1. A Snapshot of Our Current Mess
1. Jason DeParle and Robert M. Gebeloff, “Living on Nothing but Food Stamps,” New York Times, January 3, 2010.
2. U.S. Department of Agriculture, “FY 2010 Allotments and Deduction Information,” September 10, 2010, www.fns.usda.gov/snap/government/FY11_Allot_Deduct.htm.
3. Food Research and Action Center, “SNAP/Food Stamp Monthly Participation Data,” May 2011, frac.org/reports-and-resources/snapfood-stamp-monthly-participation-data/.
4. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, “TANF—Caseload Data,” May 26, 2011, www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/ofa/data-reports/caseload/caseload_current.htm.
5. Duplication, Overlap, and Inefficiencies in Fed. Welfare Programs: Hearing Before H. Comm. on Oversight and Gov’t Reform, Subcomm. on Regulatory Affairs, Stimulus Oversight and Gov’t Spending, 112th Cong. (2011).
2. What We Have Accomplished
1. Lyndon Johnson, “Remarks upon Signing the Economic Opportunity Act,” August 20, 1964, 1963–64 Public Papers, part 2, p. 988.
2. Arloc Sherman, “Safety Net Effective at Fighting Poverty, But Has Weakened for the Very Poorest,” Center on Budget and Policy Priorities, July 6, 2009. For 2010, Sherman calculated that the poverty rate would be 28.6 percent and that 38.4 million more people would be poor in the absence of public benefits, including benefits added temporarily by the Recovery Act. Arloc Sherman, “Without the Safety Net, More Than a Quarter of Americans Would Have Been Poor Last Year,” Off the Charts blog, Center on Budget and Policy Priorities, November 9, 2011, www.offthechartsblog.org/without-the-safety-net-more-than-a-quarter-of-americans-would-have-been-poor-last-year/.
3. Paul N. Van de Water and Arloc Sherman, “Social Security Keeps 20 million Americans Out of Poverty: A State-By-State Analysis,” Center on Budget and Policy Priorities, August 11, 2010.
4. George H.W. Bush, commencement address at the University of Michigan Graduation Ceremonies, May 4, 1991, Weekly Compilation of Presidential Documents, vol. 27, p. 563.
5. Lyndon Johnson, “Remarks at the University of Michigan Graduation Ceremonies,” May 22, 1964, 1963–64 Public Papers, part 1, p. 704.
3. Why Are We Stuck?
1. Carmen DeNavas-Walt et al., Income, Poverty, and Health Insurance Coverage in the United States: 2009, Current Population Reports (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 2010), 14, fig. 4.
2. Ibid.
3. U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, The 2010 Annual Homeless Assessment Report to Congress (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, 2010), www.hudhre.info/documents/2010HomelessAssessmentReport.pdf.
4. Paul Taylor, Rakesh Kochhar, and Richard Fry, Wealth Gaps Rise to Record Highs Between Whites, Blacks and Hispanics (Washington, DC: Pew Research Center, June 26, 2011), pewsocialtrends.org/files/2011/07/SDT-Wealth-Report_7-26-11_FINAL.pdf.
5. Children’s Defense Fund, The State of America’s Children 2011 (Washington, DC: Children’s Defense Fund, July 18, 2011), B-2, www.childrensdefense.org/child-research-data-publications/data/state-of-americas-2011.pdf. Other facts cited in the report include: “The number of children in poverty increased 28 percent between 2000 and 2009 after dropping 27 percent between 1992 and 2000. Child poverty increased by almost 10 percent between 2008 and 2009, the largest single-year increase since 1960. Children of color continue to suffer disproportionately from poverty. Black and Hispanic children are about three times as likely to be poor as White non-Hispanic children.”
6. DeNavas-Walt et al., Income, Poverty, and Health Insurance Coverage, 55.
7. Rebecca M. Blank and Mark H. Greenberg, Improving the Measurement of Poverty (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, December 2008), 6, www.brookings.edu/~/media/Files/rc/papers/2008/
12_poverty_measurement_blank/12_poverty_measurement_blank.pdf.
8. U.S. Census Bureau, “Tables of NAS-Based Poverty Estimates: 2009,” February 16, 2011, www.census.gov/hhes/povmeas/data/nas/tables/2009/index.html.
9. Kathleen Short, “The Research Supplemental Poverty Measure: 2010,” U.S. Census Bureau, November 2011; Sabrina Tavernese and Robert Gebeloff, “New Way to Tally Poor Recasts View of Poverty,” New York Times, November 1, 2011. The poverty line for a family of four under the SPM was $24,343 in 2010 (with adjustments for regional variations in income), as opposed to $22,113 under the official measure. The SPM adds SNAP, the school lunch program; WIC (the Supplementary Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children); housing subsidies; and LIHEAP (Low-Income Home Energy Assistance) to income and subtracts taxes (but adds the EITC and other credits), work-related expenses, child care expenses, medical out-of-pocket expenses, and child support paid.
10. Heather Boushey et al., Hardships in America: The Real Story of Working Families (Washington, DC: Economic Policy Institute, 2001).
11. Wider Opportunities for Women, The Basic Economic Security Tables for the United States (Washington, DC: Wider Opportunities for Women, 2010), www.wowonline.org/documents/BESTIndexforTheUnitedStates2010.pdf.
12. Sabrina Tavernese, “Outside Cleveland, Snapshots of Poverty’s Surge in the Suburbs,” New York Times, October 25, 2011.
13. U.S. Census Bureau, Annual Social and Economic Supplement, Current Population Survey, 2010, table POV27-001.
14. Half in Ten, Top 10 Findings from Half in Ten’s Inaugural Report Tracking Our Progress Reducing Poverty (Washington, DC: Center for American Progress, October 26, 2011).
15. Julia B. Isaacs, Isabel V. Sawhill, and Ron Haskins, Getting Ahead or Losing Ground: Economic Mobility in America (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2008), 76.
16. Lawrence Mishel, Jared Bernstein, and Heidi Shierholz, The State of Working America 2008/2009 (Ithaca, NY: ILA Press/Economic Policy Institute, 2009).
17. Isaacs, Sawhill, and Haskins, Getting Ahead or Losing Ground, 52, 75.
18. Robert Pear, “It’s Official: The Rich Get Richer,” New York Times, October 26, 2011.
19. Isabel V. Sawhill and John E. Morton, Economic Mobility: Is the American Dream Alive and Well? (Washington, DC: Economic Mobility Project, 2007), 3.
20. Heather Boushey and Christian E. Weller, “What the Numbers Tell Us,” in Inequality Matters: The Growing Economic Divide in America and Its Poisonous Consequences, ed. James Lardner and David Smith (New York: The New Press, 2005).
21. Avi Feller and Chad Stone, Top 1 percent of Americans Reaped Two-Thirds of Income Gains in Last Expansion (Washington, DC: Center on Budget and Policy Priorities, September 9, 2009).
22. U.S. Census Bureau, Annual Social and Economic Supplement.
23. Ibid.
24. Arloc Sherman, “Safety Net Effective at Fighting Poverty but Has Weakened for the Very Poorest,” Center for Budget and Policy Priorities, July 6, 2009.
25. Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, “SIPRI Military Expenditure Database,” 2010, www.sipri.org/databases/milex.
26. U.S. Census Bureau, Annual Social and Economic Supplement.
27. Joyce A. Martin et al., Births: Final Data for 2008, National Vital Statistics Reports (Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics, December 8, 2010), 21, table 1.
28. David T. Ellwood and Christopher Jencks, “The Uneven Spread of Single-Parent Families: What Do We Know? Where Do We Look for Answers?” in Social Inequality, ed. Kathryn M. Neckerman (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2004), 17, fig. 1.9.
29. Stephanie J. Ventura, Changing Patterns of Nonmarital Childbearing in the United States, NCHS data brief (Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics, May 2009), 5, fig. 6.
30. Martin et al., Births: Final Data for 2008, 21, table 1.
31. Stephanie J. Ventura et al., “The Demography of Out-of-Wedlock Childbearing,” in Report to Congress on Out-of-Wedlock Childbearing (Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics, 1995), 10, fig. II-1; Martin et al., Births: Final Data for 2008, 47, table 16.
32. Ventura, Changing Patterns of Nonmarital Childbearing in the United States, 2.
33. Sara McLanahan, “Fragile Families and the Reproduction of Poverty,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 621, no. 1 (January 2009): 112.
34. Ellwood and Jencks, “Uneven Spread of Single-Parent Families,” 47–48.
35. William Julius Wilson, The Truly Disadvantaged: The Inner City, the Underclass, and Public Policy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987).
36. See McLanahan, “Fragile Families and the Reproduction of Poverty,” 116.
37. Kathryn L.S. Pettit and G. Thomas Kingsley, Concentrated Poverty: A Change in Course (Washington, DC: Urban Institute, 2003), www.urban.org/UploadedPDF/310790_NCUA2.pdf.
38. U.S. Census Bureau, Annual Social and Economic Supplement.
4. Jobs: The Economy and Public Policy Go South (for Most of Us)
1. See James Tobin, “It Can Be Done! Conquering Poverty in the US by 1976,” New Republic, June 3, 1967, 14–18.
2. Ibid., 16.
3. Ibid., 18.
4. Claudia Goldin and Lawrence F. Katz, “Long-Run Changes in the Wage Structure: Narrowing, Widening, Polarizing,” Brookings Papers on Economic Activity 2 (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 2007), 135.
5. Lawrence Mishel, Jared Bernstein, and Heidi Shierholz, The State of Working America 2008/2009 (Ithaca, NY: ILR Press/Economic Policy Institute, 2009).
6. Frank Levy and Peter Temin, “Inequality and Institutions in 20th Century America,” working paper, MIT, Cambridge, MA, June 27, 2007, 31–32.
7. Economic Policy Institute, “The Real Value of the Minimum Wage, 1960–2010,” www.stateofworkingamerica.org/files/images/orig/Wages_minwage.png.
8. Lane Kenworthy, “Low Wage Jobs and No Wage Growth: Is There a Way Out?” New America Foundation, June 2011, growth.newamerica.net/sites/newamerica.net/files/policydocs/Kenworthy.pdf.
9. See Jacob Hacker and Paul Pierson, Winner-Take-All Politics (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2011), 129–31.
10. Ibid., 99.
11. See Barry Hirsch, “Sluggish Institutions in a Dynamic World: Can Unions and Industrial Competition Coexist?” Journal of Economic Perspectives 22, no. 1 (2008): 153–76.
12. Ibid., 161.
13. Jefferson Cowie, Stayin’ Alive: The 1970s and the Last Days of the Working Class (New York: The New Press, 2010), 2.
14. Leo Troy and Neil Sheflin, U.S. Union Sourcebook (IRDIS, 1985).
15. Bureau of Labor Statistics, “Union Members—2010,” January 21, 2011, www.bls.gov/news.release/pdf/union2.pdf.
16. Hirsch, “Sluggish Institutions in a Dynamic World,” 156; Bureau of Labor Statistics, “Union Members—2010.”
17. See Francine Blau and Lawrence Kahn, “International Differences in Male Wage Inequality: Institutional versus Market Forces,” Journal of Political Economy 104, no. 4 (1996): 791–837.
18. David Card and Alan B. Krueger, Myth and Measurement: The New Economics of the Minimum Wage (Princeton: Princeton University Press: 1995), 277–79.
19. David Card and Alan B. Krueger, “Minimum Wages and Employment: A Case Study of the Fast Food Industry in New Jersey and Pennsylvania,” American Economic Review, September 1994, 772.
20. See David Neumark and William Wascher, “Minimum Wages and Low-Wage Workers: How Well Does Reality Match the Rhetoric?” Minnesota Law Review 92 (2008): 1296–316.
21. House Committee on Financial Services Committee, Conduct of Monetary Policy: Hearing Before the Committee on Financial Services, 107th Cong., 1st sess., July 18, 2001, 14.
22. Heather Boushey, “The New Breadwinners,” in The Shriver Report: A Woman’s Nation Changes Everything, ed. Heather Boushey and Ann O’Leary (Washington, DC: Center For American Progress, 2009), 33.
23. Ibid., 35.
24. Ibid., 32.
25. Timothy Grall, Custodial Mothers and Fathers and Their Child Support: 2007 (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Congress, 2007), 9.
26. See George J. Borjas, Richard B. Freeman, Lawrence F. Katz, John DiNardo, and John M. Abowd, “How Much Do Immigration and Trade Affect Labor Market Outcomes?” Brookings Papers on Economic Activity 1997, no. 1 (1997): 5–9.
27. Ibid., 65.
28. George Borjas, “The Labor Demand Curve Is Downward Sloping: Reexamining the Impact of Immigration on the Labor Market,” Quarterly Journal of Economics 118, no. 4 (2003): 1335–74.
29. David Card, “Is the New Immigration Really So Bad?” Economic Journal 115, no. 4 (2005): F300–F323.
30. David Autor, David Dorn, and Gordon Hanson, “The China Syndrome: Local Labor Market Effects of Import Competition in the United States,” working paper, MIT, Cambridge, MA, June 2011, 18.
31. Claudia Goldin and Lawrence Katz, The Race Between Education and Technology (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2008), 4.
32. Remarks Prepared for Delivery by Treasury Secretary Henry H. Paulson at Columbia University, August 1, 2006.
33. Ibid.
34. Nick Taylor, American-Made: When FDR Put the Nation to Work (New York: Bantam Dell, 2009), 541–49.
35. Charles B. Blow, “They, Too, Sing America,” New York Times, July 16, 2011.
36. Harry J. Holzer and Robert I. Lerman, “The Future of Middle-Skill Jobs,” brief 41, Center on Children and Families, 2009, 3–7; see also Harry J. Holzer and Robert I. Lerman, “America’s Forgotten Middle-Skill Jobs: Education and Training Requirements in the Next Decade and Beyond,” working paper, Workforce Alliance, Washington, DC, 2007.
37. Karen Martinson, Alexandra Stanczyk, and Lauren Eyster, “Low-Skill Workers Access to Quality Green Jobs,” brief 13, Urban Institute, Washington, DC, 2010.
38. Ibid., 1.
39. Kyle Boyd, “The Color of Help: Workers of Color Dominate Domestic Services but Lack Union Rights,” Center for American Progress, June 17, 2011, www.americanprogress.org/issues/2011/06/color_of_help.html.
40. Annette Bernhardt et al., Broken Laws, Unprotected Workers: Violations of Employment and Labor Laws in America’s Cities (New York: Center for Urban Economic Development at UIC, 2008), www.nelp.org/page/-/brokenlaws/BrokenLawsReport2009.pdf.
41. Scott Martelle, Confronting the Gloves-Off Economy (Chicago: Labor and Employment Relations Association, 2009), 3.
42. Bernhardt et al., Broken Laws, Unprotected Workers.
43. U.S. Government Accountability Office, Fair Labor Standards Act: Better Use of Available Resources and Consistent Reporting Could Improve Compliance, GAO-08-962T, July 15, 2008, 1.
44. National Employment Law Project, Winning Wage Justice: An Advocate’s Guide to State and City Policies to Fight Wage Theft (New York: National Employment Law Project, 2011), 41.
45. See Just Pay Working Group, Just Pay: Improving Wage and Hour Enforcement at the United States Department of Labor (New York: National Employment Law Project, 2011).
46. See Hacker and Pierson, Winner-Take-All Politics, 60, 270, 278–79.
47. Until the end of 2012, the EITC adds $5,751 to the income of a minimum-wage worker with three children. This provision was added temporarily as part of the Recovery Act in 2009.
48. “Preview of 2011 EITC Income Limits, Maximum Credit Amounts and Tax Law Updates,” Internal Revenue Service, www.irs.gov/individuals/article/0,,id=233839,00.html.
49. See Center for American Progress Task Force on Poverty, From Poverty to Prosperity: A National Strategy to Cut Poverty in Half (Washington, DC: Center for American Progress, 2007) 27–29.
50. See Peter Edelman, Harry Holzer, and Paul Offner, Reconnecting Disadvantaged Young Men (Washington, DC: Urban Institute Press, 2006).
51. See “Child Tax Credit: Publication 972,” Internal Revenue Service, www.irs.gov/pub/irs-pdf/p972.pdf.
52. See Her Majesty’s Treasury, The Child and Working Tax Credits: The Modernisation of Britain’s Tax and Benefit System (London: HM Treasury, 2002).
53. See Congressional Budget Office, “Letter to the Honorable Nancy Pelosi Providing an Analysis of the Reconciliation Proposal,” March 20, 2010.
54. Text of President Nixon’s veto message of the Child Development Act of 1971, Congressional Record, December 10, 1971, 46057–59.
55. See Center for American Progress Task Force on Poverty, From Poverty to Prosperity: A National Strategy to Cut Poverty in Half (Washington, DC: Center for American Progress, 2007) 31–33.
56. National Low Income Housing Coalition, Out of Reach 2011 (Washington, DC: National Low Income Housing Coalition, 2011), 1.
57. Ibid., 6.
5. Deep Poverty: A Gigantic Hole in the Safety Net
1. Arloc Sherman, “Safety Net Effective at Fighting Poverty but Has Weakened for the Very Poorest,” Center on Budget and Policy Priorities, July 6, 2009, www.cbpp.org/files/7-6-09pov.pdf; Jason DeParle, Robert Gebeloff, and Sabrina Tavernise, “Experts Say Bleak Portrait of Poverty Missed the Mark,” New York Times, November 4, 2011.
2. Note, by the way, that the Census poverty figures do not include homeless people at all. Nor do they include low-income seniors in nursing homes, whose basic needs are frequently paid for by Medicaid. (Most poverty measures, including Sherman’s, don’t count Medicaid benefits as income, because experts feel they can’t be used in any predictable way to pay everyday bills.)
3. Southern Education Foundation, Update: Worst of Times: Extreme Poverty in the United States, 2009 (Atlanta: Southern Education Foundation, December 22, 2010), www.sefatl.org/pdf/Extreme%20Poverty-%20Update-12-21-10.pdf.
4. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, “TANF—Caseload Data.”
5. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Indicators of Welfare Dependence, Annual Report to Congress, 2008, table IND 4a, aspe.hhs.gov/hsp/indicators08/index.shtml.
6. Jim Kaminski, Trends in Welfare Caseloads (Washington, DC: Urban Institute, n.d.), www.urban.org/uploadedpdf/TANF_caseload.pdf.
7. Kristin Seefeldt, “When Ends Don’t Meet: Debt and Its Role in Low-Income Women’s Economic Coping Strategies,” forthcoming in 2011.
8. Sheila R. Zedlewski et al., Families Coping Without Earnings or Government Cash Assistance, Assessing the New Federalism (Washington, DC: Urban Institute, February 2003), www.urban.org/UploadedPDF/410634_OP64.pdf.
9. Heather Hill and Jacqueline Kauff, Living on Little: Case Studies of Iowa Families with Very Low Incomes (Princeton, NJ: Mathematica Policy Research, August 2001), www.mathematica-mpr.com/PDFs/liveonlittle.pdf.
10. LaDonna Pavetti, “Welfare Reform Not the ‘Success’ Ryan Claims,” Off the Charts blog, Center on Budget and Policy Priorities, May 25, 2011, www.offthechartsblog.org/welfare-reform-not-the-%E2%80%9Csuccess%E2%80%9D-ryan-claims/.
11. Gregory Acs, Pamela Loprest, and Tracy Roberts, Final Synthesis Report of Findings from ASPE’S “Leavers” Grants (Washington, DC: Urban Institute, November 27, 2001), 24, www.urban.org/UploadedPDF/410809_welfare_leavers_synthesis.pdf.
12. Gretchen Rowe, Mary Murphy, and Ei Yin Mon, Welfare Rules Databook: State TANF Policies as of July 2009 (Washington, DC: Urban Institute, August 2010), 114, table III.B.3, anfdata.urban.org/databooks/Databook%202009%20FINAL.pdf.
13. Pamela Loprest and Sheila Zedlewski, The Changing Role of Welfare in the Lives of Low-Income Families with Children (Washington, DC: Urban Institute, August 2006), www.urban.org/publications/311357.html.
14. Greg J. Duncan and Katherine Magnuson, “The Long Reach of Early Childhood Poverty,” Pathways, Winter 2011, www.stanford.edu/group/scspi/_media/pdf/pathways/winter_2011/
PathwaysWinter11_Duncan.pdf.
6. Concentrated Poverty: “The Abandoned”
1. Eugene Robinson, Disintegration: The Splintering of Black America (New York: Doubleday, 2010).
2. Kathryn L.S. Pettit and G. Thomas Kingsley, Concentrated Poverty: A Change in Course (Washington, DC: Urban Institute, May 2003), www.urban.org/UploadedPDF/310790_NCUA2.pdf.
3. Elizabeth Kneebone, Carey Nadeau, and Alan Berube, The Re-Emergence of Concentrated Poverty: Metropolitan Trends in the 2000s (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, November 2011).
4. Ibid.
5. Alemayehu Bishaw, Areas with Concentrated Poverty: 1999, Census 2000 Special Reports (Washington, DC: U.S. Census Bureau, July 2005), www.census.gov/prod/2005pubs/censr-16.pdf.
6. SANDAG, “Population and Housing Estimates, City Heights Community Planning Area,” August 2010, profilewarehouse.sandag.org/profiles/est/sdcpa1456est.pdf.
7. Robert F. Kennedy, RFK: Collected Speeches (New York: Viking, 1993), 167.
8. Philadelphia Empowerment Zone 1995–2005 (Philadelphia: Philadelphia Empowerment Zone, May 2006).
9. Alexander Polikoff, “HOPE VI and the Deconcentration of Poverty,” in From Despair to Hope: HOPE VI and the New Promise of Public Housing in America’s Cities, ed. Henry G. Cisneros and Lora Engdahl (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2009), 72, fig. 5-5.
10. Ibid., 70.
11. Bruce Katz, “The Origins of HOPE VI,” in Cisneros and Engdahl, From Despair to Hope, 15.
12. Sheila Crowley, “HOPE VI: What Went Wrong,” in Cisneros and Engdahl, From Despair to Hope, 229.
13. Kennedy, RFK, 176.
7. Young People: Improving the Odds
1. David T. Burkam and Valerie E. Lee, Inequality at the Starting Gate: Social Background Differences in Achievement as Children Begin School (Washington DC: Economic Policy Institute, 2002).
2. Donald J. Hernandez, “Double Jeopardy: How Third-Grade Reading Skills and Poverty Influence High School Graduation,” Annie E. Casey Foundation, April 2011.
3. Christopher Hartney and Fabiana Silva, “And Justice for Some: Differential Treatment of Youth of Color in the Justice System,” National Council on Crime and Delinquency, January 2007, 1.
4. Michelle Alexander, The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness (New York: The New Press, 2010).
5. Heather C. West, “Prison and Jail Inmates at Midyear 2009” (No. NCJ 230113), Bureau of Justice Statistics, Washington, DC, 2009.
6. Todd D. Minton, “Jail Inmates at Midyear 2010—Statistical Tables,” Bureau of Justice Statistics, Washington, DC, 2010.
7. U.S. Government Accounting Office, “Report to the Chairman, Committee on Education and Labor, House of Representatives: Disconnected Youth: Federal Action Could Address Some of the Challenges Faced by Local Programs That Reconnect Youth to Education and Employment,” February 2008, 5–6.
8. Andrew Sum et al., Left Behind in the Labor Market: Labor Market Problems of the Nation’s Out-of-School, Young Adult Populations (Boston: Northeastern University, Center for Labor Market Studies, 2003), 9.
9. U.S. Government Accounting Office, “Report to the Chairman, Committee on Education and Labor, House of Representatives: Disconnected Youth,” 6.
10. YTFG, “Understanding Transition Points,” www.ytfg.org/knowledge.
11. Gary Orfield, ed., Dropouts in America: Confronting the Graduation Rate Crisis (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press, 2004), 1.
12. Michael Wald and Tia Martinez, “Connected by 25: Improving the Life Chances of the Country’s Most Vulnerable 14–24 Year Olds,” William and Flora Hewlett Foundation Working Paper, November, 2003, 7.
13. Tony Fabelo, Michael D. Thompson, and Martha Plotkin, “Breaking Schools’ Rules: A Statewide Study of How School Discipline Relates to Students’ Success and Juvenile Justice Involvement,” Council of State Governments Justice Center in partnership with the Public Policy Research Institute at Texas A&M University, July 2011, 45.
14. Anthony P. Carnevale, Nicole Smith, and Jeff Strohl, “Help Wanted: Projections of Jobs and Education Requirements Through 2018,” Georgetown Center on Education and the Workforce, June 2010, 13.
15. Ibid., 26.
16. Ibid., 106.
17. NAF, “About NAF,” naf.org/about-naf.
18. James J. Kemple, “Career Academies: Impacts on Labor Market Outcomes an Educational Attainment,” Manpower Demonstration Research Corporation, New York, March 2004, ES-9.
19. James J. Kemple and Jason C. Snipes, “Career Academies Impacts on Students’ Engagement and Performance in High School,” Manpower Demonstration Research Corporation, New York, February 2000, 47.
20. Kemple, “Career Academies: Impacts on Labor Market Outcomes and Educational Attainment,” 16.
21. James J. Kemple and Cynthia J. Willner, “Career Academies: Long-Term Impacts on Labor Market Outcomes, Educational Attainment, and Transitions to Adulthood,” Manpower Demonstration Research Corporation, New York, 2008, 17.
22. Alison L. Fraser, “Vocational-Technical Education in Massachusetts,” Pioneer Institute White Paper, No. 42, October 2008, 6.
23. Ibid., 8.
24. Gateway to College, 2010 Annual Report, 2011, www.gatewaytocollege.org/pdf/2010%20Annual%20Report.pdf.
25. Lili Allen and Rebecca E. Wolfe, “Back on Track to College: A Texas School District Leverages State Policy to Put Dropouts on the Path to Success,” Jobs for the Future, September 2010, 5, www.jff.org/sites/default/files/BackOnTrackCCTA-091510.pdf.
26. Cheryl Almeida, Cassius Johnson, and Adria Steinberg, “Making Good on a Promise: What Policymakers Can Do to Support the Educational Persistence of Dropouts,” Jobs for the Future, April 2006, 3.
27. YouthBuild USA, “About YouthBuild,” www.youthbuild.org/site/c.htIRI3PIKoG/b.1223921/k.BD3C/Home.htm.
28. YouthBuild USA, “10,000 Students and Workers Lose Educational Opportunities and Jobs,” press release, May 18, 2011, www.youthbuild.org/site/apps/nl/newsletter2.asp?b=1286765&c=htIRI3PIKoG.
29. YouthBuild USA, “About Us,” www.youthbuild.org/site/c.htIRI3PIKoG/b.1223923/k.C7D6/About_Us.htm.
30. YouthBuild, “Effective Local Youth Programs Lose Federal Funding—More Than 120 YouthBuild Programs Face Funding Loss, Possible Closure,” press release, May 18, 2011, www.youthbuild.org/site/apps/nlnet/content2.aspx?c=htIRI3PIKoG&b=1321681&ct=10884369¬oc=1.
31. YouthBuild USA, “YouthBuild Demographics and Outcomes,” www.youthbuild.org/site/c.htIRI3PIKoG/b.1418407/k.6738/YouthBuild_
Demographics_and_Outcomes.htm.
32. The Corps Network, “Service and Conservation Corps,” www.corpsnetwork.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=84&Itemid=64.
33. David Bornstein, “Training Youths in the Ways of the Workplace,” New York Times, January 4, 2011, opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/01/24/an-education-in-the-ways-of-the-workplace/.
34. “Mayor Bloomberg Launches Nation’s Most Comprehensive Effort to Tackle Disparities Between Young Black and Latino Males and Their Peers,” press release, August 4, 2011, www.nyc.gov/html/om/html/2011b/pr282-11.html.
35. Anne Roder and Mark Elliott, “A Promising Start: Year Up’s Initial Impacts on Low-Income Young Adults’ Careers,” Economic Mobility Corporation, New York, April 2011, 1.
