1. Firestein, 2012.
2. Redish, 2013.
1. Freud, 1923/1990; Augustine of Hippo (Saint Augustine), 398/1961; distributed computing, Minsky, 1985; evolutionary psychology, Kurzban, 2010; behavioral economics, Kahneman, 2011.
2. Haidt, 2006.
3. Ramachandran and Blakeslee, 1999; Ramachandran, 2011; Sharot, 2011; Levy, 2007; Wegner, 2002; Kurzban, 2010.
4. Libet, Wright, Feinstein, and Pearl, 1979; Libet, 1985, 1993.
5. Vinogradova, 2001; Cabanac, Cabanac, and Parent, 2009; Gray, 2004.
6. The human eye is built backwards, see any neuroscience textbook, e.g., Kandel, Schwartz, and Jessell, 2000; Carlson, 2010; Chaudhuri, 2011. Octopi: Wells, 1962.
7. Akins, 1996; Chaudhuri, 2011.
8. Ramachandran and Blakeslee, 1999.
9. Chiu, Lohrenz, and Montague, 2008.
10. Rats, Steiner and Redish, 2012; monkeys, Abe and Lee, 2011; humans, Coricelli, Critchley, Joffily, O’Doherty, Sirigu, and Dolan, 2005; Chiu, Lohrenz, and Montague, 2008.
11. Kurzban, 2010.
12. Patterson and Linden, 1981; Savage-Rumbaugh and Lewin, 1996; Fouts, 1997; Pepperberg, 2009.
13. Glimcher, 2004; Glimcher, Camerer, Poldrack, and Fehr, 2008; Glimcher, 2010.
14. Smith, 2009; Glimcher, 2010; Kurzban, 2010.
15. Libet, 1985; Akins, 1996; Ramachandran and Blakeslee, 1999.
16. Kurzban, 2010.
17. Johnson and Bickel, 2002; Kang, Rangel, Camus, and Camerer, 2011.
18. Bushong, King, Camerer, and Rangel, 2010.
19. Boysen and Berntson, 1995.
20. Beran, Savage-Rumbaugh, Pate, and Rumbaugh, 1999.
21. Metcalfe and Mischel, 1999; Mischel and Underwood, 1974.
22. Cisek and Kalaska, 2010.
1. Searle, 1980; Newell, 1990; McCorduck, 2004.
2. Snodgrass, 1989.
3. Pearl, 1988; Rich and Knight, 1991.
4. Groopman, 2007.
5. McCorduck, 2004.
6. Wegner, 2002.
1. Hull, 1943.
2. Glimcher, Camerer, Poldrack, and Fehr, 2008.
3. Sutton and Barto, 1998.
4. Krugman and Wells, 2006; Glass, 2011.
5. Festinger, 1954.
6. Samuelson, 1937; Krugman and Wells, 2006; Glimcher, Camerer, Poldrack, and Fehr, 2008; Smith, 2009.
7. Kahneman, Knetsch, and Thaler, 1990, 1991; Kahneman, 2011; Plous, 1993; Ariely, 2008.
8. Kahneman and Tversky, 1979; Kahneman, Slovic, and Tversky, 1982; Kahneman and Tversky, 2000; Kahneman, 2011; Plous, 1993; Ariely, 2008.
9. Tversky and Kahneman, 1981.
10. Simonson and Tversky, 1992; Shapiro and Varian, 1999; Plous, 1993; Kahneman and Tversky, 2000; Hui, Yoo, and Tam, 2007; Ariely, 2008.
11. Plous, 1993; Ariely, 2008; Kahneman, 2011.
12. Gigerenzer and Goldstein, 1996; Gilovich, Griffin, and Kahneman, 2002; Kahneman, 2011.
13. Simon, 1955; Gigerenzer and Goldstein, 1996.
14. Ahmed, 2010; Hernandez, Breton, Conover, and Shizgal, 2010.
15. Ahmed, 2010; Padoa-Schioppa and Assad, 2006.
16. Deroche-Gamonet, Belin, and Piazza, 2004.
17. Madden and Bickel, 2010.
18. Bickel and Marsch, 2001.
19. Kahneman, Knetsch, and Thaler, 1991.
20. Politser, 2008; Kurniawan, Seymour, Vlaev, Trommershäuser, Dolan, and Chater, 2010.
21. Ainslie, 1992; Bickel and Marsch, 2001; McClure, Ericson, Laibson, Loewenstein, and Cohen, 2007.
22. Berns, Chappelow, Cekic, Zink, Pagnoni, and Martin-Skurski, 2006.
23. Boysen and Berntson, 1995.
24. Cai, Kim, and Lee, 2011.
25. Mackintosh, 1974.
26. Vanderschuren and Everitt, 2004; Deroche-Gamonet, Belin, and Piazza, 2004.
27. Carroll, Lac, and Nygaard, 1989; Nader and Woolverton, 1991; Hatsukami, Thompson, Pentel, Flygare, and Carroll, 1994; Grossman and Chaloupka, 1998; Liu, Liu, Hammit, and Chou, 1999; Bickel and Marsch, 2001; Chaloupka, Emery, and Liang, 2003; Rachlin, 2004.
28. Rutledge, 2006; Krauss, 2008.
29. Lenoir, Serre, Cantin, and Ahmed, 2007; Ahmed, 2010.
30. Lenoir and Ahmed, 2007.
31. Higgins, Alessi, and Dantona, 2002; Higgins, Heil, and Lussier, 2004; Stitzer and Petry, 2006; Petry, 2011.
32. Moos and Moos, 2004, 2006.
33. Daw, Niv, and Dayan, 2005; Redish, Jensen, and Johnson, 2008; van der Meer, Kurth-Nelson, and Redish, 2012; Montague, Dolan, Friston, and Dayan, 2012.
34. Hill, 2008.
35. Simon, 1955; Kahneman, Slovic, and Tversky, 1982; Plous, 1993; Baumeister, Heatherton, and Tice, 1994; Gigerenzer and Goldstein, 1996; Kahneman and Tversky, 2000; Ariely, 2008; Andrade and Ariely, 2009; Peters and Büchel, 2010; Kahneman, 2011; van der Meer, Kurth-Nelson, and Redish, 2012.
36. Plous, 1993; Ariely, 2008; Kahneman, 2011.
37. Glimcher, Camerer, Poldrack, and Fehr, 2008.
38. Simon, 1955; Gigerenzer and Goldstein, 1996; Bettman, Luce, and Payne, 1998.
39. Gigerenzer and Goldstein, 1996.
40. Dhar, Nowlis, and Sherman, 2000; Plous, 1993; Ariely, 2008.
41. Plous, 1993.
42. Ballard, Houde, Silver-Balbus, and McClure, 2009.
43. Ariely, 2008; Kahneman, 2011.
1. Fields, 1987; Coghill, McHaffie, and Yen, 2003; Purves, Augustine, Fitzpatrick, Hall, LaMantia, McNamara, and White, 2008; Carlson, 2010.
2. Olds and Milner, 1954; Olds and Fobes, 1981; Bielajew and Harris, 1991; Arvanitogiannis and Shizgal, 2008.
3. Niven, 1969.
4. Heath, 1963.
5. Olds and Fobes, 1981; Shizgal, 1997; Wise, 2005.
6. Cooper, Bloom, and Roth, 1986.
7. Kopin, 1993; Dauer and Przedborski, 2003.
8. Arendt and Skene, 2005; Arendt, 2009; Touitou and Bogdan, 2007.
9. Zisapel, 2002; Arendt, 2009; Gerstner, Lyons, Wright, Loh, Rawashdeh, Eckel-Mahan, and Roman, 2009.
10. Wise, 2004; Berridge, 2007.
11. Bielajew and Harris, 1991; Olds and Fobes, 1981; Shizgal, 1997.
12. Wise, 2005; Berridge, 2007, 2012.
13. See Koob and Le Moal, 2006, for a thorough review.
14. Heishman and Henningfield, 2000; Koob and Le Moal, 2006; Perkins, Gerlach, Broge, Fonte, and Wilson, 2001; Russell, 1990.
15. Berridge and Robinson, 2003; Berridge, 2007, 2012.
16. Herz, 1998; De Vries and Shippenberg, 2002; Meyer and Mirin, 1979; Chavkin, James, and Goldstein, 1982; Mucha and Herz, 1985; Bals-Kubik, Herz, and Shippenberg, 1989; Kieffer, 1999; Broom, Jutkiewicz, Folk, Traynor, Rice, and Woods, 2002; Laurent, Leung, Maidment, and Balleine, 2012.
17. Arbisi, Billington, and Levine, 1999; Levine and Billington, 2004.
18. Munn, 1950; Mackintosh, 1974; Gallistel, 1990; Domjan, 1998; Watson, 1907; Pavlov, 1927; Thorndike, 1932; Hull, 1943, 1952; Ferster and Skinner, 1957.
19. Kamin, 1969.
20. Rescorla and Wagner, 1972.
21. Mackintosh, 1974; McNally, Pigg, and Weidemann, 2004; Burke, Franz, Miller, and Schoenbaum, 2007; McDannald, Lucantonio, Burke, Niv, and Schoenbaum, 2011.
22. Sutton and Barto, 1998; Bellman, 1958; Daw, 2003.
23. Sutton and Barto, 1998; Daw, 2003; Redish, Jensen, Johnson, and Kurth-Nelson, 2007.
24. Sutton and Barto, 1998; Montague, 2006.
25. Ljungberg, Apicella, and Schultz, 1992; Schultz, 1998; Schultz and Dickinson, 2000; Montague, Dayan, and Sejnowski, 1996; Schultz, Dayan, and Montague, 1997.
26. Duvoisin and Sage, 2001; Parkinson, 1817/2002; Manyam, 1990.
27. Denny-Brown, 1962; Purdon-Martin, 1967; Koller, 1992; Jankovic and Tolosa, 2007.
28. Purdon-Martin, 1967; Sacks, 1973/1990; Siegert, Harper, Cameron, and Abernethy, 2002; Mazzoni, Hristova, and Krakauer, 2007.
29. Glickstein and Stein, 1991; Niv and Rivlin-Etzion, 2007.
30. Dauer and Przedborski, 2003.
31. Floresco, West, Ash, Moore, and Grace, 2003.
32. Frank, Moustafa, Haughey, Curran, and Hutchison, 2007a; Shohamy, Myers, Grossman, Sage, and Gluck, 2005; Rutledge, Lazzaro, Lau, Myers, Gluck, and Glimcher, 2009.
33. Niv, Daw, Joel, and Dayan, 2006b; Niv and Rivlin-Etzion, 2007; Moustafa and Gluck, 2011; Frank, Samanta, Moustafa, and Sherman, 2007b.
34. Redish, Jensen, Johnson, and Kurth-Nelson, 2007.
35. Niv, Daw, Joel, and Dayan, 2006b; Salamone, Correa, Farrar, Nunes, and Pardo, 2009; Berridge and Robinson, 2003; Berridge, 2012.
36. Ljungberg, Apicella, and Schultz, 1992.
37. Montague, Dayan, Person, and Sejnowski, 1995; Montague, Dayan, and Sejnowski, 1996; Schultz, Dayan, and Montague, 1997.
38. Tobler, Fiorillo, and Schultz, 2005; Hollerman and Schultz, 1998; Bayer and Glimcher, 2005.
39. Waelti, Dickinson, and Schultz, 2001.
40. Rats: Pan, Schmidt, Wickens, and Hyland, 2005; Roesch, Calu, and Schoenbaum, 2007; Monkeys: Bayer and Glimcher, 2005; Bromberg-Martin and Hikosaka, 2009; Matsumoto and Hikosaka, 2007; fMRI of dopamine-projecting areas in humans: O’Doherty, Dayan, Friston, Critchley, and Dolan, 2003; O’Doherty, 2004; Pagnoni, Zink, Montague, and Berns, 2002; D’Ardenne, McClure, Nystrom, and Cohen, 2008; Schonberg, O’Doherty, Joel, Inzelberg, Segev, and Daw, 2010.
41. Loomes and Sugden, 1982; Bell, 1982, 1985; Redish, Jensen, Johnson, and Kurth-Nelson, 2007; Steiner and Redish, 2012.
42. Brischoux, Chakraborty, Brierley, and Ungless, 2009; Ungless, Magill, and Bolam, 2004; Ungless, 2004; Matsumoto and Hikosaka, 2007, 2009; Bromberg-Martin, Matsumoto, Nakahara, and Hikosaka, 2010; Ungless, Argilli, and Bonci, 2010.
43. Kakade and Dayan, 2002; see Schultz, 1998, for the original description of the generalization effect.
44. Laurent, 2008.
45. Schultz, 1998.
46. Redgrave, Prescott, and Gurney, 1999.
47. Daw, Kakade, and Dayan, 2002; Redish, Jensen, Johnson, and Kurth-Nelson, 2007; McNally, Johansen, and Blair, 2011.
48. Daw, Kakade, and Dayan, 2002.
49. Miyazaki, Miyazaki, and Doya, 2010.
50. Cooper, Bloom, and Roth, 1986.
51. Schwaerzel, Monastirioti, Scholz, Friggi-Grelin, Birman, and Heisenberg, 2003; Unoki, Matsumoto, and Mizunami, 2005.
52. Cooper, Bloom, and Roth, 1986.
53. Matsumoto and Hikosaka, 2007; Bromberg-Martin, Matsumoto, Nakahara, and Hikosaka, 2010.
54. McNally, Johansen, and Blair, 2011.
55. Albin, Young, and Penney, 1989; Robinson, Frank, Sahakian, and Cools, 2010; Cohen and Frank, 2009; Kravitz, Tye, and Kreitzer, 2012.
56. Pavlov, 1927; Myers and Davis, 2002; Bouton, 2004; Rescorla, 2004; Redish, Jensen, Johnson, and Kurth-Nelson, 2007.
57. Milad and Quirk, 2002; Myers and Davis, 2002; Quirk, 2006; McNally, Johansen, and Blair, 2011.
58. Nili, Goldberg, Weizman, and Dudai, 2010.
59. Redish, Jensen, Johnson, and Kurth-Nelson, 2007.
60. Redish, Jensen, Johnson, and Kurth-Nelson, 2007.
61. Tolman, 1932; Buzsáki, 1982.
62. Capaldi, 1957, 1958; Ferster and Skinner, 1957; Capaldi and Lynch, 1968; Domjan, 1998.
1. Markowitz, 1952; Payzan-LeNestour and Bossaerts, 2011.
2. Preuschoff, Bossaerts, and Quartz, 2006; Yu and Dayan, 2005.
3. Archer and Birke, 1983; Bromberg-Martin and Hikosaka, 2009.
4. O’Keefe and Nadel, 1978; Whishaw and Brooks, 1999; Redish, 1999.
5. Tversky and Kahneman, 1981; Kahneman and Tversky, 1979; Kahneman, 2011.
6. Steinberg, 2005; Casey, Getz, and Galvan, 2008a; Casey, Jones, and Hare, 2008b; Heyman, 2009.
7. Sharot, Riccardi, Raio, and Phelps, 2007; Sharot, 2011.
8. Golani, Benjamini, and Eilam, 1993; Redish, 1999; Drai and Golani, 2001.
9. Zuckerman and Kuhlman, 2000.
10. Samuelson, 1937; Ainslie, 2001; Frederick, Loewenstein, and O’Donoghue, 2002; Rachlin, 2004; Madden and Bickel, 2010.
11. Stephens and Krebs, 1987; Sozou, 1998; Rachlin, 2004; Andersen, Harrison, Lau, and Rutström, 2008; Redish and Kurth-Nelson, 2010.
12. Samuelson, 1937.
13. Stephens and Krebs, 1987.
14. Madden and Bickel, 2010.
15. Mazur, 2001; Madden and Bickel, 2010.
16. Mazur, 2001.
17. Papale, Stott, Powell, Regier, and Redish, 2012.
18. Samuelson, 1937; Frederick, Loewenstein, and O’Donoghue, 2002; Andersen, Harrison, Lau, and Rutström, 2008.
19. Ainslie, 2001; Mazur, 2001; Frederick, Loewenstein, and O’Donoghue, 2002; Madden and Bickel, 2010; Humans answering questionaires: e.g., Johnson and Bickel, 2002; Animals pressing levers for food: e.g., Mazur, 2001; Humans pressing levers for food: e.g., McClure, Ericson, Laibson, Loewenstein, and Cohen, 2007.
20. Ainslie, 2001; Frederick, Loewenstein, and O’Donoghue, 2002.
21. Mintz, 1986; Barrett, 2010; Sapolsky, 2001.
22. Kang, Rangel, Camus, and Camerer, 2011.
23. Kurth-Nelson and Redish, 2012c; For additional discussion of the role of concreteness in slowing discouting rates: Baumeister, Heatherton, and Tice, 1994; Peters and Büchel, 2010; Baumeister and Tierney, 2011; For descriptions of Contingency Management: Higgins, Alessi, and Dantona, 2002; Stitzer and Petry, 2006; Petry, 2011.
24. Ainslie, 2001; Kurzban, 2010; Kurth-Nelson and Redish, 2010, 2012a.
25. Ainslie, 1992; Rachlin, 2004; Kurzban, 2010.
26. Baumeister, Heatherton, and Tice, 1994; Vohs and Baumeister, 2010; Baumeister and Tierney, 2011; Kurth-Nelson and Redish, 2010, 2012c.
27. Ainslie, 2001.
28. Baumeister, Heatherton, and Tice, 1994; Grewal, Shepherd, Bill, Fletcher, and Dourish, 1997; Rodgers, Cao, Dalvi, and Holmes, 1997; Gray and McNaughton, 2000.
29. LeDoux, 1996; Paré, Quirk, and Ledoux, 2004; Phelps and LeDoux, 2005.
30. Mishkin and Appenzeller, 1987; Graybiel, 1995; Schmitzer-Torbert and Redish, 2004; Barnes, Kubota, Hu, Jin, and Graybiel, 2005; Barnes, Mao, Hu, Kubota, Dreyer, Stamoulis, Brown, and Graybiel, 2011; Frank, 2011.
31. Baumeister, Heatherton, and Tice, 1994; Gray, 2004; Buckner and Carroll, 2007; Hassabis, Kumaran, Vann, and Maguire, 2007; Schacter, Addis, and Buckner, 2007; Johnson, van der Meer, and Redish, 2007; Peters and Büchel, 2010; Hassabis and Maguire, 2011; Schacter and Addis, 2011; van der Meer, Kurth-Nelson, and Redish, 2012.
32. Myers and Davis, 2002, 2007; Quirk, 2002, 2006.
33. Phelps, O’Connor, and Chi, 2001; Berns, Chappelow, Cekic, Zink, Pagnoni, and Martin-Skurski, 2006; Delgado, Olsson, and Phelps, 2006.
34. Berns, Chappelow, Cekic, Zink, Pagnoni, and Martin-Skurski, 2006.
35. Milad and Quirk, 2002; Quirk, 2006.
36. Nili, Goldberg, Weizman, and Dudai, 2010.
37. Herbert, 1965.
1. O’Keefe and Nadel, 1978; Redish, 1999; Daw, Niv, and Dayan, 2005; van der Meer, Kurth-Nelson, and Redish, 2012.
2. Goal-directed learning: Dayan and Balleine, 2002; Coutureau and Killcross, 2003; Botvinick and An, 2009; Rangel and Hare, 2010; Model-based decision-making: Daw, Niv, and Dayan, 2005; Niv, Joel, and Dayan, 2006c; Simon and Daw, 2011; Doll, Simon, and Daw, 2012; Action–outcome: Balleine and Dickinson, 1998; Balleine, 2004; Locale/place: O’Keefe and Nadel, 1978; Redish, 1999.
3. Procedural: Cohen and Squire, 1980; Mishkin and Appenzeller, 1987; Squire, 1987; Habit: Graybiel, 1995; Redish, 1999; Killcross and Coutureau, 2003; Yin, Knowlton, and Balleine, 2004; Duhigg, 2012; van der Meer, Kurth-Nelson, and Redish, 2012; Stimulus–response: Hull, 1943; Balleine, 2004; Stimulus–action: Redish, Jensen, and Johnson, 2008; Cached action: Daw, Niv, and Dayan, 2005; Taxon: O’Keefe and Nadel, 1978; Schöne, 1984.
4. Lengyel and Dayan, 2007.
5. Redish, Jensen, Johnson, and Kurth-Nelson, 2007; Redish, Jensen, and Johnson, 2008; Robinson and Flagel, 2009.
6. Pavlov, 1927; Mackintosh, 1974; Domjan, 1998; Bouton, 2007.
7. Pavlov, 1927; Ferster and Skinner, 1957; Skinner, 1971; Gray, 1975; Mackintosh, 1974; Domjan, 1998; Bouton, 2007.
8. Squire, 1987; Balleine and Dickinson, 1998; Daw, Niv, and Dayan, 2005; Niv, Joel, and Dayan, 2006c.
9. Rescorla, 1988; Huys, 2007; van der Meer, Kurth-Nelson, and Redish, 2012.
10. Kruse, Overmier, Konz, and Rokke, 1983; Corbit and Janak, 2007; Talmi, Seymour, Dayan, and Dolan, 2008; Bray, Rangel, Shimojo, Balleine, and O’Doherty, 2008.
11. Damasio, 1994; LeDoux, 1996, 2012.
12. Darwin, 1859; Dawkins, 1976.
13. Barrett, 2006; LeDoux, 2012.
14. Mackintosh, 1974; Rescorla, 1988; Bouton, 2007.
15. Gray, 1979; Kandel, 2006.
16. Crick, 1995.
17. Edelman, 1992.
18. Gray, 1979; Kandel, 2006.
19. Mackintosh, 1974; Domjan, 1998; Bouton, 2007.
20. Mackintosh, 1974; Rescorla, 1988; Balleine, 2004.
21. Kruse, Overmier, Konz, and Rokke, 1983; Corbit and Janak, 2007; Talmi, Seymour, Dayan, and Dolan, 2008; Bray, Rangel, Shimojo, Balleine, and O’Doherty, 2008.
22. Corbit, Muir, and Balleine, 2001; Corbit and Balleine, 2005; Wassum, Cely, Balleine, and Maidment, 2011a; Wassum, Ostlund, Balleine, and Maidment, 2011b.
23. Breland and Breland, 1961; Dayan, Niv, Seymour, and Daw, 2006; Huys, 2007; Redish, Jensen, and Johnson, 2008; LeDoux, 2012.
24. Breland and Breland, 1961; Robinson and Flagel, 2009; Flagel, Akil, and Robinson, 2009.
25. Breland and Breland, 1961.
26. Damasio, 1994, 2003; LeDoux, 1996.
27. Barrett, 2006; LeDoux, 2012.
28. Damasio, 1994; LeDoux, 1996; Huys, 2007.
29. James, 1890; Barrett, 2006; Lakoff and Johnson, 2003.
30. Buckner and Carroll, 2007; Schacter, Addis, and Buckner, 2007, 2008.
31. Hassabis, Kumaran, Vann, and Maguire, 2007; Hassabis and Maguire, 2011; Johnson and Redish, 2007; Peters and Büchel, 2010; Schacter and Addis, 2011.
32. Squire, 1987; Cohen and Eichenbaum, 1993.
33. Loftus and Palmer, 1974; Schacter, 2001; Schacter, Addis, and Buckner, 2007.
34. Tolman, 1932, 1948; Guthrie, 1937; Schacter, 2001.
35. Hassabis, Kumaran, Vann, and Maguire, 2007; Hassabis and Maguire, 2011; Peters and Büchel, 2010; Schacter and Addis, 2011.
36. O’Keefe and Nadel, 1978; Redish, 1999.
37. Wilson and McNaughton, 1993; Brown, Frank, Tang, Quirk, and Wilson, 1998; Zhang, Ginzburg, McNaughton, and Sejnowski, 1998.
38. Johnson, Fenton, Kentros, and Redish, 2009.
39. Muenzinger and Gentry, 1931; Muenzinger, 1938; Tolman, 1932, 1939, 1948; Johnson and Redish, 2007; Johnson, van der Meer, and Redish, 2007; Papale, Stott, Powell, Regier, and Redish, 2012; Steiner and Redish, 2012.
40. Griffin, 1985, 2001; Dennet, 1992; Gray, 2004; Cabanac, Cabanac, and Parent, 2009; Damasio, 2010; Kurzban, 2010.
41. Tolman, 1932.
42. Guthrie, 1937.
43. Hassabis, Kumaran, Vann, and Maguire, 2007; Hassabis and Maguire, 2011; Schacter, Addis, and Buckner, 2007, 2008; Schacter and Addis, 2011.
44. Grewal, Shepherd, Bill, Fletcher, and Dourish, 1997; Hu and Amsel, 1995.
45. Johnson and Redish, 2007; van der Meer, Johnson, Schmitzer-Torbert, and Redish, 2010; Gupta, van der Meer, Touretzky, and Redish, 2012.
46. Buckner and Carroll, 2007.
47. Ventral striatum: Mogenson, Jones, and Yim, 1980; Roesch, Singh, Brown, Mullins, and Schoenbaum, 2009; van der Meer and Redish, 2011b; McDannald, Lucantonio, Burke, Niv, and Schoenbaum, 2011; Orbitofrontal cortex: Zald and Rauch, 2008; Tremblay and Schultz, 1999; Schoenbaum and Roesch, 2005; Padoa-Schioppa and Assad, 2006; Padoa-Schioppa, 2009; Wallis, 2007; Bray, Shimojo, and O’Doherty, 2010; McDannald, Lucantonio, Burke, Niv, and Schoenbaum, 2011; For discussions of dysfunction: Redish, Jensen, and Johnson, 2008; Schoenbaum, Roesch, and Stalnaker, 2006; Robbins, Ersche, and Everitt, 2008; Flagel, Akil, and Robinson, 2009; Koob and Volkow, 2010.
48. Groenewegen, Vermeulen-Van der Zee, te Kortschot, and Witter, 1987; Voorn, Vanderschuren, Groenewegen, Robbins, and Pennartz, 2004; Martin, 2001; Lansink, Goltstein, Lankelma, Joosten, McNaughton, and Pennartz, 2008; Lansink, Goltstein, Lankelma, McNaughton, and Pennartz, 2009; van der Meer and Redish, 2011a.
49. Ramus, Davis, Donahue, Discenza, and Waite, 2007.
50. Ventral striatum: van der Meer and Redish, 2009; Orbitofrontal cortex: Steiner and Redish, 2012.
51. Hull, 1943; Ferster and Skinner, 1957; O’Keefe and Nadel, 1978; Redish, 1999; Daw, Niv, and Dayan, 2005; Redish, Jensen, and Johnson, 2008; Dezfouli and Balleine, 2012.
52. Schoenbaum, Roesch, and Stalnaker, 2006.
53. Nachman and Ashe, 1973; Schoenbaum, Roesch, and Stalnaker, 2006.
54. Dickinson, 1980; Balleine and Dickinson, 1998; Coutureau and Killcross, 2003; Killcross and Coutureau, 2003; Yin, Knowlton, and Balleine, 2004; Myers, Shohamy, Gluck, Grossman, Onlaor, and Kapur, 2003; Schoenbaum, Roesch, and Stalnaker, 2006; Daw, Niv, and Dayan, 2005; Niv, Joel, and Dayan, 2006c; Johnson, van der Meer, and Redish, 2007; van der Meer, Kurth-Nelson, and Redish, 2012.
55. Hull, 1943, 1952; O’Keefe and Nadel, 1978; Shohamy, Myers, Grossman, Sage, Gluck, and Poldrack, 2004; Knowlton, Mangels, and Squire, 1996; Redish, 1999; Daw, Niv, and Dayan, 2005; Redish, Jensen, and Johnson, 2008; Cohen and Frank, 2009; Cisek and Kalaska, 2010; Dezfouli and Balleine, 2012.
56. Watkins and Dayan, 1992; Sutton and Barto, 1998; Doya, 1999; Daw, 2003; Daw, Niv, and Dayan, 2005; Morris, Nevet, Arkadir, Vaadia, and Bergman, 2006; Niv, Daw, and Dayan, 2006a; Niv and Schoenbaum, 2008.
57. Cisek and Kalaska, 2010; Rand, Hikosaka, Miyachi, Lu, and Miyashita, 1998; Alexander and Crutcher, 1990.
58. Redish, Jensen, Johnson, and Kurth-Nelson, 2007.
59. Sonnenfield, 1997.
60. Albin, Young, and Penney, 1989; Frank, Moustafa, Haughey, Curran, and Hutchison, 2007a; Cohen and Frank, 2009; Kravitz, Tye, and Kreitzer, 2012.
61. Mishkin and Appenzeller, 1987; Graybiel, 1995; Shohamy, Myers, Grossman, Sage, Gluck, and Poldrack, 2004; Frank, 2011.
62. Houk, Davis, and Beiser, 1995; Aosaki, Graybiel, and Kimura, 1994; Wickens, Reynolds, and Hyland, 2003; Calabresi, Picconi, Tozzi, and Di Fillipo, 2007.
63. Schultz, Dayan, and Montague, 1997; Schultz, 1998; Montague, 2006.
64. Purves, Augustine, Fitzpatrick, Hall, LaMantia, McNamara, and White, 2008; Kandel, Schwartz, and Jessell, 2000; Carlson, 2010.
65. Grillner, 1981; Bizzi, Mussa-Ivaldi, and Giszter, 1991; Bizzi, Cheung, d’Avella, Satiel, and Tresch, 2008.
66. Brooks, 1991.
67. Grillner, 1985, 2003; Llinas, 2002; Dominici, Ivanenko, Cappellini, d’Avella, Mondí, Cicchese, Fabiano, Silei, Di Paolo, Giannini, Poppele, and Lacquaniti, 2011.
68. Pavlov, 1927; Ferster and Skinner, 1957.
69. O’Keefe and Nadel, 1978; Nadel and Willner, 1980; Good and Honey, 1991; Cassaday and Rawlins, 1997; Redish, 1999; Delamater and Oakeshott, 2007; Fuhs and Touretzky, 2007; Bouton, 2007; Redish, Jensen, Johnson, and Kurth-Nelson, 2007; Rudy, 2009.
70. Visual cortex as feature detectors: Zeki, 1993; Objects: e.g., Ungerleider and Pessoa, 2008; Faces: e.g., Tsao, Moeller, and Freiwald, 2008; Liu, Harris, and Kanwisher, 2010; Space: e.g., Epstein and Kanwisher, 1998.
71. Cisek and Kalaska, 2010.
72. Cortical structure: White, 1989; Abeles, 1991; Fuster, 1997/2008; Purves, Augustine, Fitzpatrick, Hall, LaMantia, McNamara, and White, 2008; Process: Wilson and Cowan, 1973; Grossberg, 1976; Hertz, Krogh, and Palmer, 1991; Redish, Jensen, Johnson, and Kurth-Nelson, 2007.
73. Hebb, 1949/2002; Hertz, Krogh, and Palmer, 1991; Wilson and Cowan, 1973; Grossberg, 1976; Tanaka, 2006; Redish, Jensen, Johnson, and Kurth-Nelson, 2007; Durstewitz, Vittoz, Floresco, and Seamans, 2010.
74. Frith, 1996; Frith and Dolan, 1996; Frith, 2007; Tanaka, 2006; Durstewitz and Seamans, 2008.
75. Tulving, 1983; Schacter and Tulving, 1994; Squire, 1987; Schacter, 2001.
76. Hull, 1943.
77. Edelman, 1992; Uchibe and Doya, 2008.
78. Balleine, 2001, 2004.
79. Darwin, 1871.
80. Stephens and Krebs, 1987; Giraldeau and Caraco, 2000; Stephens, 2008.
81. Sapolsky, 2001.
82. Johnston and Franklin, 1993; Rhodes, 2006; Jasieńska, Ziomkiewicz, Ellison, Lipson, and Thune, 2004; Singh, 1993.
83. Wright, 1995; de Waal, 2001; Wilson, 2002.
84. Goodman, 2000.
85. O’Brien, Childress, Ehrman, and Robbins, 1998; Childress, Mozley, McElgin, Fitzgerald, Reivich, and O’Brien, 1999.
86. McClure, Li, Tomlin, Cypert, Montague, and Montague, 2004b; Montague, 2006.
87. Edelman, 1992; Haidt, 2006.
88. de Waal, 1982; Wright, 1995; Sapolsky, 2001.
89. Wilson, 2002; Harris, 2010; Zak, 2008.
90. Aristotle, 350 BCE/2004.
91. A very partial list of converging ideas. Human psychology: Squire, 1987; Schacter and Tulving, 1994; Psychiatry: Robbins, Gillan, Smith, de Wit, and Ersche, 2012; Animal learning theory: Balleine and Dickinson, 1998; Balleine, 2004; Dayan and Balleine, 2002; Robotics and control theory: Sutton and Barto, 1998; Thrun, Burgard, and Fox, 2005; Artificial intelligence: Newell, 1990; Rich and Knight, 1991; Neuroscience: O’Keefe and Nadel, 1978; Squire, 1987; Schacter and Tulving, 1994; Doya, 1999, including both computational modeling (Redish, 1999; Daw, Niv, and Dayan, 2005; Niv, Joel, and Dayan, 2006c) and the new fields of neuroeconomics (Bernheim and Rangel, 2004; Montague, 2006; Glimcher, Camerer, Poldrack, and Fehr, 2008) and computational psychiatry (Redish, Jensen, and Johnson, 2008; Huys, Moutoussis, and Williams, 2011; Montague, Dolan, Friston, and Dayan, 2012).
92. Evidence in favor of a separation: McClure, Ericson, Laibson, Loewenstein, and Cohen, 2007; van der Meer and Redish, 2011b; Evidence in favor of a unified value-function: Kable and Glimcher, 2009; Wunderlich, Dayan, and Dolan, 2012.
93. Wikman, Branicky, and Newman, 1994.
94. Daw, Niv, and Dayan, 2005; Niv, Joel, and Dayan, 2006c; van der Meer, Kurth-Nelson, and Redish, 2012.
95. Balleine and Dickinson, 1998; Dayan and Balleine, 2002; Balleine, 2004; see also Dickinson, 1980; Flagel, Akil, and Robinson, 2009; Schoenbaum, Roesch, and Stalnaker, 2006.
1. Brooks, 1991; Wikman, Branicky, and Newman, 1994.
2. Sherrington, 1906.
3. Kandel, Schwartz, and Jessell, 2000; Purves, Augustine, Fitzpatrick, Hall, LaMantia, McNamara, and White, 2008.
4. Sherrington, 1906; Kandel, Schwartz, and Jessell, 2000; Purves, Augustine, Fitzpatrick, Hall, LaMantia, McNamara, and White, 2008; Kandel, 2006.
5. Brooks, 1991; Braitenberg, 1986.
6. Eaton, 1984.
7. Eaton and Hackett, 1984; Ritzmann, 1984; Miller, Jacobs, and Theunissen, 1991; Liebenthal, Uhlmann, and Camhi, 1994; Levi and Camhi, 2000.
8. Kandel, Schwartz, and Jessell, 2000; Purves, Augustine, Fitzpatrick, Hall, LaMantia, McNamara, and White, 2008.
9. Kandel, 2006; Carew, 2004.
10. Majerus, 1998, 2002.
11. Tinbergen, 1951; Lorenz, 1952/1962.
1. Damasio, 2003; Seymour and Dolan, 2008; LeDoux, 2012.
2. Barrett, 2006; LeDoux, 2012.
3. Seymour and Dolan, 2008.
4. Pavlov, 1927; Mackintosh, 1974; Dickinson, 1980; Domjan, 1998; LeDoux, 2002; Phelps and LeDoux, 2005; Bouton, 2007.
5. Rescorla, 1988.
6. Gallistel, 1990; Durlach and Shane, 1993; Delamater, 1995; Balleine and Dickinson, 1998; Corbit and Balleine, 2000; Corbit, Ostlund, and Balleine, 2002; Ostlund and Balleine, 2007.
7. Breland and Breland, 1961; Hershberger, 1986; Konorski, 1967; Dayan, Niv, Seymour, and Daw, 2006.
8. Damasio, 1994, 2003; LeDoux, 1996; Sapolsky, 1998b.
9. Davis, 1986.
10. Damasio, 1994; Delgado, Olsson, and Phelps, 2006; Phelps, 2008.
11. LeDoux, 1996; McNally, Pigg, and Weidemann, 2004; Phelps, 2008; Phelps and LeDoux, 2005.
12. Sapolsky, 1998b; Purves, Augustine, Fitzpatrick, Hall, LaMantia, McNamara, and White, 2008.
13. Sapolsky, 1998b; McEwan, 1991; Kandel, Schwartz, and Jessell, 2000; Carlson, 2010.
14. Descartes, 1647/1989; Damasio, 1994.
15. Damasio, 1994; Lokhorst, 2011.
16. Striedter, 2005.
17. Damasio, 2003, 2010; Cabanac, Cabanac, and Parent, 2009; Barrett, 2006; LeDoux, 2012.
18. James, 1890; Gleitman, 1991.
19. Lakoff and Johnson, 2003.
20. Preuss, 1995; Uylings, Groenewegen, and Kolb, 2003; Koechlin, 2011; Tsujimoto, Genovesio, and Wise, 2011.
21. Craig, 2003.
22. Damasio, 1992, 1994, 2003.
23. Damasio, 1994; Bechara, Tranel, and Damasio, 2000; Sanfey, Rilling, Aronson, Nystrom, and Cohen, 2003; Bechara, 2005; Bechara and van der Linden, 2005; Fellows, 2006; Zald and Rauch, 2008.
24. Harlow, 1848; Damasio, 1994, 2003; LeDoux, 1996.
25. Fuster, 1997/2008; Damasio, 2003; Tanji and Hoshi, 2007; Fellows, 2006; Wallis, 2007; Seamans, Lapish, and Durstewitz, 2008; Clark, Bechara, Damasio, Aitken, Sahakian, and Robbins, 2008; Gläscher, Adolphs, Damasio, Bechara, Rudrauf, Calamia, Paul, and Tranel, 2012.
26. Symms, Jäger, Schmierer, and Yousry, 2004.
27. Lehrer, 2009b; Plato, 4th century BCE/2008b.
28. Hofstadter, 1979; Dennet, 1981, 1992.
29. Augustine of Hippo (Saint Augustine), 427/1972.
30. Augustine of Hippo (Saint Augustine), 398/1961.
31. Freud, 1923/1990.
32. Baumeister, Heatherton, and Tice, 1994; Bechara, 2005; Haidt, 2006; Lehrer, 2009b.
33. Damasio, 1994, 2003.
34. Hare, 1999; Damasio, 2003; Singer, 2008; Kishida, King-Casas, and Montague, 2010; Ronson, 2011.
35. Lehrer, 2009b.
36. Sharot, 2011.
37. Sayette, Shiffman, Tiffany, Niaura, Martin, and Shadel, 2000; Robbins and Everitt, 1999; Everitt and Robbins, 2005.
38. Chaudhuri, 2011.
39. Marr, 1982; Akins, 1996.
40. Chaudhuri, 2011.
41. Green and Swets, 1966; Swets, 1996; Duda, Hart, and Storyk, 2001.
42. Güth, Schmittberger, and Schwarze, 1982; Wilson, 2002; Fehr and Fishbacher, 2003; Sanfey, Rilling, Aronson, Nystrom, and Cohen, 2003; Glimcher, Camerer, Poldrack, and Fehr, 2008; Zak, 2008; Fehr and Fishbacher, 2004; Kishida, King-Casas, and Montague, 2010.
43. Pillutla and Murnighan, 1996; Sanfey, Rilling, Aronson, Nystrom, and Cohen, 2003.
44. Harlé and Sanfey, 2007; Ariely, 2008; Andrade and Ariely, 2009.
45. Raghunathan, 1999; Haidt, 2006; Andrade and Ariely, 2009.
46. Augustine of Hippo (Saint Augustine), 398/1961; MacLean, 1973; Haidt, 2006.
47. Savage-Rumbaugh and Lewin, 1996; Patterson and Linden, 1981.
48. Berridge and Robinson, 2003.
49. Cabanac, Cabanac, and Parent, 2009; see also Damasio, 2003; Barrett, 2006; LeDoux, 2012.
50. James, 1890; Gleitman, 1991; Damasio, 1994, 2003, 2010.
1. Niv, Joel, and Dayan, 2006c; van der Meer, Kurth-Nelson, and Redish, 2012.
2. Buckner and Carroll, 2007; Schacter, Addis, and Buckner, 2007.
3. Frith, 1996.
4. Rich and Knight, 1991; Nilsson, 1998; Johnson, van der Meer, and Redish, 2007.
5. Hill, 2008.
6. Baddeley, 2007; Fuster, 1997/2008.
7. Luria, 1976; Milner, 1998; Shrager, Levy, Hopkins, and Squire, 2008.
8. McDaniel and Einstein, 2007; Kliegel, McDaniel, and Einstein, 2008.
9. Baddeley, 2007; Burks, Carpenter, Goette, and Rustichini, 2009; Eigsti, Zayas, Mischel, Shoda, Ayduk, Dadlani, Davidson, Aber, and Casey, 2006.
10. Bickel, Yi, Landes, Hill, and Baxter, 2011.
11. Tolman, 1948.
12. Hull, 1943; Ferster and Skinner, 1957.
13. O’Keefe and Nadel, 1978; Redish, 1999; Johnson and Crowe, 2009; Tse, Langston, Kakeyama, Bethus, Spooner, Wood, Witter, and Morris, 2007; Tse, Takeuchi, Kakeyama, Kajii, Okuno, Tohyama, Bito, and Morris, 2011.
14. Cohen and Squire, 1980; Squire, 1987; Cohen and Eichenbaum, 1993.
15. Tulving, 1983, 1984; Squire, 1987.
16. Tolman, 1948.
17. Newell, Shaw, and Simon, 1959; McCorduck, 2004; Rich and Knight, 1991; Nilsson, 1998.
18. IBM, 1997; Saletan, 2007.
19. Chase and Simon, 1973; Ericsson, 2006.
20. Ericsson, 2006.
21. Baddeley, 2007.
22. Dreyfus, 1992; McCorduck, 2004.
23. Tolman, 1932; Balleine and Dickinson, 1998; van der Meer and Redish, 2010.
24. Niv, Joel, and Dayan, 2006c; Sutton and Barto, 1998; Daw, Niv, and Dayan, 2005; Ainge, Tamosiunaite, Woergoetter, and Dudchenko, 2007; Botvinick and An, 2009; van der Meer and Redish, 2010.
25. Niv, Joel, and Dayan, 2006c; Johnson and Redish, 2007; Johnson, van der Meer, and Redish, 2007; Pezzulo and Castelfranchi, 2009; Kurth-Nelson and Redish, 2012c.
26. Johnson and Redish, 2007.
27. O’Keefe and Nadel, 1978; Redish, 1999.
28. Wilson and McNaughton, 1993; Brown, Frank, Tang, Quirk, and Wilson, 1998; Zhang, Ginzburg, McNaughton, and Sejnowski, 1998.
29. Johnson, Jackson, and Redish, 2008.
30. Johnson, Fenton, Kentros, and Redish, 2009.
31. Schmitzer-Torbert and Redish, 2002, 2004; van der Meer, Johnson, Schmitzer-Torbert, and Redish, 2010.
32. Buckner and Carroll, 2007; Schacter, Addis, and Buckner, 2007, 2008.
33. Humans: Frith, 1996; Buckner and Carroll, 2007; Hassabis, Kumaran, Vann, and Maguire, 2007; Peters and Büchel, 2010; Hassabis and Maguire, 2011; Schacter, Addis, and Buckner, 2008; Schacter and Addis, 2011; Rats: Jones and Wilson, 2005; Johnson and Redish, 2007; Benchenane, Peyrache, Khamassi, Tierney, Gioanni, Battaglia, and Wiener, 2010; Hyman, Zilli, Paley, and Hasselmo, 2010.
34. Humans: Damasio, 1994; O’Doherty, 2004; Coricelli, Critchley, Joffily, O’Doherty, Sirigu, and Dolan, 2005; Bray, Shimojo, and O’Doherty, 2010; Monkeys: Tremblay and Schultz, 1999; Padoa-Schioppa and Assad, 2006; Padoa-Schioppa, 2009; Rats: Mogenson, Jones, and Yim, 1980; Martin, 2001; Schoenbaum, Roesch, and Stalnaker, 2006; Ramus, Davis, Donahue, Discenza, and Waite, 2007; McDannald, Lucantonio, Burke, Niv, and Schoenbaum, 2011; Steiner and Redish, 2012; van der Meer and Redish, 2011a,b.
35. Ratcliff and McKoon, 2008; Gold and Shadlen, 2002; Britten, Shadlen, Newsome, and Movshon, 1992; Platt and Glimcher, 1999; Hayden, Pearson, and Platt, 2011; Rangel and Hare, 2010.
36. Krajbich and Rangel, 2011.
37. Kable and Glimcher, 2009; Glimcher, 2010; Wunderlich, Dayan, and Dolan, 2012.
38. Plato, 4th century BCE/2008b.
39. Kurzban, 2010; Kahneman, 2011.
40. Wade, 2005.
41. Watson, 1913; MacCorquodale and Meehl, 1948; Skinner, 1971.
42. Johnson, Fenton, Kentros, and Redish, 2009.
43. Whitman, 1900; Minsky, 1985; Libet, 1985; Kurzban, 2010.
44. Sutton and Barto, 1998; Botvinick and An, 2009.
45. Newell, 1990; Botvinick, Niv, and Barto, 2009.
46. Hill, 2008; Kahneman, 2011; Tversky and Kahneman, 1981.
47. Phelps, 2008; Damasio, 2003; Fellows, 2006.
48. Andrade and Ariely, 2009.
49. Tolman, 1948.
50. Pillutla and Murnighan, 1996; Harlé and Sanfey, 2007.
51. Mogenson, Jones, and Yim, 1980; Damasio, 1994; Zald and Rauch, 2008; Fellows, 2006; Schoenbaum, Roesch, and Stalnaker, 2006.
52. Parent, 1986; Striedter, 2005.
53. Damasio, 1994, 2003; Bechara, Tranel, and Damasio, 2000; Fellows, 2006; Zald and Rauch, 2008; McDannald, Lucantonio, Burke, Niv, and Schoenbaum, 2011.
54. Tremblay, Hollerman, and Schultz, 1998; Tremblay and Schultz, 1999; Padoa-Schioppa and Assad, 2006; Padoa-Schioppa, 2009; van Duuren, Escámez, Joosten, Visser, Mulder, and Pennartz, 2007; van Duuren, van der Plasse, Lankelma, Joosten, Feenstra, and Pennartz, 2009; van der Meer and Redish, 2011a; Schoenbaum and Roesch, 2005; Roesch, Singh, Brown, Mullins, and Schoenbaum, 2009; Steiner and Redish, 2012.
55. Chib, Rangel, Shimojo, and O’Doherty, 2009.
56. Tremblay and Schultz, 1999; Padoa-Schioppa and Assad, 2006; Padoa-Schioppa, 2009.
57. Simonson and Tversky, 1992; Plous, 1993; Shapiro and Varian, 1999; Ariely, 2008; Kahneman, 2011.
58. Garcia, Hankins, and Rusiniak, 1974.
59. Bernstein, 1978, 1999.
60. Balleine and Dickinson, 1998.
61. Tremblay and Schultz, 1999; Schoenbaum, Roesch, and Stalnaker, 2006; Pritchard, Nedderman, Edwards, Petticoffer, Schwartz, and Scott, 2008; Kobayashi, de Carvalho, and Schultz, 2010.
62. Stalnaker, Roesch, Franz, Burke, and Schoenbaum, 2006; Schoenbaum, Roesch, and Stalnaker, 2006; Koob and Volkow, 2010.
63. McDannald, Lucantonio, Burke, Niv, and Schoenbaum, 2011.
64. Hare, O’Doherty, Camerer, Schultz, and Rangel, 2008; Plassmann, O’Doherty, and Rangel, 2010; Hare, Camerer, and Rangel, 2009; Hare, Malmaud, and Rangel, 2011.
65. van der Meer and Redish, 2009, 2010; Steiner and Redish, 2012.
66. Muenzinger and Gentry, 1931; Tolman, 1932; Johnson, van der Meer, and Redish, 2007; van der Meer, Johnson, Schmitzer-Torbert, and Redish, 2010.
67. Johnson and Redish, 2007.
68. Fellows, 2006.
69. Baddeley, 2007.
70. Increased consistency and better options chosen with improved working memory: Franco-Watkins, Rickard, and Pashler, 2010; Hinson, Jameson, and Whitney, 2003; Shamosh, DeYoung, Green, Reis, Johnson, Conway, Engle, Braver, and Gray, 2008; Burks, Carpenter, Goette, and Rustichini, 2009; Training: Bickel, Yi, Landes, Hill, and Baxter, 2011; see Kurth-Nelson and Redish, 2012c, for a computational discussion.
71. Guthrie, 1937; Shakespeare, 1601.
72. Tolman, 1932, 1948; Hull, 1943, 1952; Tulving and Madigan, 1970; Cohen and Squire, 1980; O’Keefe and Nadel, 1978; Squire, 1987; Cohen and Eichenbaum, 1993; Redish, 1999.
73. Tolman, 1932; Munn, 1950; O’Keefe and Nadel, 1978; Gallistel, 1990; Gallistel, Fairhurst, and Balsam, 2004.
74. Smith, Frank, Wirth, Yanike, Hu, Kubota, Graybiel, Suzuki, and Brown, 2004.
75. Gallistel, Mark, King, and Latham, 2001; Smith, Frank, Wirth, Yanike, Hu, Kubota, Graybiel, Suzuki, and Brown, 2004.
76. Gallistel, Fairhurst, and Balsam, 2004.
77. Cohen and Squire, 1980; Squire, 1987; Mishkin and Appenzeller, 1987; Graybiel, 1995; van der Meer, Johnson, Schmitzer-Torbert, and Redish, 2010.
78. Hull, 1943, 1952; Ferster and Skinner, 1957.
79. Tolman, 1939; Papale, Stott, Powell, Regier, and Redish, 2012.
80. Hooke, 1665; Galileo, 1610.
81. Information theory: Shannon, 1948; Gleick, 2011; Computers and computation: Goldstine, 1980; von Neumann, 1958/2000; Turing, 1937; Kahn, 1967/1996; Wiener, 1948; Algorithm: Newell, Shaw, and Simon, 1959; McCorduck, 2004.
82. O’Keefe and Nadel, 1978; Packard and McGaugh, 1996; Balleine and Dickinson, 1998; Redish, 1999; Daw, Niv, and Dayan, 2005; Niv, Joel, and Dayan, 2006c; Johnson, van der Meer, and Redish, 2007; van der Meer, Johnson, Schmitzer-Torbert, and Redish, 2010; Dezfouli and Balleine, 2012; van der Meer, Kurth-Nelson, and Redish, 2012.
83. Restle, 1957; O’Keefe and Nadel, 1978; Packard and McGaugh, 1996; Redish, 1999; Redish, Jensen, and Johnson, 2008; van der Meer, Johnson, Schmitzer-Torbert, and Redish, 2010.
1. Mishkin and Appenzeller, 1987; Rand, Hikosaka, Miyachi, Lu, and Miyashita, 1998; Rand, Hikosaka, Miyachi, Lu, Nakamura, Kitaguchi, and Shimo, 2000; Killcross and Coutureau, 2003; Redish, Jensen, and Johnson, 2008; van der Meer, Johnson, Schmitzer-Torbert, and Redish, 2010.
2. Iversen and Mishkin, 1970; Isoda and Hikosaka, 2007; Redish, Jensen, and Johnson, 2008.
3. McCartt, Hellinga, and Bratiman, 2006; Collet, Guillot, and Petit, 2010a,b.
4. Mackintosh, 1974; Domjan, 1998.
5. Redish, Jensen, Johnson, and Kurth-Nelson, 2007.
6. Hull, 1943; Daw, Niv, and Dayan, 2005; Redish, Jensen, and Johnson, 2008.
7. Miller, 1956; Graybiel, 1995; Newell, 1990; Botvinick, Niv, and Barto, 2009; Dezfouli and Balleine, 2012.
8. Daw, Niv, and Dayan, 2005; Johnson, van der Meer, and Redish, 2007.
9. Cohen and Squire, 1980; Squire, 1987; Mishkin and Appenzeller, 1987.
10. Hull, 1943; Tinbergen, 1951.
11. Cisek and Kalaska, 2010.
12. Gibson, 1977, 1979; Norman, 1988.
13. Miller, 1956; Newell, 1990; Botvinick, Niv, and Barto, 2009.
14. Shelton, 1988.
15. Nissen and Bullemer, 1987; Willingham, Nissen, and Bullemer, 1989.
16. Nissen and Bullemer, 1987; Willingham, Nissen, and Bullemer, 1989; Knopman and Nissen, 1991; Knowlton, Mangels, and Squire, 1996; Werheid, Zysset, Müller, Reuter, and von Cramon, 2003; Shohamy, Myers, Grossman, Sage, Gluck, and Poldrack, 2004; Myers, Shohamy, Gluck, Grossman, Onlaor, and Kapur, 2003.
17. Knopman and Nissen, 1987; Reber, 1989; Knowlton, Squire, and Gluck, 1994; Werheid, Zysset, Müller, Reuter, and von Cramon, 2003; Myers, Shohamy, Gluck, Grossman, Onlaor, and Kapur, 2003.
18. Implicit vs. explicit: Pascual-Leone, Grafman, and Hallett, 1994; Willingham, 1999; Boyd and Winstein, 2004; Procedural vs. Declarative: Cohen and Squire, 1980; Mishkin and Appenzeller, 1987; Squire, 1987; Habit vs. goal-oriented: Balleine and Dickinson, 1998; Yin, Knowlton, and Balleine, 2004; Daw, Niv, and Dayan, 2005; Redish, Jensen, and Johnson, 2008.
19. Mishkin and Appenzeller, 1987; Graybiel, 1995; Frank, 2011.
20. Doya, 1999; Hikosaka, Nakahara, Rand, Sakai, Lu, Nakamura, Miyachi, and Doya, 1999; Diener and Dichgans, 1992.
21. Jerison, 1973; Grillner, 1981; Parent, 1986; Rogers, 1998; Striedter, 2005; Llinas, 2002.
22. Albin, Young, and Penney, 1989; Frank, 2011.
23. Nambu, Tokuno, and Takada, 2002; Frank, Samanta, Moustafa, and Sherman, 2007b; Isoda and Hikosaka, 2008.
24. Frank, Moustafa, Haughey, Curran, and Hutchison, 2007a; Kravitz, Tye, and Kreitzer, 2012.
25. Cools, Altamirano, and D’Esposito, 2006; Frank, Seeberger, and O’Reilly, 2004; Frank, Moustafa, Haughey, Curran, and Hutchison, 2007a; Kéri, Moustafa, Myers, Benedek, and Gluck, 2010.
26. Frank, Seeberger, and O’Reilly, 2004; Frank, Moustafa, Haughey, Curran, and Hutchison, 2007a.
27. Darwin, 1859; Wiener, 1995.
28. Serotonin: Daw, Kakade, and Dayan, 2002; Boureau and Dayan, 2011; Norepinephrine/Noradrenaline: Redish, Jensen, Johnson, and Kurth-Nelson, 2007; Koob, 2009.
29. Cooper, Bloom, and Roth, 1986.
30. Unoki, Matsumoto, and Mizunami, 2005; Mizunami, Unoki, Mori, Hirashima, Hatano, and Matsumoto, 2009; Busto, Cervantes-Sandoval, and Davis, 2010.
31. Crisp and Mesce, 2004; Friesen and Kristan, 2007; Puhl and Mesce, 2008; Mesce and Pierce-Shimomura, 2010.
32. Miyazaki, Miyazaki, and Doya, 2010; Delays and perspective: Mobini, Chiang, Al-Ruwaitea, Ho, Bradshaw, and Szabadi, 2000; Doya, 2008; Tanaka, Shishida, Schweighofer, Okamoto, Yamawaki, and Doya, 2009; Miyazaki, Miyazaki, and Doya, 2012a,b.
33. Aston-Jones, Delfs, Druhan, and Zhu, 1999; Harris and Gewirtz, 2005; Aston-Jones and Kalivas, 2008; Koob, 2009.
34. Paladini and Williams, 2004; Dopamine and disappointment: Ljungberg, Apicella, and Schultz, 1992; Schultz, Dayan, and Montague, 1997; Bayer and Glimcher, 2005.
35. Attention: Aston-Jones, Chiang, and Alexinsky, 1991; Aston-Jones and Cohen, 2005; Uncertainty: Yu and Dayan, 2005; Doya, 2008.
36. Niv, Daw, Joel, and Dayan, 2006b; Redish, Jensen, Johnson, and Kurth-Nelson, 2007.
37. Yu and Dayan, 2005; Niv, Daw, Joel, and Dayan, 2006b; Redish, Jensen, Johnson, and Kurth-Nelson, 2007; Servan-Schreiber, Printz, and Cohen, 1990; Dalley, Cardinal, and Robbins, 2004; Arnsten, 2011.
38. Iversen, Iversen, Bloom, and Roth, 2008; Purves, Augustine, Fitzpatrick, Hall, LaMantia, McNamara, and White, 2008; Carlson, 2010.
39. Sapolsky, 1998b; Carlson, 2010.
40. Swanson, 2000; Strick, Dum, and Picard, 1995; Middleton and Strick, 2000.
41. Alexander and Crutcher, 1990; Cisek and Kalaska, 2010.
42. Chaudhuri, 2011; e.g., Visual cortices: Van Essen, Anderson, and Felleman, 1992; Zeki, 1993; Epstein and Kanwisher, 1998; Op de Beeck, Haushofer, and Kanwisher, 2008; Tsao, Moeller, and Freiwald, 2008; Liu, Harris, and Kanwisher, 2010; e.g., Auditory cortices: Nourski and Brugge, 2011; Carlson, 2010.
43. Cisek and Kalaska, 2010.
44. Hebb, 1949/2002; Rumelhart and McClelland, 1986; McClelland and Rumelhart, 1986; Kohonen, 1980, 1984; Hertz, Krogh, and Palmer, 1991.
45. Jackson and Redish, 2003; Johnson, Jackson, and Redish, 2008; Cisek and Kalaska, 2010.
46. Cisek and Kalaska, 2010.
47. Georgopoulos, Lurito, Petrides, Schwartz, and Massey, 1989; Alexander and Crutcher, 1990.
48. Dunlop, 2009.
49. Afshar, Santhanam, Yu, Ryu, Sahani, and Shenoy, 2011; Hebb, 1949/2002; Hertz, Krogh, and Palmer, 1991; Redish, Jensen, Johnson, and Kurth-Nelson, 2007.
50. Miller, 1956; Newell, 1990.
51. Barlow, 2002; Llinas, 2002; Striedter, 2005.
52. Jerison, 1973; Rogers, 1998.
53. Eccles, Itō, and Szentágothai, 1967; Barlow, 2002.
54. Itō, 1984; Barlow, 2002; Rokni, Llinas, and Yarom, 2008.
55. Marr, 1969; Itō, 1984; Barlow, 2002.
56. Martin, Keating, Goodkin, Bastian, and Thach, 1996a,b.
57. Bares, Lungu, Liu, Waechter, Gomez, and Ashe, 2007; Llinas, 2002.
58. Molinari, Chiricozzi, Clausi, Tedesco, Lisa, and Leggio, 2008.
59. Miller, 1956.
1. Gleitman, 1991; Chaudhuri, 2011.
2. Britten, Shadlen, Newsome, and Movshon, 1992; Platt and Glimcher, 1999; Gold and Shadlen, 2002; Wade, 2005; Churchland, Kiani, and Shadlen, 2008; Ratcliff and McKoon, 2008; Lauwereyns, 2010; Krajbich and Rangel, 2011.
3. Gold and Shadlen, 2002; Ratcliff and McKoon, 2008; Lauwereyns, 2010.
4. Jaynes, 2003; Gold and Shadlen, 2002; Ratcliff and McKoon, 2008; Lauwereyns, 2010; Gleick, 2011.
5. Ratcliff and McKoon, 2008.
6. Kalbfleisch and Prentice, 2002.
7. Ratcliff and McKoon, 2008; Gell-Mann, 1995.
8. Britten, Shadlen, Newsome, and Movshon, 1992.
9. Van Essen, Anderson, and Felleman, 1992.
10. Van Essen, Anderson, and Felleman, 1992.
11. Britten, Shadlen, Newsome, and Movshon, 1992.
12. Sato, Kishore, Page, and Duffy, 2010; Wurtz and Duffy, 1992.
13. Gold and Shadlen, 2002, 2007.
14. Churchland, Kiani, and Shadlen, 2008.
15. Amari, 1977; Wilson and Cowan, 1973; Kohonen, 1980, 1984; Hertz, Krogh, and Palmer, 1991; Redish, Elga, and Touretzky, 1996; Zhang, 1996; Deneve, Latham, and Pouget, 1999; Laing and Chow, 2001; Redish, 1999.
16. Treisman and Gelade, 1980; Treisman and Gormican, 1988; Chaudhuri, 2011.
17. Tsao, Moeller, and Freiwald, 2008; Liu, Harris, and Kanwisher, 2010.
18. Behrmann and Avidan, 2005; Yin, 1970; Sacks, 1985/1998.
19. Moulitsas, 2010.
20. Treisman and Gelade, 1980; Treisman and Gormican, 1988; Julesz, 1991; Koch, 2004; Gilden, Thornton, and Marusich, 2010.
21. Ratcliff and McKoon, 2008.
22. The Baseball Encyclopedia, www.baseball-reference.com.
23. Classé, Semes, Daum, Nowakowski, Alexander, Wisniewski, Beisel, Mann, Rutstein, Smith, and Bartolucci, 1997.
24. Deep Blue vs. Kasparov: IBM, 1997; Saletan, 2007; but chess masters do less search: Chase and Simon, 1973; de Groot, 1978; Charness, 1991.
25. Green and Bavalier, 2003.
26. Ericsson, Krampe, and Tesch-Römer, 1993; Ericsson, 2006.
27. Kurkjian, 2006.
1. Whishaw and Kolb, 2004; Domjan, 1998.
2. Morris, 1981; Redish, 1999.
3. Morris, Garrud, Rawlins, and O’Keefe, 1982; Whishaw, 1985; Eichenbaum, Stewart, and Morris, 1990; Day, Weisend, Sutherland, and Schallert, 1999; Redish, 1999.
4. Huettel, Song, and McCarthy, 2009.
5. Bourke, Turkington, Thomas, McComb, and Tynan, 1997; Hamner, Hunt, Gee, Garrell, and Monroe, 1999; Godemann, Ahrens, Behrens, Berthold, Gandor, Lampe, and Linden, 2001.
6. Sutton and Barto, 1998.
7. Watson, 1907; Gallistel, 1990; Eichenbaum, Stewart, and Morris, 1990; Nakazawa, Quirk, Chitwood, Watanabe, Yeckel, Sun, Kato, Carr, Johnston, Wilson, and Tonegawa, 2002; Redish, 1999.
8. Redish, Jensen, Johnson, and Kurth-Nelson, 2007.
9. Hebb, 1949/2002; Kohonen, 1984; Lakoff, 1990/1997; Hertz, Krogh, and Palmer, 1991; see Appendix C for a discussion of the mechanism of content-addressable memory.
10. Grossberg, 1976; Hertz, Krogh, and Palmer, 1991.
11. Redish, Jensen, Johnson, and Kurth-Nelson, 2007.
12. Animals: Bouton, 2004; Addicts: O’Brien, Childress, Ehrman, and Robbins, 1998; Students: McDermott, 1991.
13. Redish, Jensen, Johnson, and Kurth-Nelson, 2007; Illusion of control: Langer and Roth, 1975; Custer, 1984; Chasing losses: Lesieur, 1977; Wagenaar, 1988.
14. Extinction is not forgetting: Pavlov, 1927; Bouton, 2004; Myers and Davis, 2007; Changes in speed of extinction: Capaldi, 1957, 1958; Capaldi and Lynch, 1968; Context-related relapse: O’Brien, Childress, Ehrman, and Robbins, 1998; Gambling and the illusion of control: Custer, 1984; Wagenaar, 1988.
15. Redish, Jensen, Johnson, and Kurth-Nelson, 2007; Original algorithm: Grossberg, 1976; Hertz, Krogh, and Palmer, 1991.
16. Plato, 4th century BCE/2008a; Graham, 2011.
17. Lakoff, 1990/1997.
18. Schank and Abelson, 1977; Schank, 1980.
19. Abrahams, 1983; Erdoes and Ortiz, 1985; Calvino, 1956.
20. Bova, 1981; Gardner, 1983.
21. Mateas and Sengers, 2003.
22. Ainslie, 1992; Kurth-Nelson and Redish, 2010.
1. Glimcher, Camerer, Poldrack, and Fehr, 2008.
2. Smith, 1776/1904.
3. Smith, 1759/1790, 1776/1904; Glimcher, Camerer, Poldrack, and Fehr, 2008; Zak, 2008.
4. Plous, 1993; Glimcher, Camerer, Poldrack, and Fehr, 2008; Kahneman, 2011.
5. Tversky and Kahneman, 1981; Plous, 1993; Kahneman, 2011.
6. Plous, 1993; Glimcher, Camerer, Poldrack, and Fehr, 2008; Glimcher, 2010.
7. Sutton and Barto, 1998.
8. Uchibe and Doya, 2008.
9. Stephens and Krebs, 1987.
10. Stephens and Krebs, 1987; Giraldeau and Caraco, 2000; Monkeys: Hayden, Pearson, and Platt, 2011; Hunter-gatherers: Kennett and Winterhalder, 2006; Information foraging: Pirolli, 2007.
11. Darwin, 1859; Dawkins, 1976; Ridley, 1995; Wright, 1995.
12. Wilson, 1980.
13. Edelman, 1987; Ridley, 1995.
14. Wilson, 1980; Wright, 1995; Ridley, 2000, 2003; see Goodall and van Lawick, 1971/1988/2000; Sapolsky, 2001; Strum, 1987; Goodall, 1990, for some examples of the complexity of primate interactions.
15. Wilson, 1980; Brown, 1991; Wright, 1995; Churchland, 2011.
16. NASA, 2011.
17. Wright, 1995; Hill and Halliday, 1998; Brown, 1991.
18. Wilson, 1980.
19. Braitenberg, 1986; Schöne, 1984.
20. Brown, 1991; Ridley, 1995; Wright, 1995.
21. Wilson, 1980; Brown, 1991; Wright, 1995.
22. Johnston and Franklin, 1993; Rhodes, 2006.
23. Brown, 1991; Wright, 1995; Wilson, 2002.
24. Watson, 1913; Skinner, 1971.
25. Blum, 2002.
26. Harlow, 1958; Harlow and Zimmermann, 1959.
27. Blum, 1995.
28. Bowlby, 1969/1982, 1977; Blum, 2002; van der Horst, LeRoy, and van der Veer, 2008.
29. Blum, 2002.
30. Popper, 1935/1959/1992; Kuhn, 1962/1996; Ben-Ari, 2005.
31. Ben-Ari, 2005.
32. Insel and Young, 2001; Kosfeld, Heinrichs, Zak, Fischbacher, and Fehr, 2005; Zak, Stanton, and Ahmadi, 2007; White-Traut, Watanabe, Pournajafi-Nazarloo, Schwertz, Bell, and Carter, 2009; Feldman, Gordon, and Zagoory-Sharon, 2010.
33. Harlow, 1958; Harlow and Zimmermann, 1959; Feldman, Gordon, and Zagoory-Sharon, 2010.
34. Beck and Katcher, 1996.
35. Haidt, 2006.
36. Sutton and Barto, 1998; Kakade and Dayan, 2002; Laurent, 2008; Information gathering: Glanzer, 1958; Loewenstein, 1994; Over-optimism: Daw, O’Doherty, Dayan, Seymour, and Dolan, 2006; Sharot, Riccardi, Raio, and Phelps, 2007; Sharot, 2011.
37. Harlow, 1953.
38. Feynman, 1997.
39. Kummer, 1971; Southwick, 1963; Fossey, 1983/2000; Goodall and van Lawick, 1971/1988/2000; Goodall, 1990; Sapolsky, 1998b; de Waal and Lanting, 1997.
40. Smuts, 1985; Strum, 1987.
41. Sapolsky, 2001.
42. Brown, 1991; Diamond, 1999; de Waal, 2001; Sapolsky, 2001; de Waal, 2009.
43. Redish, 1997.
44. Elliot, Friston, and Dolan, 2000; O’Doherty, Dayan, Friston, Critchley, and Dolan, 2003; Tobler, O’Doherty, Dolan, and Schultz, 2007; Singer, Seymour, O’Doherty, Stephan, Dolan, and Frith, 2006.
45. Food: O’Doherty, Buchanan, Seymour, and Dolan, 2006; Kang, Rangel, Camus, and Camerer, 2011; Hare, Malmaud, and Rangel, 2011; Money: Elliot, Friston, and Dolan, 2000; Breiter, Aharon, Kahneman, Dale, and Shizgal, 2001; Pagnoni, Zink, Montague, and Berns, 2002; Tobler, O’Doherty, Dolan, and Schultz, 2007; Drugs: Volkow, Fowler, and Wang, 2002; Attractive faces: Aharon, Etcoff, Ariely, Chabris, O’Connor, and Breiter, 2001; Bray and O’Doherty, 2007; Video games: Mathiak, Klasen, Weber, Ackermann, Shergill, and Mathiak, 2011; Music: Menon and Levitin, 2005; Love and grief: Najib, Lorberbaum, Kose, Bohning, and George, 2004; Fischer, Aron, and Brown, 2006; Fischer, Brown, Aron, Strong, and Mashek, 2010; Altruism: Moll, Krueger, Zahn, Pardini, de Oliveira-Souza, and Grafman, 2006; Harbaugh, Mayr, and Burghart, 2007; Justice: de Quervain, Fischbacher, Treyer, Schellhammer, Schnyder, Buck, and Fehr, 2004; Singer, Seymour, O’Doherty, Stephan, Dolan, and Frith, 2006; Sanfey and Dorris, 2009.
46. Boyer, 2002; Wilson, 2002; Zak, 2008.
47. Singer, Seymour, O’Doherty, Stephan, Dolan, and Frith, 2006.
48. Berns, Chappelow, Cekic, Zink, Pagnoni, and Martin-Skurski, 2006.
49. Brown, 1991; Boyer, 2002.
50. Tinbergen, 1951; Levi-Strauss, 1970; LeVay, 1993; Wright, 1995; Ridley, 1995, 2003; Zak, 2008.
51. Berridge, 2012.
52. Phelps and LeDoux, 2005.
53. Wassum, Cely, Balleine, and Maidment, 2011a; Wassum, Ostlund, Balleine, and Maidment, 2011b; LeDoux, 2012.
54. Ludwig, 1989; Childress, Mozley, McElgin, Fitzgerald, Reivich, and O’Brien, 1999; Robinson and Berridge, 2003; Skinner and Aubin, 2010; Berridge, 2012.
55. Kruse, Overmier, Konz, and Rokke, 1983; Corbit and Janak, 2007; Talmi, Seymour, Dayan, and Dolan, 2008; van der Meer and Redish, 2010; Wassum, Cely, Balleine, and Maidment, 2011a.
56. McClure, Li, Tomlin, Cypert, Montague, and Montague, 2004b.
57. Plassmann, O’Doherty, Shiv, and Rangel, 2008.
58. Kruse, Overmier, Konz, and Rokke, 1983; Corbit and Janak, 2007; Talmi, Seymour, Dayan, and Dolan, 2008; van der Meer and Redish, 2010.
59. O’Brien, Childress, Ehrman, and Robbins, 1998; Childress, Mozley, McElgin, Fitzgerald, Reivich, and O’Brien, 1999.
60. Rose, Salley, Behm, Bates, and Westman, 2010.
61. McClure, Li, Tomlin, Cypert, Montague, and Montague, 2004b; Montague, 2006.
62. Shaw, 1992; Niv, Daw, Joel, and Dayan, 2006b.
63. Niv, Daw, Joel, and Dayan, 2006b.
64. Schultz, Dayan, and Montague, 1997; Bayer and Glimcher, 2005.
65. Daw, 2003; Niv, Daw, Joel, and Dayan, 2006b.
66. Schultz, Dayan, and Montague, 1997; Berridge, 2012; Denny-Brown, 1962; Jankovic and Tolosa, 2007.
67. Koller, 1992.
68. Jankovic and Tolosa, 2007.
69. Jagger and Richards, 1969; Berridge, 2007.
70. Berridge and Robinson, 2003; Wise, 2004; Salamone, Correa, Farrar, Nunes, and Pardo, 2009; Kurniawan, Guitart-Masip, and Dolan, 2011; Walton, Kennerley, Bannerman, Phillips, and Rushworth, 2006; Salamone, Correa, Farrar, and Mingote, 2007; Niv, Daw, Joel, and Dayan, 2006b; Tindell, Smith, Berridge, and Aldridge, 2009.
71. Crisp and Mesce, 2004; Puhl and Mesce, 2008.
72. Tindell, Smith, Berridge, and Aldridge, 2009.
73. Schultz, 1998; Berridge, 2007, 2012.
74. Maier and Seligman, 1976; Niv, Daw, Joel, and Dayan, 2006b.
1. Whittle, 1988; Sutton and Barto, 1998; Daw, O’Doherty, Dayan, Seymour, and Dolan, 2006.
2. Sutton and Barto, 1998.
3. Mitchell, 1997; Newell, 1993.
4. Mozer, 2004.
5. Mlodinow, 2009.
6. Gittins, 1989.
7. Bossaerts and Plott, 2004; Preuschoff, Bossaerts, and Quartz, 2006; Behrens, Woolrich, Walton, and Rushworth, 2007; Frank, Doll, Oas-Terpstra, and Moreno, 2009.
8. Bernstein, 1998.
9. Markowitz, 1952.
10. Winstanley, Balleine, Brown, Büchel, Cools, Durstewitz, O’Doherty, Pennartz, Redish, Seamans, and Robbins, 2012.
11. Rats: Gallistel, 1990; Gallistel, Fairhurst, and Balsam, 2004; Monkeys: Corrado, Sugrue, Seung, and Newsome, 2005; Sugrue, Corrado, and Newsome, 2004; Lau and Glimcher, 2005; Humans: Behrens, Woolrich, Walton, and Rushworth, 2007.
12. Shannon, 1948; Jensen, 2010; Gleick, 2011.
13. Amsel, 1992; Domjan, 1998; Rick, Horvitz, and Balsam, 2006; Bouton, 2007.
14. Donald Rumsfeld, U.S. Secretary of Defense speech to NATO HQ, June 7, 2002.
15. Sun Tzu, 5th century BCE/1910/1994; Bujold, 2002.
16. Winstanley, Balleine, Brown, Büchel, Cools, Durstewitz, O’Doherty, Pennartz, Redish, Seamans, and Robbins, 2012; Payzan-LeNestour and Bossaerts, 2011.
17. O’Keefe and Nadel, 1978; Archer and Birke, 1983; Redish, 1999.
18. Ellsberg, 1961; Camerer and Weber, 1992; Plous, 1993; Glimcher, Camerer, Poldrack, and Fehr, 2008.
19. New York Times, 2011.
20. Ellsberg, 1961; Camerer and Weber, 1992; Epstein, 1999; Glimcher, Camerer, Poldrack, and Fehr, 2008.
21. Losses and gains: Plous, 1993; Kahneman, 2011; Inability to do the full calculation: Epstein, 1999; Avoiding deceit: Frisch and Baron, 1988; Camerer and Weber, 1992.
22. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2011.
23. Feynman, 1997; Haidt, 2006.
24. Bromberg-Martin and Hikosaka, 2009.
25. Kakade and Dayan, 2002.
26. Chance and Mead, 1955; Gray and McNaughton, 2000; Haidt, 2006.
27. Kakade and Dayan, 2002; Laurent, 2008.
28. Sharot, Riccardi, Raio, and Phelps, 2007; Sharot, 2011.
29. Monkeys: Bromberg-Martin and Hikosaka, 2009; Humans: Daw, O’Doherty, Dayan, Seymour, and Dolan, 2006; Bunzeck, Doeller, Dolan, and Duzel, 2012; Krebs, Schott, Schütze, and Düze, 2009; Sharot, Riccardi, Raio, and Phelps, 2007; Sharot, 2011.
30. Harlow, 1953; O’Keefe and Nadel, 1978; Archer and Birke, 1983; Thinus-Blanc, 1996.
31. de Waal, 2001; Malfait, Valyear, Culham, Anton, Brown, and Gribble, 2010; Rizzolatti and Sinigaglia, 2010; Nicolle, Symmonds, and Dolan, 2011.
32. Dawkins, 1976; Richerson and Boyd, 2005; Aunger, 2001; de Waal, 2001; Sterelny, 2006.
33. Rizzolatti, Fadiga, Gallese, and Fogassi, 1996; Rizzolatti and Craighero, 2004.
34. Malfait, Valyear, Culham, Anton, Brown, and Gribble, 2010; Rizzolatti and Craighero, 2004.
35. de Waal, 2001; Malfait, Valyear, Culham, Anton, Brown, and Gribble, 2010; Nicolle, Symmonds, and Dolan, 2011; see Rizzolatti and Sinigaglia, 2010, and Schilbach, 2010, for a discussion of the controversy of mirror neurons.
36. Keysers and Gazzola, 2006; Shamay-Tsoory, Tibi-Elhanany, and Aharon-Peretz, 2007; Singer, 2008; Bastiaansen, Thioux, and Keysers, 2009.
37. Singer, 2008.
38. Damasio, 2003; Krajbich, Adolphs, Trane, Denburg, and Camerer, 2009.
39. Empathy: Damasio, 2003; Singer, 2008; Hein, Lamm, Brodbeck, and Singer, 2011; Envy: Shamay-Tsoory, Tibi-Elhanany, and Aharon-Peretz, 2007; Takahashi, Kato, Matsuura, Mobbs, Suhara, and Okubo, 2009; Regret: Bell, 1982, 1985; Loomes and Sugden, 1982; Coricelli, Critchley, Joffily, O’Doherty, Sirigu, and Dolan, 2005.
40. Coricelli, Critchley, Joffily, O’Doherty, Sirigu, and Dolan, 2005; Hassabis, Kumaran, Vann, and Maguire, 2007; Schacter, Addis, and Buckner, 2008.
41. Tolkien, 1965; Lucas, 1977; Cherryh, 1989.
42. Sutton and Barto, 1998.
43. Amsel, 1992; Domjan, 1998; Rick, Horvitz, and Balsam, 2006; Redish, Jensen, Johnson, and Kurth-Nelson, 2007.
44. Spear, 2000; Somerville, Jones, and Casey, 2010.
45. Casey, Getz, and Galvan, 2008a; Somerville, Jones, and Casey, 2010; Somerville and Casey, 2010; Luna, Padmanabhan, and O’Hearn, 2010.
46. Anthony, Warner, and Kessler, 1994; Heyman, 2009; Lowinson, Ruiz, Millman, and Langrod, 1997; Koob and Le Moal, 2006; Wagner and Anthony, 2002.
1. Plato, 4th century BCE/2008b; Augustine of Hippo (Saint Augustine), 398/1961; Freud, 1923/1990.
2. Haidt, 2006; Lehrer, 2009b.
3. Hayes, 2011.
4. Haidt, 2006.
5. Kurzban, 2010, see also Minsky, 1985, for a very early description of agency as conflict between multiple modules.
6. Freud, 1923/1990.
7. Stroop task: Stroop, 1935; Gleitman, 1991; MacLeod, 1991; Stop-signal task: Logan and Cowan, 1984; Frank, Samanta, Moustafa, and Sherman, 2007b; Isoda and Hikosaka, 2007; Boucher, Palmeri, Logan, and Schall, 2007; Eagle, Bari, and Robbins, 2008; Marshmallow task: Mischel and Underwood, 1974; Mischel, Shoda, and Rodriguez, 1989; Metcalfe and Mischel, 1999; Boysen and Berntson, 1995.
8. Vohs and Heatherton, 2000; Baumeister, Heatherton, and Tice, 1994.
9. Stroop, 1935; Festinger, 1954; Read, Vanman, and Miller, 1997; McCusker, 2001; Gailliot, Baumeister, DeWall, Maner, Plant, Tice, Brewer, and Schmeichel, 2007.
10. Nijslow, Franken, and Muris, 2010; Waters, Marhe, and Franken, 2012.
11. Rats: Eagle, Bari, and Robbins, 2008; Monkeys: Hanes and Schall, 1995; Isoda and Hikosaka, 2007; Boucher, Palmeri, Logan, and Schall, 2007; Humans: Logan and Cowan, 1984; Frank, Samanta, Moustafa, and Sherman, 2007b; Eagle, Bari, and Robbins, 2008.
12. Boucher, Palmeri, Logan, and Schall, 2007; Verbruggen and Logan, 2009.
13. Isoda and Hikosaka, 2007; Frank, Samanta, Moustafa, and Sherman, 2007b; Isoda and Hikosaka, 2008; Schall, Stuphorn, and Brown, 2002.
14. Mischel and Underwood, 1974; Boysen and Berntson, 1995; Bushong, King, Camerer, and Rangel, 2010.
15. Boysen and Berntson, 1995.
16. Bushong, King, Camerer, and Rangel, 2010.
17. Ainslie, 1992, 2001; Rachlin, 2004; McClure, Laibson, Loewenstein, and Cohen, 2004a; McClure, Ericson, Laibson, Loewenstein, and Cohen, 2007; Bechara, 2005; Kurzban, 2010.
18. Ainslie, 2001; Kurth-Nelson and Redish, 2010.
19. Dickerson and O’Connor, 2006.
20. Mischel, Shoda, and Rodriguez, 1989; Baumeister, Heatherton, and Tice, 1994; Hill, 2008.
21. Ludwig, 1989; Boyer, 2002; Heyman, 2009.
22. Mischel and Underwood, 1974; Mischel, Shoda, and Rodriguez, 1989; Metcalfe and Mischel, 1999; Baumeister, Heatherton, and Tice, 1994; Lehrer, 2009a,b; Eigsti, Zayas, Mischel, Shoda, Ayduk, Dadlani, Davidson, Aber, and Casey, 2006.
23. Baumeister, Heatherton, and Tice, 1994; Vohs and Heatherton, 2000.
24. Baumeister, Heatherton, and Tice, 1994; Vohs and Faber, 2007; Vohs and Baumeister, 2010; Gailliot, Baumeister, DeWall, Maner, Plant, Tice, Brewer, and Schmeichel, 2007.
25. Baumeister, Heatherton, and Tice, 1994.
26. Baddeley, 2007; Gleitman, 1991; Baumeister, Heatherton, and Tice, 1994; Redish, 1999; Hofmann, Schmeichel, and Baddeley, 2012.
27. Cheng, 1986; Gallistel, 1990; Redish, 1999.
28. Hermer and Spelke, 1994; Gallistel, 1990; Redish, 1999.
29. Cheng, 1986; Margules and Gallistel, 1988; Gallistel, 1990.
30. Baumeister, Heatherton, and Tice, 1994; Baumeister, Vohs, and Tice, 2007.
31. Muraven, Shmueli, and Burkley, 2006; Baumeister, Heatherton, and Tice, 1994; Vohs and Baumeister, 2010.
32. Baumeister, Heatherton, and Tice, 1994; Contingency Management: Higgins, Heil, and Lussier, 2004; Petry, 2011; 12-step programs: Moos and Moos, 2004, 2006.
33. Mischel, Shoda, and Rodriguez, 1989; Lehrer, 2009a.
34. Baumeister, Heatherton, and Tice, 1994; Vohs and Baumeister, 2010.
35. Gailliot, Baumeister, DeWall, Maner, Plant, Tice, Brewer, and Schmeichel, 2007.
36. Kurzban, 2010.
37. Purves, Augustine, Fitzpatrick, Hall, LaMantia, McNamara, and White, 2008; Carlson, 2010; Kandel, Schwartz, and Jessell, 2000.
38. Gailliot, Baumeister, DeWall, Maner, Plant, Tice, Brewer, and Schmeichel, 2007.
39. Chambers, Bridge, and Jones, 2009; Kurzban, 2010.
40. Huettel, Song, and McCarthy, 2009; Maandag, Coman, Sanganahalli, Herman, Smith, Blumenfeld, Shulman, and Hyder, 2007; Sokolof, 1978.
41. Logothetis, 2002; Nair, 2005; D’Ardenne, McClure, Nystrom, and Cohen, 2008; Huettel, Song, and McCarthy, 2009.
42. Metcalfe and Mischel, 1999; Baumeister, Vohs, and Tice, 2007.
43. Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC): Fuster, 1997/2008; Damasio, 1994; Knoch and Fehr, 2007; Lee, Rushworth, Walton, Watanabe, and Sakagami, 2007; Somerville and Casey, 2010; Heatherton and Wagner, 2011; Anterior cingulate cortex (ACC): van Veen and Carter, 2002; Lee, Rushworth, Walton, Watanabe, and Sakagami, 2007; Nili, Goldberg, Weizman, and Dudai, 2010; Heatherton and Wagner, 2011; Winstanley, Balleine, Brown, Büchel, Cools, Durstewitz, O’Doherty, Pennartz, Redish, Seamans, and Robbins, 2012.
44. Fuster, 1997/2008; Miller and Cohen, 2001; Dalley, Cardinal, and Robbins, 2004.
45. Monitoring: van Veen and Carter, 2002; Schall, Stuphorn, and Brown, 2002; Rushworth, Walton, Kennerly, and Bannerman, 2004; Botvinick, 2007, Task-setting: Dalley, Cardinal, and Robbins, 2004; Rich and Shapiro, 2009; Wallis, Anderson, and Miller, 2001; Durstewitz, Vittoz, Floresco, and Seamans, 2010, Overriding plans: Gray and McNaughton, 2000; Gray, 2004; Knoch and Fehr, 2007; Nili, Goldberg, Weizman, and Dudai, 2010; Heatherton and Wagner, 2011.
46. Fuster, 1997/2008; Seamans, Lapish, and Durstewitz, 2008; Koechlin, 2011; Tsujimoto, Genovesio, and Wise, 2011.
47. Freud, 1923/1990; MacLean, 1973.
48. Seamans, Lapish, and Durstewitz, 2008; Rushworth, Noonan, Boorman, Walton, and Behrens, 2011.
49. Isoda and Hikosaka, 2007, 2008.
50. Seamans, Lapish, and Durstewitz, 2008; Rushworth, Noonan, Boorman, Walton, and Behrens, 2011; Koechlin, 2011; Tsujimoto, Genovesio, and Wise, 2011; Kesner and Churchwell, 2011.
51. Luria, 1976.
52. Damasio, 1994, 2003.
53. Frith, 1996; Isoda and Hikosaka, 2007; Fuster, 1997/2008; Miller and Cohen, 2001; Holroyd and Coles, 2002; Dalley, Cardinal, and Robbins, 2004.
54. Isoda and Hikosaka, 2007, 2008; see also Frank, Samanta, Moustafa, and Sherman, 2007b, for an excellent review.
55. Nambu, Tokuno, and Takada, 2002; Albin, Young, and Penney, 1989; Frank, 2011.
56. Frith, 1996; Miller and Cohen, 2001; Redish, Jensen, Johnson, and Kurth-Nelson, 2007.
57. Gray and McNaughton, 2000.
58. Brooks, 1991.
59. LeDoux, 1996; Milad and Quirk, 2002.
60. Isoda and Hikosaka, 2007; Frith, 1996; Miller and Cohen, 2001.
61. LeDoux, 2002; Damasio, 2003.
62. Iversen and Mishkin, 1970; Isoda and Hikosaka, 2007.
63. McClure, Laibson, Loewenstein, and Cohen, 2004a; McClure, Ericson, Laibson, Loewenstein, and Cohen, 2007; Peters and Büchel, 2010; Kesner and Churchwell, 2011; Luo, Ainslie, Pollini, Giragosian, and Monterosso, 2012.
64. Nili, Goldberg, Weizman, and Dudai, 2010.
1. Dualism: Descartes, 1647/1989; Sherrington, 1940/2009; Eccles et al., 1965; Mind instantiated in the brain: Dennet, 1992; Damasio, 1994, 2010; Churchland and Sejnowski, 1994; Levy, 2007.
2. Mind as software: McCorduck, 2004; Eccles et al., 1965; McHugh and Slavney, 1998; Levy, 2007.
3. Anholt and Mackay, 2010; Ridley, 2000, 2003.
4. Hofstadter, 1979, 1985; Marr, 1982; Newell, 1990; McHugh and Slavney, 1998; Nilsson, 1998; McCorduck, 2004.
5. Newell, 1990; Nilsson, 1998; McCorduck, 2004.
6. Newell, Shaw, and Simon, 1959.
7. McCorduck, 2004.
8. Medical diagnosis: Yu, Fagan, Wraith, Clancey, Scott, Hannigan, Blum, Buchanan, and Cohen, 1979; Buchanan and Shortliffe, 1984; Oil exploration: Pearl, 1988; Chess: IBM, 1997; Jeopardy: IBM, 2011.
9. Medical diagnosis: Lipscombe, 1989; Cars: Hayes, 2011.
10. Miller, 1956; Baddeley, 2007; Chess: Chase and Simon, 1973; de Groot, 1978; Doctors: Groopman, 2007.
11. Newell, 1993.
12. Newell, 1990; McCorduck, 2004.
13. Searle, 1980.
14. Turing, 1950.
15. McCorduck, 2004.
16. Von Economo neurons: Allman, Hakeem, and Watson, 2002; Allman, Watson, Tetreault, and Hakeem, 2005; Microtubules: Penrose, 1980/1989; Hameroff, 1994.
17. Marr, 1982.
18. Newell, 1990; McCorduck, 2004; Gleick, 2011.
19. McCorduck, 2004; Newell, 1990.
20. McHugh and Slavney, 1998.
21. Squire, 1987; Milner, 1998.
22. Hofstadter, 1985; McCorduck, 2004.
23. Miller, 1956; Baddeley, 2007; Chase and Simon, 1973; Charness, 1991; Ericsson, 2006.
24. Penfield, 1946; Wassermann, Walsh, Epstein, Paus, Ziemann, and Lisanby, 2008.
25. Hofstadter, 1979, 1985; Dennet, 1992; Gray, 2004; Damasio, 2010.
26. Attention: Crick, 1995; Perception: Ramachandran and Blakeslee, 1999; Emotion: Damasio, 2010; Voluntary motor control: Libet, 1993; Ramachandran and Blakeslee, 1999.
27. Libet, Wright, Feinstein, and Pearl, 1979; Libet, 1985, 1993; Gray, 2004; Soon, Brass, Heinze, and Haynes, 2008.
28. Levy, 2007.
29. Marsh and Hillis, 2006.
30. Kim and Fanselow, 1992; Anagnostaras, Maren, and Fanselow, 1999; Tse, Langston, Kakeyama, Bethus, Spooner, Wood, Witter, and Morris, 2007.
31. Squire, 1987; Milner, 1998.
32. Lashley, 1929.
33. Lashley, 1931.
34. O’Keefe and Nadel, 1978; Mishkin and Appenzeller, 1987; Squire, 1987; Redish, 1999.
35. Cohen and Squire, 1980; Milner, 1998; Squire, 2004.
36. Corkin, 2008; Squire, 2009.
37. Scoville, 1968.
38. Engel and Pedley, 2008; Hertz, Krogh, and Palmer, 1991; Soltesz and Staley, 2008.
39. Penfield, 1946; Sacks, 1985/1998; Devinsky and Lai, 2008.
40. Dostoevsky, 1869; Morgan, 1990.
41. Devinsky and Lai, 2008.
42. Scoville and Milner, 1957; Scoville, 1968.
43. Penfield and Steelman, 1947.
44. Wyler and Herman, 1994; Duncan, 2007; Harkness, 2006.
45. Scoville and Milner, 1957; Scoville, 1968; Milner, Corkin, and Teuber, 1968.
46. Luria, 1987; Squire, 1987.
47. Kopelman, Thomson, Guerrini, and Marshall, 2009.
48. Corkin, 2008.
49. Milner, Corkin, and Teuber, 1968; Milner, 1998; Corkin, 2002; Squire, 2004.
50. Cohen and Squire, 1980; Cohen and Eichenbaum, 1993; Squire, 2004.
51. Squire, 2004.
52. Schacter, 2001; Schacter, Addis, and Buckner, 2007; Buckner and Carroll, 2007.
53. Salat, van der Kouwe, Tuch, Quinn, Fischl, Dale, and Corkin, 2006.
54. Hubel and Wiesel, 1977; Jerison, 1973; Hofman, 1985; White, 1989; Abeles, 1991; Mountcastle, 1997; Striedter, 2005.
55. Hebb, 1949/2002; Kohonen, 1980, 1984; Doya, 1999; Miikulainen, Bednar, Choe, and Sirosh, 2005.
56. Kaas, Merzenich, and Killackey, 1983; Merzenich and Sameshima, 1993; Buonomano and Merzenich, 1998.
57. Kaas, Merzenich, and Killackey, 1983; Merzenich and Sameshima, 1993; Buonomano and Merzenich, 1998.
58. Wilson and Cowan, 1973; Kohonen, 1980, 1984; White, 1989; Miikulainen, Bednar, Choe, and Sirosh, 2005.
59. Chaudhuri, 2011; Purves, Augustine, Fitzpatrick, Hall, LaMantia, McNamara, and White, 2008.
60. Knudsen, du Lac, and Esterly, 1987; Buonomano and Merzenich, 1998.
61. Ramachandran and Blakeslee, 1999.
62. Ferrier, 1876; Penfield and Rasmussen, 1950; Kandel, Schwartz, and Jessell, 2000.
63. Bargary and Mitchell, 2008; Grossenbacher and Lovelace, 2001; Edelman, 1987; Purves, White, and Riddle, 1996.
64. Cytowic, 1998; Grossenbacher and Lovelace, 2001.
65. Knudsen, Zheng, and DeBello, 2000; Knudsen, 2004; White and Fitzpatrick, 2007; Feldman and Knudsen, 1998; Linkenhoker, von der Ohe, and Knudsen, 2004; Hensch, 2005.
66. Stein and Meredith, 1993.
67. Knudsen, 1991; Stein and Meredith, 1993.
68. Knudsen, 1991; Knudsen and Brainard, 1995.
69. Knudsen and Brainard, 1995; Knudsen, Zheng, and DeBello, 2000; Knudsen, 2004; Linkenhoker, von der Ohe, and Knudsen, 2004.
70. Carew, 2004.
71. Martin, Keating, Goodkin, Bastian, and Thach, 1996a,b.
72. Knudsen, 2004; Linkenhoker, von der Ohe, and Knudsen, 2004.
73. Hensch, 2005; Vision: Beradi, Pizzorusso, and Maffei, 2000; Birdsong: Balmer, Carels, Frisch, and Nick, 2009; Language: Tomasello and Bates, 2001.
74. Hensch, 2005; Balmer, Carels, Frisch, and Nick, 2009; Somerville, Jones, and Casey, 2010.
75. Knudsen, Zheng, and DeBello, 2000; Linkenhoker, von der Ohe, and Knudsen, 2004.
76. Somatosensory systems: Kaas, Merzenich, and Killackey, 1983; Merzenich and Sameshima, 1993; Buonomano and Merzenich, 1998; Auditory systems: Merzenich and Sameshima, 1993; Zhou, Panizzutti, de Villers-Sidani, Madeira, and Merzenich, 2011; de Villers-Sidani and Merzenich, 2011.
77. Milner, Corkin, and Teuber, 1968; Squire, 2009.
78. Nadel and Moscovitch, 1997; Corkin, 2002; Tse, Langston, Kakeyama, Bethus, Spooner, Wood, Witter, and Morris, 2007; Squire, 2009; Sutherland, Sparks, and Lehmann, 2010.
79. Cohen and Eichenbaum, 1993; Nadel and Moscovitch, 1997; Squire, 2004; Tulving, 1983.
80. Corkin, 2002; Squire, 2009; Sutherland, Sparks, and Lehmann, 2010.
81. Loftus and Palmer, 1974; Schacter, 2001; Schacter, Addis, and Buckner, 2007.
82. Alvarez and Squire, 1994; Andersen, Morris, Amaral, Bliss, and O’Keefe, 2007.
83. O’Reilly and McClelland, 1994; McClelland, McNaughton, and O’Reilly, 1995.
84. Hopfield, 1982; Hertz, Krogh, and Palmer, 1991; Rumelhart and McClelland, 1986; McClelland and Rumelhart, 1986; McClelland, McNaughton, and O’Reilly, 1995.
85. Hasselmo and Bower, 1993.
86. McClelland, McNaughton, and O’Reilly, 1995; For discussions of how the hippocampus reduces interference between inputs: Marr, 1971; McNaughton and Morris, 1987; McNaughton and Nadel, 1990; Hasselmo and Bower, 1993; Redish, 1999; Kesner, 2007; Leutgeb, Leutgeb, Moser, and Moser, 2007.
87. Nadel and Moscovitch, 1997; Redish and Touretzky, 1998; Squire, 2009; Tse, Takeuchi, Kakeyama, Kajii, Okuno, Tohyama, Bito, and Morris, 2011.
88. Hebb, 1949/2002; Alvarez and Squire, 1994.
89. Nadel and Moscovitch, 1997; Day, Weisend, Sutherland, and Schallert, 1999; Tse, Langston, Kakeyama, Bethus, Spooner, Wood, Witter, and Morris, 2007.
90. Hassabis, Kumaran, Vann, and Maguire, 2007; Verfaellie and Cermak, 1994; Race, Keane, and Verfaellie, 2011.
91. Sacks, 1985/1998.
92. Corkin, 2008.
93. Sacks, 1985/1998; Luria, 1987; Ramachandran and Blakeslee, 1999.
94. Marr, 1971; Buzsáki, 1989; Sutherland and McNaughton, 2000.
95. Diekelmann and Born, 2010; Poe, Walsh, and Bjorness, 2010; Smith, 1995, 2001; Hobson and Pace-Schott, 2002.
96. Pavlides and Winson, 1989; Wilson and McNaughton, 1994; Sutherland and McNaughton, 2000; Hoffman and McNaughton, 2002; Euston, Tatsuno, and McNaughton, 2007; Ji and Wilson, 2007; Lansink, Goltstein, Lankelma, McNaughton, and Pennartz, 2009.
97. Smith, 1995; Gais and Born, 2004.
98. Pavlides and Winson, 1989.
99. O’Keefe and Nadel, 1978; Redish, 1999.
100. Wilson and McNaughton, 1993.
101. Johnson, Fenton, Kentros, and Redish, 2009.
102. Wilson and McNaughton, 1994; Skaggs and McNaughton, 1996; Kudrimoti, Barnes, and McNaughton, 1999; Nádasdy, Hirase, Czurkó, Csicsvari, and Buzsáki, 1999; Jackson, Johnson, and Redish, 2006; Euston, Tatsuno, and McNaughton, 2007; Wikenheiser and Redish, 2013.
103. Prefrontal: Euston, Tatsuno, and McNaughton, 2007; Parietal: Qin, McNaughton, Skaggs, and Barnes, 1997; Visual cortex: Ji and Wilson, 2007.
104. Pennartz, Lee, Verheul, Lipa, Barnes, and McNaughton, 2004; Lansink, Goltstein, Lankelma, Joosten, McNaughton, and Pennartz, 2008; Lansink, Goltstein, Lankelma, McNaughton, and Pennartz, 2009.
105. Doyon, 2008.
106. Sutherland and McNaughton, 2000.
107. Buzsáki, 1989.
108. Marr, 1971; Seifert, 1983; Alvarez and Squire, 1994; Redish and Touretzky, 1998.
109. Poe, Nitz, McNaughton, and Barnes, 2000; Poe, Walsh, and Bjorness, 2010.
110. Ego-Stengel and Wilson, 2010; Girardeau, Benchenane, Wiener, Buzsáki, and Zugaro, 2009; Jadhav, Kemere, German, and Frank, 2012.
111. O’Keefe and Nadel, 1978; Redish, 1999; Ego-Stengel and Wilson, 2010; Girardeau, Benchenane, Wiener, Buzsáki, and Zugaro, 2009; Jadhav, Kemere, German, and Frank, 2012.
112. Battaglia, Sutherland, and McNaughton, 2004; Hoffman and McNaughton, 2002; Hoffman, Battaglia, Harris, MacLean, Marshall, and Mehta, 2007; see Marr, 1971; Alvarez and Squire, 1994, for early theoretical work.
113. Hobson, 2005.
114. Poe, Nitz, McNaughton, and Barnes, 2000.
115. Foster and Wilson, 2006; Davidson, Kloosterman, and Wilson, 2009; Gupta, van der Meer, Touretzky, and Redish, 2010; Wikenheiser and Redish, 2013.
116. Stickgold, Malia, Maguire, Roddenberry, and O’Connor, 2000.
117. Haidt, 2006; Freeman, 1975, 2000; McHugh and Slavney, 1998; Levy, 2007; Frith, 2007.
118. Descartes, 1647/1989; Levy, 2007.
119. McCorduck, 2004.
1. Ferrier, 1876; Hubel and Wiesel, 1977; Penfield and Rasmussen, 1950; Abeles, 1991; Miikulainen, Bednar, Choe, and Sirosh, 2005; Kandel, Schwartz, and Jessell, 2000; Chaudhuri, 2011.
2. Jay, 2000; Shaw, 2002.
3. Hubel and Wiesel, 1977; Chaudhuri, 2011.
4. Wilson and Cowan, 1973; White, 1989; Abeles, 1991; Miikulainen, Bednar, Choe, and Sirosh, 2005; see Dahlem and Chronicle, 2004, and Bressloff, Cowan, Golubitsky, Thomas, and Wiener, 2001, 2002, for discussion of the effects of longer-spaced connections.
5. Wilson and Cowan, 1973; Miikulainen, Bednar, Choe, and Sirosh, 2005; Murray, 2003.
6. Ermentrout and Kleinfeld, 2001; Murray, 2003.
7. Kosslyn, 1994; Bressloff, Cowan, Golubitsky, Thomas, and Wiener, 2001, 2002.
8. Tootell, Silverman, Switkes, and Valois, 1982; Schwartz, Tootell, Silverman, Switkes, and Valois, 1985; Bressloff, Cowan, Golubitsky, Thomas, and Wiener, 2001, 2002; Duncan and Boynton, 2003; Chaudhuri, 2011.
9. Ermentrout and Cowan, 1979; Bressloff, Cowan, Golubitsky, Thomas, and Wiener, 2001, 2002; Gutkin, Pinto, and Ermentrout, 2003; Golubitsky, Shiau, and Török, 2004; Bloom, 2009.
10. Hubel and Wiesel, 1977; White, 1989; Abeles, 1991; White and Fitzpatrick, 2007.
11. Van Essen, Anderson, and Felleman, 1992; Grill-Spector and Malach, 2004; Zeki, 1993; Milner and Goodale, 1995; Kandel, Schwartz, and Jessell, 2000; Chaudhuri, 2011; Faces: Tsao, Moeller, and Freiwald, 2008; Rooms: Epstein and Kanwisher, 1998.
12. Tyler, 1978.
13. Tsao, Moeller, and Freiwald, 2008; Liu, Harris, and Kanwisher, 2010.
14. Sacks, 1973/1999; Grüsser, 1995; Dahlem and Chronicle, 2004.
15. Grüsser, 1995; Reggia and Montgomery, 1996; Dahlem and Chronicle, 2004.
16. Sokolof, 1981.
17. Fürkötter, 1977.
18. Sacks, 1973/1999; Podoll and Robinson, 2002, 2009.
19. Kosslyn, 1994.
20. Shepherd and Metzler, 1971.
21. Kosslyn, 1994; Kosslyn, Thompson, and Ganis, 2006.
22. Frith, 1996.
23. Mushiake, Inase, and Tanji, 1991; Passingham, 1993.
24. Rizzolatti, Fadiga, Gallese, and Fogassi, 1996; Rizzolatti and Craighero, 2004.
25. Schilbach, 2010; Rizzolatti and Sinigaglia, 2010.
26. Johnson, Fenton, Kentros, and Redish, 2009.
27. Georgopoulos, Lurito, Petrides, Schwartz, and Massey, 1989.
28. Georgopoulos, Schwartz, and Kettner, 1986; Schwartz, 2007.
29. Georgopoulos, Schwartz, and Kettner, 1986.
30. Georgopoulos, Lurito, Petrides, Schwartz, and Massey, 1989.
31. Alexander and Crutcher, 1990; Cisek and Kalaska, 2010.
32. Friehs, Zerris, Ojakangas, Fellows, and Donoghue, 2004; Donoghue, Nurmikko, Black, and Hochberg, 2007; Schwartz, 2007; Reger, Fleming, Sanguineti, Alford, and Mussa-Ivaldi, 2000; Mussa-Ivaldi, 2000; Karniel, Kositsky, Fleming, Chiappalone, Sanguineti, Alford, and Mussa-Ivaldi, 2005; Mussa-Ivaldi, Alford, Chiappalone, Fadiga, Karniel, Kositsky, Maggiolini, Panzeri, Sanguineti, Semprini, and Vato, 2009.
33. Helms-Tillery, Taylor, and Schwartz, 2003; Schwartz, 2007.
34. Monkeys: Velliste, Perel, Spalding, Whitford, and Schwartz, 2008; Nicolelis and Lebedev, 2009; Humans: Hochberg, Serruya, Friehs, Mukand, Saleh, Caplan, Branner, Chen, Penn, and Donoghue, 2006; Donoghue, Nurmikko, Black, and Hochberg, 2007.
35. Velliste, Perel, Spalding, Whitford, and Schwartz, 2008.
36. Hochberg, Serruya, Friehs, Mukand, Saleh, Caplan, Branner, Chen, Penn, and Donoghue, 2006.
37. Cochlear implants: Zeng, 2004; Zeng, Rebscher, Harrison, Sun, and Feng, 2009.
38. Retinal stimulators: Weiland, Liu, and Humayun, 2005; Dowling, 2009.
39. Deep-brain stimulation: Dostrovsky, Hutchinson, and Lozano, 2002; Benabid, Chabardes, Mitrofanis, and Pollak, 2009, see McIntyre, Savast, Goff, and Vitek, 2004; Frank, Samanta, Moustafa, and Sherman, 2007b; Birdno and Grill, 2008; Deniau, Degos, Bosch, and Maurice, 2010, for discussions of mechanism.
40. Sacks, 1973/1990; Marshall, 1990.
41. Deep-brain stimulation for epilepsy: Rahman, Abd-El-Barr, Vedam-Mai, Foote, Murad, Okun, and Roper, 2010; for depression: Blomstedt, Sjöberg, Hansson, Bodlund, and Hariz, 2010; Hamani and Nóbrega, 2010.
42. Gater, Dolbow, Tsui, and Gorgey, 2011.
43. Ferrier, 1876.
44. Penfield, 1946; Penfield and Steelman, 1947; Penfield, 1975.
45. Salzman, Murasugi, Britten, and Newsome, 1992.
46. Robinson, 1972; Sparks and Mays, 1983; Sparks and Nelson, 1987.
1. Goldstein, 2000; Heyman, 2009; Koob and Le Moal, 2006.
2. DSM-IV-TR, 2000; ICD-10, 1992; Altman, Everitt, Robbins, Glautier, Markou, Nutt, Oretti, and Phillips, 1996; Lowinson, Ruiz, Millman, and Langrod, 1997; Goldstein, 2000; Koob and Le Moal, 2006; Heyman, 2009.
3. Mandelstam, 1991.
4. ESPN, 2010.
5. Ainslie, 2001; Heyman, 2009.
6. Koob and Le Moal, 2006; Vanderschuren and Everitt, 2004; Deroche-Gamonet, Belin, and Piazza, 2004.
7. Redish, 2004.
8. Rutledge, 2006.
9. Krugman and Wells, 2006.
10. Liu, Liu, Hammit, and Chou, 1999; Bickel and Marsch, 2001; Grossman and Chaloupka, 1998; Manski, Pepper, and Petrie, 2001; Chaloupka, Emery, and Liang, 2003.
11. Liu, Liu, Hammit, and Chou, 1999.
12. Manski, Pepper, and Petrie, 2001; Heyman, 2009; Leukefeld, Gullotta, and Gregrich, 2011.
13. Haller, 1989; Goldstein, 2000; Manski, Pepper, and Petrie, 2001; Leukefeld, Gullotta, and Gregrich, 2011; U.S. Department of Justice, 1992.
14. O’Brien, 2011; ICD-10, 1992; DSM-IV-TR, 2000.
15. Redish, Jensen, and Johnson, 2008.
16. Flagel, Akil, and Robinson, 2009.
17. Bobo and Husten, 2001; Goldman, Boca, and Darkes, 1999; Redish and Johnson, 2007.
18. Redish, 2004.
19. Tiffany, 1990; Robbins and Everitt, 1999; Everitt and Robbins, 2005; Piray, Keramati, Dezfouli, Lucas, and Mokri, 2010.
20. Redish, Jensen, Johnson, and Kurth-Nelson, 2007.
21. Redish, Jensen, and Johnson, 2008.
22. Koob and Le Moal, 2006.
23. Flagel, Akil, and Robinson, 2009.
24. Koob and Le Moal, 2006.
25. Redish, 2004.
26. Greeley and Oei, 1999.
27. Koob and Le Moal, 2006.
28. Hunt, 1998; White, 2003; Oscar-Berman and Marinkovic, 2003.
29. Ainslie, 1992; Baumeister, Heatherton, and Tice, 1994; Heyman, 2009; Petry, 2011.
30. Zeng, 2004.
31. Bressloff, Cowan, Golubitsky, Thomas, and Wiener, 2002; Grüsser, 1995.
32. Meyer and Mirin, 1979; De Vries and Shippenberg, 2002; Koob and Le Moal, 2006.
33. Redish, Jensen, and Johnson, 2008.
34. Solomon and Corbit, 1973, 1974; Koob and Le Moal, 2006.
35. Koob and Le Moal, 2006; Koob, 2009.
36. Redish and Johnson, 2007; Redish, 2004.
37. Robinson and Berridge, 2001, 2003; Flagel, Akil, and Robinson, 2009.
38. Tiffany, 1990; Bechara, 2005.
39. Anthony, Warner, and Kessler, 1994; Heyman, 2009.
40. Sayette, Shiffman, Tiffany, Niaura, Martin, and Shadel, 2000; Perkins, 2009; Tiffany and Wray, 2009; Redish, 2009.
41. O’Brien, Childress, Ehrman, and Robbins, 1998; Childress, Mozley, McElgin, Fitzgerald, Reivich, and O’Brien, 1999.
42. Jagger and Richards, 1969.
43. Kozlowski and Wilkinson, 2006; Skinner and Aubin, 2010.
44. Koob and Le Moal, 2006.
45. Flagel, Akil, and Robinson, 2009.
46. Skinner and Aubin, 2010.
47. Redish and Johnson, 2007.
48. Tiffany and Conklin, 2000.
49. Redish, Jensen, and Johnson, 2008; Redish, Jensen, Johnson, and Kurth-Nelson, 2007.
50. Corbit, Muir, and Balleine, 2001; Laurent, Leung, Maidment, and Balleine, 2012.
51. Childress, McLellan, Ehrman, and O’Brien, 1988.
52. Mayr, 1998.
53. Kandel, Schwartz, and Jessell, 2000; Carlson, 2010; Sherwood, 2010.
54. Schulkin, 2003; Koob and Le Moal, 2006.
55. Mackowiak, Wasserman, and Levine, 1992; Sherwood, 2010.
56. Stephens and Krebs, 1987; Schulkin, 2003.
57. Lenfant and Sullivan, 1971; Stray-Gundersen and Levine, 2008; Chapman, Stickford, and Levine, 2009, see also de Paula and Niebauer, 2012.
58. Cooper, Bloom, and Roth, 1986; Koob and Le Moal, 2006.
59. Altman, Everitt, Robbins, Glautier, Markou, Nutt, Oretti, and Phillips, 1996; Lowinson, Ruiz, Millman, and Langrod, 1997; Saitz, 1998; Harris and Gewirtz, 2005; Koob and Le Moal, 2006; Redish, Jensen, and Johnson, 2008.
60. O’Brien, Testa, O’Brien, Brady, and Wells, 1977; Meyer and Mirin, 1979; Koob, 2009; Koob and Volkow, 2010.
61. Skinner and Aubin, 2010.
62. Carter, Lam, Robinson, Paris, Waters, Wetter, and Cinciripini, 2008; Epstein, Marrone, Heishman, Schmittner, and Preston, 2010.
63. Sayette, Shiffman, Tiffany, Niaura, Martin, and Shadel, 2000.
64. Koob and Le Moal, 2006.
65. Flagel, Akil, and Robinson, 2009.
66. Redish and Johnson, 2007.
67. Redish, Jensen, and Johnson, 2008.
68. Hardcastle, 2008; Heyman, 2009; Potenza, Sofuoglu, Carroll, and Rounsaville, 2011.
69. Psychiatric categorizations as needing endophenotypes: Insel, Cuthbert, Garvey, Heinssen, Pine, Quinn, Sanislow, and Wang, 2010; Genetic endophenotypes: Gottesman and Gould, 2003; Hypothetical constructs: MacCorquodale and Meehl, 1948; Trans-disease processes: Bickel and Mueller, 2009.
70. Kable and Glimcher, 2009; Glimcher, 2010.
71. Bickel and Mueller, 2009.
72. McHugh and Slavney, 1998; Hyman, 2007; Insel, Cuthbert, Garvey, Heinssen, Pine, Quinn, Sanislow, and Wang, 2010.
73. Redish, Jensen, and Johnson, 2008.
74. Krishnan-Sarin, Reynolds, Duhig, Smith, Liss, McFetridge, Cavallo, Carroll, and Potenza, 2007; Xu, DeVito, Worhunsky, Carroll, Rounsaville, and Potenza, 2010; Brewer, Worhunsky, Carroll, Rounsaville, and Potenza, 2008.
75. Nicotine replacement therapy: Rose, Herskovic, Trilling, and Jarvik, 1985; Benowitz, 1996; Balfour and Fagerström, 1996; Hanson, Allen, Jensen, and Hatsukami, 2003; Methadone therapy: Meyer and Mirin, 1979; Kreek, LaForge, and Butelman, 2002; Potenza, Sofuoglu, Carroll, and Rounsaville, 2011.
76. Meyer and Mirin, 1979; Balfour and Fagerström, 1996; Hanson, Allen, Jensen, and Hatsukami, 2003; Monti and MacKillop, 2007.
77. Kreek, LaForge, and Butelman, 2002; Redish, Jensen, and Johnson, 2008.
78. Solomon and Corbit, 1974; Koob and Le Moal, 2006.
79. Azolosa, Stitzer, and Greenwald, 1994; Harris and Gewirtz, 2005; Koob and Le Moal, 2006.
80. Heyman, 2009, see Burroughs, 1959/1984; Bukowski, 1996.
81. Moos and Moos, 2004, 2006; Petry, 2011.
82. Peters and Büchel, 2010; Kurth-Nelson and Redish, 2012c; Guisewite, 1996; Bushong, King, Camerer, and Rangel, 2010; Kang, Rangel, Camus, and Camerer, 2011.
83. Baumeister, Heatherton, and Tice, 1994; Ainslie, 2001; Baumeister, Vohs, and Tice, 2007.
84. Ainslie, 1992, 2001; Dickerson and O’Connor, 2006; Kurth-Nelson and Redish, 2010, 2012b.
85. Ainslie, 1992, 2001; Rachlin, 2004; Kurzban, 2010.
86. Ainslie, 2001; Kurth-Nelson and Redish, 2012b.
87. Ludwig, 1989.
88. Heyman, 2009.
89. Koob and Le Moal, 2006; Heyman, 2009; Casey, Getz, and Galvan, 2008a; Casey, Jones, and Hare, 2008b; Luna, Padmanabhan, and O’Hearn, 2010.
90. Heyman, 2009.
91. Hardcastle, 2008; Potenza, Sofuoglu, Carroll, and Rounsaville, 2011; Bullock and Potenza, 2012.
92. Executive function therapy: Bickel, Yi, Landes, Hill, and Baxter, 2011; Nicotine replacement therapy: Koob and Le Moal, 2006; Rose, Herskovic, Trilling, and Jarvik, 1985; Benowitz, 1996; Balfour and Fagerström, 1996; Hanson, Allen, Jensen, and Hatsukami, 2003; Methadone therapy: Meyer and Mirin, 1979; Kreek, LaForge, and Butelman, 2002; Potenza, Sofuoglu, Carroll, and Rounsaville, 2011.
93. Bickel, Yi, Landes, Hill, and Baxter, 2011; Potenza, Sofuoglu, Carroll, and Rounsaville, 2011; Petry, 2011.
94. Redish, Jensen, and Johnson, 2008; Insel, Cuthbert, Garvey, Heinssen, Pine, Quinn, Sanislow, and Wang, 2010; Robbins, Gillan, Smith, de Wit, and Ersche, 2012; Potenza, Sofuoglu, Carroll, and Rounsaville, 2011.
1. Holden, 2001; Potenza, Kosten, and Rounsaville, 2001.
2. Koob and Le Moal, 2006.
3. Vanderschuren and Everitt, 2004; Deroche-Gamonet, Belin, and Piazza, 2004; Rutledge, 2006.
4. Potenza, Kosten, and Rounsaville, 2001; Grant and Potenza, 2012; Schüll, 2012.
5. Montague, 2006; Redish, Jensen, Johnson, and Kurth-Nelson, 2007; Redish, Jensen, and Johnson, 2008.
6. Mlodinow, 2009; Langer and Roth, 1975; Redish, Jensen, Johnson, and Kurth-Nelson, 2007.
7. Redish, Jensen, Johnson, and Kurth-Nelson, 2007, see also Chapter 12.
8. Langer and Roth, 1975; Sagan, 1997; Boyer, 2002; Ramachandran and Blakeslee, 1999; Kurzban, 2010; Ramachandran, 2011.
9. Reid, 1986; Griffiths, 1991; Chase and Clark, 2010; Winstanley, Cocker, and Rogers, 2011; Qi, Ding, Song, and Yan, 2011; Clark, Crooks, Clarke, Aitken, and Dunn, 2012.
10. Lesieur, 1977; Wagenaar, 1988; Dickerson and O’Connor, 2006; Green, 2004; Rivlin, 2004; Schüll, 2012.
11. Mayr, 1998; Llinas, 2002; Frith, 2007.
12. Jensen, Boley, Gini, and Schrater, 2005; Mlodinow, 2009.
13. Vulkan, 2000; Mlodinow, 2009.
14. Klein, 2000.
15. Winstanley, Balleine, Brown, Büchel, Cools, Durstewitz, O’Doherty, Pennartz, Redish, Seamans, and Robbins, 2012.
16. Jensen, Boley, Gini, and Schrater, 2005; Jensen, 2010.
17. Sagan, 1997; Boyer, 2002.
18. Langer and Roth, 1975; Wagenaar, 1988; Redish, Jensen, Johnson, and Kurth-Nelson, 2007.
19. Skinner, 1948; Sagan, 1997; Mlodinow, 2009.
20. Gallistel, 1990.
21. Sagan, 1997; Boyer, 2002.
22. Joyce, 1939, see McHugh, 1980; Campbell, 1944; Vico, 1725/1984.
23. Wagenaar, 1988; Joukhador, Maccallum, and Blaszczynski, 2003; Dickerson and O’Connor, 2006; Redish, Jensen, Johnson, and Kurth-Nelson, 2007.
24. ESPN, 2010; Scorcese, 1995; Coppola, 1972/1974/1990; Tuchman, 1962; Manchester, 1978.
25. Green, 2004; Rivlin, 2004; Dickerson and O’Connor, 2006; Schüll, 2012.
26. Griffiths, 1991.
27. Langer and Roth, 1975.
28. Wagenaar, 1988; Cummins, Nadorff, and Kelly, 2009.
29. Tversky and Kahneman, 1981; Kahneman and Tversky, 2000; Kahneman, 2011.
30. Jankovic and Tolosa, 2007.
31. Jankovic and Tolosa, 2007.
32. Sacks, 1973/1990; Voon, Potenza, and Thomsen, 2007; Classen, van den Wildenberg, Ridderinkhof, Jessup, Harrison, Wooten, and Wylie, 2011.
33. Marshall, 1990.
34. Frank, Seeberger, and O’Reilly, 2004; Frank, Samanta, Moustafa, and Sherman, 2007b; Shohamy, Myers, Geghman, Sage, and Gluck, 2006; Rutledge, Lazzaro, Lau, Myers, Gluck, and Glimcher, 2009; Kéri, Moustafa, Myers, Benedek, and Gluck, 2010.
35. Reid, 1986; Griffiths, 1991; Schüll, 2012.
36. Classen, van den Wildenberg, Ridderinkhof, Jessup, Harrison, Wooten, and Wylie, 2011; Voon, Potenza, and Thomsen, 2007; Voon, Mehta, and Hallett, 2011.
37. Holden, 2001.
38. Redish, Jensen, and Johnson, 2008.
39. Koepp, Gunn, Lawrence, Cunningham, Dagher, Jones, Brooks, Bench, and Grasby, 1998.
40. Wang, Volkow, Logan, Pappas, Wong, Zhu, Netusll, and Fowler, 2001; Volkow, Wang, and Baler, 2011.
41. Mintz, 1986; Johnson and Kenny, 2010; Lenoir, Serre, Cantin, and Ahmed, 2007.
42. See Grant and Potenza, 2012, particularly the chapters by Black and by Lejoyeaux and Germain.
1. FrontLine, 2009; Jones and Wessely, 2005.
2. Da Costa, 1884; Paul, 1987; Frontline, 2009.
3. Pizarro, Silver, and Prause, 2006.
4. Shiromani, Keane, and Ledoux, 2009; Kessler, Sonnega, Bonnet, Hughes, and Nelson, 1995.
5. Yehuda and Ledoux, 2007; Shiromani, Keane, and Ledoux, 2009.
6. Kessler, Sonnega, Bonnet, Hughes, and Nelson, 1995.
7. Yehuda and Ledoux, 2007.
8. Pitman, Gilbertson, Gurvits, May, Lasko, Metzger, Shenton, Yehuda, and Orr, 2006.
9. Gilbertson, Shenton, Ciszewski, Kasai, Lasko, Orr, and Pitman, 2002.
10. Brown and Kulik, 1977.
11. Ressler, Rothbaum, Tannenbaum, Anderson, Graap, Zimand, Hodges, and Davis, 2004; LeDoux, 1996; Dębiec and LeDoux, 2006; Redish, Jensen, Johnson, and Kurth-Nelson, 2007; Yehuda and Ledoux, 2007.
12. LeDoux, 1996; Protopoescu, Pan, Tuescher, Clotre, Goldtein, Engelien, Epstein, Yang, Gorman, LeDoux, Silbersweig, and Stern, 2005; Yehuda and Ledoux, 2007.
13. Nadel and Jacobs, 1996; Jacobs and Nadel, 1998; Layton and Krikorian, 2002; Moscowitz, Nadel, Watts, and Jacobs, 2008; Verfaellie and Vasterling, 2009.
14. Brown and Kulik, 1977.
15. Talarico and Rubin, 2003.
16. Pavlov, 1927; Bouton, 2004, 2007; Rescorla, 2004; Quirk, 2006; Redish, Jensen, Johnson, and Kurth-Nelson, 2007.
17. Dębiec and LeDoux, 2006, 2009.
18. Bouton, 2007; Myers and Davis, 2007.
19. Rescorla, 2004; Myers and Davis, 2007.
20. Bouton, 2007.
21. Nadel and Jacobs, 1996; Yehuda and Ledoux, 2007; Shiromani, Keane, and Ledoux, 2009.
22. Nadel and Jacobs, 1996; Jacobs and Nadel, 1998; Moscowitz, Nadel, Watts, and Jacobs, 2008.
23. Shors, 2004.
24. Payne, Jackson, Hoscheidt, Ryan, Jacobs, and Nadel, 2007.
25. Cahill, McGaugh, and Weinberger, 2001; Cahill, Gorski, and Le, 2003; Kuhlmann, Piel, and Wolf, 2005.
26. Layton and Krikorian, 2002; LeDoux, 1996; Shiromani, Keane, and Ledoux, 2009.
27. Elzinga and Bremner, 2002; Verfaellie and Vasterling, 2009.
28. Nadel and Jacobs, 1996.
29. Brown and Kulik, 1977.
30. Nadel and Moscovitch, 1997; Sutherland, Sparks, and Lehmann, 2010, compare Squire, 1987, 2004; Teng and Squire, 1999.
31. Nadel and Moscovitch, 1997; Jacobs and Nadel, 1998; Buckner and Carroll, 2007; Hassabis, Kumaran, Vann, and Maguire, 2007; Schacter, Addis, and Buckner, 2007, 2008; Schacter and Addis, 2011.
32. Brown and Kulik, 1977.
33. Squire, 1987; Nadel and Moscovitch, 1997; Vargha-Khadem, Gadian, Watkins, Connelly, Van Paesschen, and Mishkin, 1997; Nadel and Land, 2000; Hassabis, Kumaran, Vann, and Maguire, 2007; St.-Laurent, Moscovitch, Tau, and McAndrews, 2011.
34. Pharmacological treatments: Raskind, 2009; Choi, Rothbaum, Gerardi, and Ressler, 2009; Schneier, Neria, Pavlicova, Hembree, Suh, Amsel, and Marshall, 2012; Gibson, Hamblen, Zvolensky, and Vujanovic, 2006; Extinction: Cammarota, Bevilaqua, Vianna, Medina, and Izquierdo, 2006; Choi, Rothbaum, Gerardi, and Ressler, 2009; Recontextualization: Rizzo, Reger, Gahm, Difede, and Rothbaum, 2009; Harvey, Bryant, and Tarrier, 2003; Strauss, Calhoun, and Marx, 2009; Gibson, Hamblen, Zvolensky, and Vujanovic, 2006; Marshall, Amsel, Neria, and Suh, 2006; Schneier, Neria, Pavlicova, Hembree, Suh, Amsel, and Marshall, 2012.
1. DSM-III, 1980; DSM-IV-TR, 2000; ICD-10, 1992; see Hyman, 2007, for a discussion of the new DSM-V.
2. McHugh and Slavney, 1998; Insel, Cuthbert, Garvey, Heinssen, Pine, Quinn, Sanislow, and Wang, 2010.
3. McHugh and Slavney, 1998.
4. McHugh and Slavney, 1998; Hyman, 2007; Redish, Jensen, and Johnson, 2008; Insel et al., 2011.
5. Simpson, Kay, and Aber, 1984; Mayo Clinic, 2011.
6. Dauer and Przedborski, 2003; Jankovic and Tolosa, 2007.
7. International Campaign to Ban Landmines, 2011.
8. Levodopa: Kopin, 1993; Cell replacement: Björklund, Dunnett, Brundin, Stoessl, Freed, Breeze, Levivier, Peschanski, Studer, and Barker, 2003; Deep-brain stimulation: Dostrovsky, Hutchinson, and Lozano, 2002; McIntyre, Savast, Goff, and Vitek, 2004; Benabid, Chabardes, Mitrofanis, and Pollak, 2009.
9. World Health Organization, 2011.
10. Hyman, 2007; Insel, Cuthbert, Garvey, Heinssen, Pine, Quinn, Sanislow, and Wang, 2010; Insel et al., 2011.
11. Redish, Jensen, and Johnson, 2008; Kishida, King-Casas, and Montague, 2010; Maia and Frank, 2011; Huys, Moutoussis, and Williams, 2011; Hasler, 2012; van der Meer, Kurth-Nelson, and Redish, 2012.
12. LeDoux, 1996; Simpson, Neria, Lewis-Fernández, and Schneier, 2010; Gordon and Adhikari, 2010.
13. Gordon and Adhikari, 2010; Etkin and Wagner, 2010; McNally, Johansen, and Blair, 2011.
14. Gray and McNaughton, 2000; Adhikari, Topiwala, and Gordon, 2010.
15. The stretch-attend posture, Grewal, Shepherd, Bill, Fletcher, and Dourish, 1997; Molewijk, van der Poel, and Oliver, 1995.
16. Gray and McNaughton, 2000; Gordon and Adhikari, 2010; Adhikari, Topiwala, and Gordon, 2010.
17. Lynch and Frost, 1990–1991.
18. Simpson, Neria, Lewis-Fernández, and Schneier, 2010; Sapolsky, 1998a,b.
19. Da Costa, 1884.
20. DSM-IV-TR, 2000; Goodman, Rudorfer, and Maser, 2000; McNally, 2000.
21. Anxiety: Armony, Servan-Schreiber, Cohen, and LeDoux, 1997, see also LeDoux, 1996, and Simpson, Neria, Lewis-Fernández, and Schneier, 2010; Depression: Huys, 2007; Schizophrenia: Tanaka, 2006; Durstewitz and Seamans, 2008.
22. Hare, 1999; King-Casas, Sharp, Lomax-Bream, Lohrenz, Fonagy, and Montague, 2008; Singer, 2008; Kishida, King-Casas, and Montague, 2010.
23. McHugh and Slavney, 1998.
24. LeFever, Dawson, and Morrow, 1999; Levy, 2007.
25. Olfson and Marcus, 2009.
26. Haidt, 2006; Levy, 2007.
27. Haidt, 2006; Levy, 2007.
28. NIMH, 2011.
29. Chamberlain, Odlaug, Boulougouris, Fineberg, and Grant, 2009.
30. Mirowsky and Ross, 1989; McHugh and Slavney, 1998.
31. Hyman, 2007, 2010; Insel, Cuthbert, Garvey, Heinssen, Pine, Quinn, Sanislow, and Wang, 2010.
1. Krensky and Reeves, 2007; McDermott, 1972; Abrahams, 1983.
2. Dumas, 1844/1984.
3. O’Brien, 1971; Titus, 1958/1989.
4. Patterson and Linden, 1981; Savage-Rumbaugh and Lewin, 1996; Fouts, 1997; Pepperberg, 2009.
5. Termites and social insects: Wilson, 1980; Humans: Diamond, 1999; Wilson, 2002.
6. U.S. National Academy, 2001; Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2011; Diamond, 2005.
7. Peterson and Goodall, 2000.
8. Köhler, 1925/1959.
9. Goodall, 1986; Tomassello and Call, 1997.
10. Goodall, 1986.
11. Hall and Schaller, 1964; von Frisch, 1974; Hunt, 1996; Clayton, 2007.
12. Matsuzawa, 2008; Goodall, 1986; Tomassello and Call, 1997.
13. Kawai, 1965; Tomassello, 1999; Hirata, Watanabe, and Kawai, 2008.
14. Strum, 1987; Sapolsky, 2001; de Waal, 2001; Horner, Proctor, Bonnie, Whiten, and De Waal, 2010; see Dawkins, 1976, and Boyer, 2002, for discussions of memes.
15. Suddendorf and Corballis, 2007, 2008; Corballis, 2012.
16. Tolman, 1939; Johnson, van der Meer, and Redish, 2007; van der Meer and Redish, 2010; van der Meer, Johnson, Schmitzer-Torbert, and Redish, 2010.
17. Clayton, Griffiths, Emery, and Dickinson, 2001.
18. Abe and Lee, 2011; Steiner and Redish, 2012.
19. Raby and Clayton, 2009.
20. Dawkins, 2004.
21. Hinde, 1966; Wilson, 1980; Goodall, 1986; Bekoff and Byers, 1998; Peterson and Goodall, 2000; Fothergill and Linfield, 2012.
22. Sober and Wilson, 1998; Diamond, 1999; Wilson, 2002.
23. Aristotle, 350 BCE/2004.
24. Garrett, 2010.
25. Tomassello, 1999, 2005; Pinker, 2007.
26. Tomassello, 2005; Pinker, 2007.
27. Norman, 1988; Tomassello, 1999.
28. Levi-Strauss, 1970; Giglioli, 1972/1990; Tomassello, 1999.
29. Searle, 1965.
30. Card, 1986; see Boyer, 2002, for an anthropological discussion of the marriage contract as between individuals and the group.
31. Dawkins, 1976; Richerson and Boyd, 2005; Aunger, 2001; Sterelny, 2006.
32. Surowiecki, 2005.
33. Tomassello, 2005, 2008.
34. Matsuzawa, 2008; Tomassello, 2005; Call and Tomassello, 2008.
35. Argyle and Dean, 1965; Senju and Johnson, 2009.
36. Wright, 1995; Zak, 2008.
37. Goodall, 1986.
38. Sober and Wilson, 1998; Zak, 2008; Ronson, 2011.
39. Moss, 2000; McComb, Baker, and Moss, 2005; Byrne, Bates, and Moss, 2009.
40. Cheney and Seyfarth, 1990.
41. Noad, Cato, Bryden, Jenner, and Jenner, 2000; Fripp, Owen, Quintana-Rizzo, Shapiro, Buckstaff, Jankowski, Wells, and Tyack, 2005; Janak, 2009.
1. Hume, 1740/2000; Churchland, 2011.
2. Kuhn, 1962/1996; Popper, 1935/1959/1992; Mayr, 1998; Ben-Ari, 2005.
3. LeGuin, 1974; Boyer, 2002; Wilson, 2002; Leeson, 2009; Churchland, 2011.
4. Gould, 2000; Churchland, 2011.
5. As comfort: Boyer, 2002; Haidt, 2006; As an organization principle: Wilson, 2002; As an enforcement of morality and self-control: Wright, 1995; Boyer, 2002; Zak, 2008; de Waal, 2009; Baumeister and Tierney, 2011.
6. e.g., Alligheri, 1321/1961/2003.
7. Pascal, 1669.
8. Confucianism: Confucius, 3rd century BCE/1979, see also Riegel, 2011; Taoism: Lao Tsu, 6th century BCE/1997; Utilitarianism: Mill, 1863, see also Harris, 2010.
9. Kant, 1797/1998.
10. Leviticus, 19:18; Mark, 12:31; Confucius, 3rd century BCE/1979. See Churchland, 2011, for a discussion of the complexity of the Golden Rule and modern neuroscience.
11. Happiness readjusts: Haidt, 2006.
12. Rawls, 1971, 1985.
13. Wright, 1995; Ridley, 2000, 2003.
14. Johnson, 1994.
15. Damasio, 1994; Hare, 1999; Singer, 2008; Kishida, King-Casas, and Montague, 2010.
16. Hoffman, McCabe, Shachat, and Smith, 1994; Kimbrough, Smith, and Wilson, 2008; Smith, 2009.
17. Krugman and Wells, 2006; Reinhardt, 2010a.
18. Reinhardt, 2010b; Krugman and Wells, 2006; Smith, 2009.
19. Augustine of Hippo (Saint Augustine), 427/1972, 398/1961; Plato, 4th century BCE/2008b; Freud, 1923/1990; McHugh and Slavney, 1998; Bechara, 2005; Haidt, 2006; Lehrer, 2009b.
20. Reinhardt, 2010a,b.
21. Mathematical tractability: Krugman, 2009b; Feedback loop in training: Gintis and Khurana, 2008; Winners and losers: Krugman, 2009a; Reinhardt, 2010a.
22. Sweeney and Sweeney, 1977; Krugman and Wells, 2006; Krugman, 2009b; Smith, 2009.
23. Hill, 2008.
24. Kahneman and Tversky, 1979; Ainslie, 1992; Plous, 1993; Ariely, 2008; Fehr, 2008; Kahneman, 2011.
25. von Neumann and Morganstern, 1944/2004; Camerer, 2003; Osborne, 2004; Houser and McCabe, 2008.
26. Nash, 1951; Osborne, 2004; Houser and McCabe, 2008.
27. Nash, 1951; Osborne, 2004; fictionalized in A Beautiful Mind, Nassar, 2001; Howard, 2001.
28. Houser and McCabe, 2008.
29. Fehr, Fishbacher, and Kosfeld, 2005.
30. Hume, 1740/2000; Wilson, 1980; Wright, 1995; Churchland, 2011.
31. Vincent, Ahnesjö, Berglund, and Rosenqvist, 1992; Wright, 1995; Hill and Halliday, 1998.
32. Sober and Wilson, 1998; Boyer, 2002; Wilson, 2002; Turchin, 2003; Zak, Stanton, and Ahmadi, 2007; Leeson, 2009; Churchland, 2011.
33. Rushdie, 1990; Sober and Wilson, 1998; Turchin, 2003; Leeson, 2009.
34. Milgram, 1974/2009; Zimbardo, 2007.
35. Walters, 2012; Reicher and Haslam, 2011.
36. Hersh, 2004, 2007; Zimbardo, 2007.
37. Zimbardo, 2007.
38. Stout, 2008.
39. Oxford English Dictionary, www.oed.com.
40. Diamond, 1999; Levi-Strauss, 1970; Turchin, 2003.
41. Sober and Wilson, 1998; Wilson, 2002.
42. Brown, 2008.
43. Axelrod, 1984/2006; Camerer, 2003; Sanfey, 2007.
44. Camerer, 2003; Sanfey, 2007; Smith, 2009.
45. Kahneman and Tversky, 1979; Tversky and Kahneman, 1981; Plous, 1993.
46. Axelrod, 1984/2006; Kimbrough, Smith, and Wilson, 2008; Smith, 2009.
47. Axelrod, 1984/2006.
48. Sober and Wilson, 1998.
49. Sober and Wilson, 1998.
50. Taibbi, 2010.
51. Sober and Wilson, 1998; Wilson, 2002; Smith, 2009.
52. Wilson, Wilczynski, Wells, and Weiser, 2000; Wilson, 2002; King-Casas, Tomlin, Anen, Camerer, Quartz, and Montague, 2005.
53. Wilson, 2002.
54. Leeson, 2009.
55. Sanfey, Rilling, Aronson, Nystrom, and Cohen, 2003; Sanfey, 2007; Houser and McCabe, 2008.
56. Dawes and Thaler, 1988; Sanfey, Rilling, Aronson, Nystrom, and Cohen, 2003.
57. Sociopaths and the ultimatum game: Smith, 2009; Kishida, King-Casas, and Montague, 2010; Sociopaths and empathy: Singer, 2008; Business school graduates and the ultimatum game: Gintis and Khurana, 2008.
58. Jensen, Call, and Tomasello, 2007.
59. de Waal, 1982; Goodall, 1986; Brosnan, 2008, 2009.
60. Diamond, 2006; Goodall, 1986.
61. Sober and Wilson, 1998.
62. Pillutla and Murnighan, 1996; Rilling, Gutman, Zeh, Pagnoni, Berns, and Kilts, 2002; Sanfey, Rilling, Aronson, Nystrom, and Cohen, 2003; de Quervain, Fischbacher, Treyer, Schellhammer, Schnyder, Buck, and Fehr, 2004; Rilling, Sanfey, Aronson, Nystrom, and Cohen, 2004; Singer, Seymour, O’Doherty, Stephan, Dolan, and Frith, 2006; Seymour, Singer, and Dolan, 2007; Sanfey and Dorris, 2009; Cooper, Kreps, Wiebe, Pirkl, and Knutson, 2010; Gospic, Mohlin, Fransson, Petrovic, Johannesson, and Ingvar, 2011.
63. Sanfey, 2007; Sanfey and Dorris, 2009.
64. Hoffman, McCabe, Shachat, and Smith, 1994; Smith, 2009.
65. Frank, 2007; Warren, 2011; Wikipedia, “Tax freedom day.”
66. Taibbi, 2010.
67. Talmud, Shabbat 31a; Telushkin, 2010a,b.
1. Anonymous (Mohammed Jones), 2011.
2. Adams, 1979/1997.
3. Wegner, 2002.
4. Jordan, 1992.
5. Feynman, 1965; Pagels, 1984; Greene, 1999.
6. Gleick, 1987; Lorenz, 1993; Kakalios, 2010.
7. Aristotle, 350 BCE/1930.
8. Descartes, 1637/2008, 1647/1989; Watson, 2002; Galileo, 1638.
9. Newton, 1687/1726; Laplace, 1814/1902; Earman, 1986.
10. Penrose, 1980/1989; Hameroff, 1994.
11. Feynman, 1965; Greene, 1999.
12. Gell-Mann, 1995; Kakalios, 2010.
13. Lorenz, 1993; Gleick, 1987; Galison, 2003.
14. Hille, 2001.
15. Hodgkin and Huxley, 1952.
16. White, Klink, Alonso, and Kay, 1998; Dorval and White, 2005.
17. Katz, 1966; Lin and Holt, 2007; Guirland and Zheng, 2007; Pak, Flynn, and Bamburg, 2008.
18. Mainen and Sejnowski, 1995.
19. Penrose, 1980/1989; Hameroff, 1994.
20. Levy, 2007.
21. Sagan, 1997; Boyer, 2002.
22. Darrow, 1932.
23. Spielberg, 2002.
24. Evidence-based medicine: Evidence-Based Medicine Working Group (Gordon Guyatt et al.), 1992; Groopman, 2007; Legal system: Rosenberg, 2011.
25. Austerity in response to shrinking economies: Krugman, 2011, 2012; Criminalization of drug use: Manski, Pepper, and Petrie, 2001; Leukefeld, Gullotta, and Gregrich, 2011; Haller, 1989; U.S. Department of Justice, 1992.
26. Lakoff, 2001.
27. Effect on individuals: Goldstein, 2000; Heyman, 2009; Incarceration versus treatment: Manski, Pepper, and Petrie, 2001; Leukefeld, Gullotta, and Gregrich, 2011; Haller, 1989.
28. Darrow, 1932; Levy, 2007.
29. Asimov, 1951–1953.
30. Spielberg, 2002.
31. Hampton, 1987/1990.
32. Alvidson and Stallone, 1976.
33. Plato, 4th century BCE/2008b; Freud, 1923/1990; Haidt, 2006; Lehrer, 2009b.
34. Original Libet experiments: Libet, Wright, Feinstein, and Pearl, 1979; Libet, 1985, 1993; Consciousness as illusion: Wegner, 2002; Fischer, 2006; Consciousness as rationalization: Ramachandran and Blakeslee, 1999; Ramachandran, 2011; Kurzban, 2010; Consciousness as monitor: Eccles et al., 1965; Levy, 2007; Gray, 2004; Damasio, 2010.
35. Descartes, 1637/2008, 1647/1989; Searle, 2006; Hofstadter, 1985, 2008.
36. Aquinas, 1274/1947.
37. Galileo, 1610, 1638; Descartes, 1637/1886/2008; Newton, 1687/1726; Kepler, 1609.
38. Descartes, 1647/1989; Laplace, 1814/1902; Earman, 1986.
39. Carlson, 2010.
40. Striedter, 2005.
41. Descartes, 1647/1989; Watson, 2002; Lokhorst, 2011.
42. Penrose, 1980/1989; Hameroff, 1994.
43. Penrose, 1980/1989; McCorduck, 2004.
1. Haidt, 2006; Lehrer, 2009b.
2. Higgins, Alessi, and Dantona, 2002; Petry, 2011; Metcalfe and Mischel, 1999; McClure, Laibson, Loewenstein, and Cohen, 2004a; Peters and Büchel, 2010; Kang, Rangel, Camus, and Camerer, 2011; Kurth-Nelson and Redish, 2012c.
3. Shelton, 1988.
4. Gray, 2004; Kurzban, 2010.
5. Damasio, 1994.
6. Nili, Goldberg, Weizman, and Dudai, 2010.
7. Sanfey, 2007; Zak, 2008.
8. Shelton, 1988; Baumeister, Heatherton, and Tice, 1994; Stitzer and Petry, 2006; Baumeister and Tierney, 2011.
9. Ainslie, 1992; Redish, Jensen, Johnson, and Kurth-Nelson, 2007; Kurth-Nelson and Redish, 2012b.
1. Shannon, 1948; Gleick, 2011.
2. Kahn, 1967/1996.
3. Hodgkin and Huxley, 1952.
4. Rieke, Warland, de Ruyter van Steveninck, and Bialek, 1997.
5. Soltesz and Staley, 2008.
6. Tanaka, 2006; Durstewitz and Seamans, 2008; Grace, 2000.
7. Hebb, 1949/2002; Bliss, Collingridge, and Morris, 2004; Kandel, 2006; Hippocampus: Bliss and Lømo, 1973; Andersen, Morris, Amaral, Bliss, and O’Keefe, 2007; Cortex: Bear and Kirkwood, 1993; Cerebellum: Hartell, 2002; Basal ganglia: Lovinger, 2010; Spinal cord: Wills, 2002; Ikeda, Kiritoshi, and Murase, 2009.
8. McNaughton, Douglas, and Goddard, 1978; Kandel, Schwartz, and Jessell, 2000; Dan and Poo, 2006; Kandel, 2006; Sacktor, 2008; Lisman, Yasuda, and Raghavachari, 2012.
1. O’Keefe and Nadel, 1978; Redish, 1999.
2. Wu, Arbuckle, Liu, Tao, and Zhang, 2008.
3. Fyhn, Molden, Witter, Moser, and Moser, 2004; Hafting, Fyhn, Molden, Moser, and Moser, 2005.
4. Rieke, Warland, de Ruyter van Steveninck, and Bialek, 1997.
5. Jung, Wiener, and McNaughton, 1994; Kjelstrup, Solstad, Brun, Hafting, Leutgeb, Witter, Moser, and Moser, 2008.
6. Wilson and McNaughton, 1993.
7. Johnson, Fenton, Kentros, and Redish, 2009.
8. Buzsáki, 2006; Katzner, Nauhaus, Benucci, Bonin, Ringach, and Carandini, 2009.
9. O’Keefe and Nadel, 1978; Buzsáki, 2006; van der Meer, Kalensher, Lansink, Pennartz, Berke, and Redish, 2010.
10. Vanderwolf, 1971; O’Keefe and Nadel, 1978.
11. Hubel and Wiesel, 1977; Mountcastle, 1997.
12. Abeles, 1991; Krubitzer and Kaas, 2005; Krubitzer, 2009; Jerison, 1973; Hofman, 1985; Abeles, 1991; Striedter, 2005.
13. Katzner, Nauhaus, Benucci, Bonin, Ringach, and Carandini, 2009; Ince, Gupta, Arica, Tewfik, Ashe, and Pellizzer, 2010.
14. Niedermeyer and Lopes da Silva, 1999.
15. Nowlis and Kamiya, 1970; Ros, Munneke, Ruge, Gruzelier, and Rothwell, 2010.
16. Silver, 2009.
17. Niedermeyer and Lopes da Silva, 1999.
18. Holroyd and Coles, 2002; Gehring, Goss, Coles, Meyer, and Donachin, 1993; Falkenstein, Hoormann, Christ, and Hohnsbein, 2000.
19. Wyler and Herman, 1994; Duncan, 2007.
20. e.g., Jacobs, Kahana, Ekstrom, and Fried, 2007.
21. See Huettel, Song, and McCarthy, 2009, for a thorough review of fMRI and the related neuroimaging technologies.
22. Logothetis, 2002; Heeger and Ress, 2002; Lippert, Steudel, Ohl, Logothetis, and Kayser, 2010; Cardoso, Sirotin, Lima, Glushenkova, and Das, 2012.
23. Nair, 2005; Huettel, Song, and McCarthy, 2009.
24. Ahmed, Hu, Paczynski, and Hsu, 2001.
25. Ames, 2000; Nair, 2005; Huettel, Song, and McCarthy, 2009.
26. Ahmed, Hu, Paczynski, and Hsu, 2001.
27. Ahmed, Hu, Paczynski, and Hsu, 2001.
28. Bisiach, Perani, Vallar, and Berti, 1986; Mohr, Lazar, Marshall, and Hier, 2004.
29. Foreman and Eaton, 1993.
30. Bisiach and Luzatti, 1978.
31. Kosslyn, 1994.
32. Damasio, 1992; Purves, Augustine, Fitzpatrick, Hall, LaMantia, McNamara, and White, 2008.
33. Wyler and Herman, 1994; Duncan, 2007.
34. Cohen and Squire, 1980; Squire, 1987; Corkin, 2008; Squire, 2009.
35. Wassermann, Walsh, Epstein, Paus, Ziemann, and Lisanby, 2008.
36. Wassermann, 1998; Anand and Hotson, 2002.
37. Anholt and Mackay, 2010.
38. Darwin, 1859.
39. Anholt and Mackay, 2010; Joyner, 2000; Pei, Rogan, Yan, and Roth, 2008, e.g., Nakazawa, Quirk, Chitwood, Watanabe, Yeckel, Sun, Kato, Carr, Johnston, Wilson, and Tonegawa, 2002, and Garner, Rowland, Hwang, Baumgaertel, Roth, Kentros, and Mayford, 2012.
40. Boyden, Zhang, Bamberg, Nagel, and Deisseroth, 2006; Deisseroth, 2011; Scanziani and Hä usser, 2009.
41. Benabid, Chabardes, Mitrofanis, and Pollak, 2009; Frank, Samanta, Moustafa, and Sherman, 2007b; Dostrovsky, Hutchinson, and Lozano, 2002.
42. Shutting down structures: McIntyre, Savast, Goff, and Vitek, 2004; Resetting oscillations: Birdno and Grill, 2008; Brown and Eusebio, 2008; Axons: Deniau, Degos, Bosch, and Maurice, 2010.
43. Salzman, Murasugi, Britten, and Newsome, 1992.
44. Zeng, 2004; Zeng, Rebscher, Harrison, Sun, and Feng, 2009.
45. Weiland, Liu, and Humayun, 2005; Dowling, 2009.
1. Rumelhart and McClelland, 1986; Hertz, Krogh, and Palmer, 1991; Churchland and Sejnowski, 1994.
2. McClelland and Rumelhart, 1986; Lakoff, 1990/1997.
3. Hebb, 1949/2002.
4. Hume, 1748/2003.
5. McNaughton, 2003.
6. Rumelhart and McClelland, 1986; Churchland and Sejnowski, 1994; Harris, 2005.
7. Hopfield, 1982; Mitchell, 1993; Churchland and Sejnowski, 1994; Schacter, 2001.
8. Bird, 2007.
9. Hebb, 1949/2002; Hopfield, 1982; McClelland and Rumelhart, 1986; Rumelhart and McClelland, 1986; Wilson and McNaughton, 1993.
10. Kohonen, 1980; Hopfield, 1982; Hertz, Krogh, and Palmer, 1991.
11. Hopfield, 1982.
12. Churchland and Sejnowski, 1994.
13. Hopfield, 1982; Kohonen, 1980, 1984; Hertz, Krogh, and Palmer, 1991; Kurth-Nelson and Redish, 2012c.
14. Rumelhart and McClelland, 1986; Churchland and Sejnowski, 1994.
15. Changing excitatory connections only: Wilson and Cowan, 1973; Kohonen, 1980, 1984; Eliasmith and Anderson, 2003; Graded neurons: Wilson and Cowan, 1973; Redish, 1999; Eliasmith and Anderson, 2003; Spiking neurons: Laing and Chow, 2001.
16. Mainen and Sejnowski, 1995; Fenton and Muller, 1998; Shadlen and Newsome, 1998; Chichilnisky and Kalmar, 2003; VanRullen, Guyonneau, and Thorpe, 2005.
17. Carr and MacLeod, 2010.
18. Mainen and Sejnowski, 1995; Shadlen and Newsome, 1998.
19. Amarasingham, Harrison, Hatsopoulos, and Geman, 2011.
20. Chichilnisky and Kalmar, 2003.
21. Carr and MacLeod, 2010.
22. Hasselmo and Bower, 1993; Hasselmo and Wyble, 1997; Durstewitz, Kelc, and Gunturkun, 1999; Redish, 1999; Durstewitz, Seamans, and Sejnowski, 2000; Tanaka, 2006.
23. Hopfield, 1982; Hertz, Krogh, and Palmer, 1991.
24. Abbott and Nelson, 2000; Dayan and Abbott, 2001.
25. Redish, 1999; Durstewitz, Seamans, and Sejnowski, 2000; Tanaka, 2006.
26. Miyawaki, Jenkins, Strange, Liberman, Verbrugge, and Fujimura, 1975; Kenstowicz and Kisseberth, 1979; Akmajian, Demers, and Harnish, 1984; Kuhl, 1994.
27. Guenther and Bohland, 2002; Vallabha and McClelland, 2007.
28. Logan, Lively, and Pisoni, 1991; McClelland, Fiez, and McCandliss, 2002; Vallabha and McClelland, 2007.
29. Vallabha and McClelland, 2007.
30. Kuhl, Williams, Lacerda, Stevens, and Lindblom, 1992; Kuhl, Andruski, Chistovich, Chistovich, Kozhevnikova, Ryskina, Stolyarova, Sundberg, and Lacerda, 1997.
31. Lakoff, 1990/1997; Roberson and Davidoff, 2000.
32. Berlin and Kay, 1969; Rosch, 1973.
33. Roberson and Davidoff, 2000; Winawer, Witthoft, Frank, Wu, Wade, and Boroditsky, 2007.
34. Sapir, 1929; Whorf, 1956.
35. Lakoff and Johnson, 2003; Lakoff, Dean, and Hazen, 2004.
36. Whorf, 1956.
37. Martin, 1986; Kaplan, 2003.
38. Lakoff, 1990/1997.
39. Winawer, Witthoft, Frank, Wu, Wade, and Boroditsky, 2007.
40. Rosch, 1973.
41. Purves, Augustine, Fitzpatrick, Hall, LaMantia, McNamara, and White, 2008; Chaudhuri, 2011.
42. Wilson and McNaughton, 1993.
43. Redish, 1999.
44. Harris, 2005; Jackson and Redish, 2007; Johnson, Fenton, Kentros, and Redish, 2009; Kelemen and Fenton, 2010.
45. Hatsopoulos, Ojakangas, Paninski, and Donoghue, 1998; Hatsopoulos, Paninski, and Donoghue, 2003; Churchland, Yu, Ryu, Santhanam, and Shenoy, 2006.
46. Benchenane, Peyrache, Khamassi, Tierney, Gioanni, Battaglia, and Wiener, 2010; Durstewitz, Vittoz, Floresco, and Seamans, 2010.