient “try it and see” method, based on observing subsequent behavioral change to determine how well a particular medicine may be working (Proler, personal communication, August 18, 2001).
Rhythms of the Body
Just as the neurons of the brain generate an electrical pulse when they fire and, collectively, generate an electrical field, so too do all the other cells in the body generate minute but measurable electrical fields. Because every movement in the body generates oscillating bioelectric signals, or microcurrents, that are conducted throughout the body, all the cells are connected in terms of overlapping electrical fields. These fields also extend out beyond the body and may act as a web of interconnectedness (McCraty, Atkinson, Tomasino, & Tiller, 1998; Schwartz, 2003). Because organ cells tend to fire in concert, organs generate much stronger fields. For example, the heart generates small electrical waves (measured in millivolts) that can be detected by an electrocardiogram (ECG). A different electric current is produced by the skin. The “galvanic skin response,” a change in the skin’s conductivity caused by an emotional stimulus such as fright, is the basis of “lie detector” tests.
In looking at commonalities that might underlie the maintenance of health and the prevention of disease, Irving Dardik, a cardiologist, proposed that not just the heart, or even the body as whole, but everything in the universe, moves in waves. As a corollary, he hypothesized that illness results when we stifle those waves within our body (Dardik, 1996; Dardik & Lewin, 2005). In other words, maintaining a variability of waves is a key to maintaining health.
It is well known that a healthy heart beats with a degree of variability from one heartbeat to the next. It speeds up with every breath in and slows down with every breath out. Plotted over time, these variations generate a pattern called the heart rhythm or, more formally, heart rate variability (HRV). Specifically, HRV is a measure of heartbeat variations in the beat-to-beat rhythm. This variation is driven by an interplay of the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems: the SNS speeds up heart rate, whereas the PNS slows it down. “Although our understanding of the meaning of HRV is far from complete, it seems to be a marker of both dynamic and cumulative load. As a dynamic marker of load (i.e., the physiological wear and tear on the body that results from ongoing adaptive efforts to maintain stability [homeostasis] in response to stressors), HRV appears to be sensitive and responsive to acute stress. Under laboratory conditions, demand for high mental functioning—e.g., making complex decisions or public speaking—has been shown to lower HRV. As a marker of cumulative wear and tear, HRV has also been shown to decline with the aging process” (MacArthur & MacArthur, 2000, Chapter 9). States of chronic load or stress can result in a generalized lowering of HRV, and a decreased HRV is often an early indicator of illness (Kristal-Boneh, Raifel, Froom, & Ribak, 1995).
By keeping HRV within optimal levels, a person can increase his or her overall health (Dardik, 1996). HRV can be increased by using an exercise strategy of high exertion and recovery. For example, a brief burst of high-speed running alternated with a few minutes of rest several times in a designated exercise period will improve HRV. During the rest phase, study subjects used Benson’s relaxation response, whereby a word or simple phrase is repeated while other thoughts are gently ignored (Benson, 2000). Each rest phase was concluded when the heart rate had stabilized for at least 15 seconds (Dardik, 1996).
The Institute of HeartMath has conducted research on “heart rhythm pattern analysis” and found that emotional states influence heart rhythm patterns. Positive emotions such as compassion are associated with coherent patterns in the heart’s rhythms. With negative feelings such as anger, heart rhythms degenerate into less ordered patterns, and the body feels stressed (McCraty, Atkinson, Tomasino, & Bradley, 2006). Studies done on the risk of developing heart disease have shown that both those people who vented their anger and those who repressed it tended to significantly increase their risk (Siegman, Townsend, Blumenthal, Sorkin, & Civelak, 1998; Carroll et al., 1998). In terms of heart health, a preferable approach is learning to discuss problematic situations calmly, without moving toward intensity.
Because the body’s electrical field extends beyond the skin, other people may also perceive the electromagnetic fields that are generated by someone’s coherent or chaotic heart patterns. In effect, a person’s emotional states can affect others (McCraty & Tomasino, 2006). Although only a few people perceive these fields consciously, we often register another person’s electrical field at a subconscious level. It is what leads us to refer, colloquially, to someone’s “good vibes” or “bad vibes.” In fact, when two people are connected by proximity or emotional ties, there may be a natural resonance reflected in both brain and heart electrical patterns. James Oschman (2000) suggested that the “heart’s biomagnetic field is hundreds of times stronger than that of the brain [and] provides a simple physical explanation for the apparent entrainment of one person’s electroencephalogram (EEG) by another person’s electrocardiogram (ECG)” (p. 96). In a similar vein, it has long been known that the monthly periods of women who live together frequently become synchronized. Although primarily unconscious, the ability of people to come into a biomagnetic alignment is far-reaching and profound.
HeartMath’s use of the term coherence describes an increase in parasympathetic activity and alpha rhythms, and entrainment—the process whereby two interacting oscillating systems, which have different periods when they function independently, assume the same period—among heart rhythm patterns (patterns of heart beats and the spacing between beats), breathing, and blood pressure (McCraty, 2002). HeartMath researchers have found that when people intentionally shift their heart rhythm into a more coherent rate, their emotional states improve (McCraty & Tomasino, 2006). Childre and Rozman (2007) said that “coherence is an even more powerful physiological state than relaxation. It is considered an optimal state for healing, learning, emotional transformation, and peak performance” (p. 45). Using a tool such as emWave®, a biofeedback device utilizing a specially-designed software program, users can learn to slow their heart rate and maintain an alpha brain wave, through which a subjective sense of calm can be produced. By generalizing the training, this state of calm can be achieved or maintained in other settings. This method of developing heart rate coherence incorporates learning to breathe appropriately.
Rhythms of Nature
Consistent with Dardik’s hypothesis, Fritjof Capra (1997) suggested that rhythmic patterns can be observed in all levels: from the atomic patterns of probability waves to the vibrating structures of molecules to the multidimensional wave patterns found in complex organisms. People are awash in the multilayered rhythms of their own pulsating cells, fluctuating hormones, and cycles of growth and maturity. They are also enveloped in nature’s rhythms, cycles, and waves: ultradian rhythms of 90–120 minute cycles, circadian (solar) rhythms of 24 hours, weekly cycles, monthly (lunar) cycles, rhythms produced by the sensory input of sound and light, and so on.
Understanding the clinical implications of many of these rhythms is important. For example, circadian rhythms are related to hormonal changes and weight gain. Research from the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) suggested that a treatment for obesity might include normalizing the circadian pattern of light and dark (Rousch, 1995). Exposure to 14-hour periods of darkness can trigger hormone release and foster deeper and more restful sleep. Ultradian rhythms seem to correspond to the periodic release of certain hormones that regulate attention span and hunger. Carol Orlock (1995) described experiments wherein subjects headed for the refrigerator or the coffee pot roughly every 90 minutes in order to forestall, if not prevent, the natural ultradian cycle and switch in hemispheric dominance. This behavior might even be expected for individuals working in areas such as accounting or the practice of law, where a consistent left-hemisphere dominance would be more appropriate to the required tasks. Based on her research, Orlock suggested that the oscillations in hemispheric dominance that occur every 90 minutes affect the ability to reason, think, and exercise spatial skills.
Brain, Mind, and Consciousness
The brain is an extraordinary organ that produces electrical activity at all times; whether a person is awake or asleep, the brain continuously receives and processes information. The origin of consciousness and specifically the mind is still a mystery. Some cutting-edge thinkers, including Karl Pribram (1994), believe that the mind is a hologram. Jon Cowan, long-time neurofeedback clinician, hypothesized that the mind is a “multidimensional electroholomorphic field” that exists outside the brain (Cowan, 2006). Siegel (2007) suggested that the mind emerges from the interaction of the brain with relationships. As a simple heuristic convenience, the mind is conventionally said to be comprised of the conscious and unconscious; with finer delineations, it includes the subconscious and preconscious.
The conscious mind holds current information and currently perceived emotions, moods, and attitudes. It can hold about four pieces of information at one time if they are not complex (Cowan, 2001); if complex, the conscious mind can hold only one piece at a time. However, the conscious mind can retrieve and replace stored data with a rapidity approaching near-simultaneity. The conscious mind uses past experiences to direct present emotional states and behaviors; based on those experiences, it evaluates potential futures and makes choices.
The unconscious mind holds memories of the entirety of a person’s experiences from the very beginning of life. As such, it forms a substantial repository of resources that can be drawn upon by the conscious mind in any given situation. This part of the mind also processes a great deal of input outside conscious awareness. The unconscious mind has an “internal search” function; when asked for a solution to a problem, it goes on an internal search to come up with the best solution at the time, and it continues searching for the best answer in the future (Rossi, Erickson-Klein, & Rossi, 1970/2008).
Much of a person’s mental life, as orchestrated by the unconscious mind, is based on an ability to recognize familiar patterns. The term adaptive unconscious was coined by Daniel Wegner (2002) to refer to mental processes that can direct judgment and decision making, but that are inaccessible to introspective awareness. The processing of the adaptive unconscious is differentiated from conscious processing by its superior speed, effortlessness, focus on the present, and inferior flexibility. It can size up people’s emotions, character, and intent quickly and accurately. Through the adaptive unconscious, snap intuitive decisions can be made. It may lead a person to have a sudden flash of insight or spontaneous “knowing” that something is about to occur (e.g., the firefighter who suddenly shouts to his team to hurry out of a burning building just before the structure collapses) (Wilson, 2002).
Along with all of the learning an individual has acquired, these unconscious processes become resources that can be tapped for problem solving and living well. Milton Erickson (Erickson & Rossi, 1979) believed that people have many positive untapped resources at the unconscious level that can be accessed by priming the client’s associative function through the use of metaphorical or symbolic imagery. A relaxed state of mind allows the unconscious to reorganize ideas, issues, and perspectives, which can generate better decision-making. In a study done at the University of Amsterdam, Dikjsterhuis (2004) found that when people were asked to think hard about a complex decision, they made poor choices. But if they were asked to set the decision aside for the moment and engage in a variety of puzzles before making a decision, they made much better choices with which they were more satisfied. The researchers concluded that unconscious thought leads to improved decision-making. Wegner suggested that “we often experience a thought followed by an action and assume the thought caused the action. However, it may be that both thought and action come from another unconscious process”—that is, from a state that precedes both (p. 47).
Putting Knowledge into Practice
With a general working knowledge of the intersections of the brain, the mind, and the body, the clinician is prepared to approach the therapeutic encounter with a much broader understanding of the underlying neural implications of dysfunction and the healing potential of shifting the brain state. In 1909, Sigmund Freud described psychoanalysis as “the talking cure.” Although the connection established between clinician and client through conversation is still one of the most powerful tools for healing, now the clinician also has access to a wide array of additional modalities to support the therapeutic connection. In the next chapter, we discuss the evaluation process for a new client within the context of BCT.