Numbers

Introduction

Overview

The book of Exodus describes the rescue from slavery; Numbers describes the journey to the blessing. Incredibly, when God first brings the Israelites to the promised land, they say they don’t want it if they have to exert any effort and faith to actually occupy it. “We wish we had died in the desert!” they complain to God in exaggeration, as they reject the promised land. “Fine,” God answers, in essence. “Go back into the desert and die.” God then leads them back into the desert to allow that rebellious generation to die off. Then he takes the upcoming, more obedient generation and offers the land to them. The contrast between the old, disobedient generation and the new, obedient generation is huge, and identifying the transition from disobedience to obedience helps us to understand better the book of Numbers. This book contains two big census lists (filled with numbers), one in Nm 1 and another in Nm 26. These two census lists identify and introduce the two differing generations. Thus Nm 1–25 describes the old, disobedient generation, characterized by grumbling, doubt, rebellion, and death. Numbers 26–36, however, is quite different, and the themes for this generation shift to faith, hope, and life.

Running throughout the book, however, is evidence that God still watches over his people and remains faithful to the ultimate fulfillment of the Abrahamic covenant. For example, when Balaam attempts to curse Israel, God intervenes and prohibits it (Nm 22–25).

All the while, throughout the entire book, the people are also journeying and encountering hostile nations along the way. God also engages with the Israelites frequently, supplementing the laws of Exodus and Leviticus and exhorting them to trust him to deliver them from the enemies that oppose them in their journey. Another related feature of Numbers incorporated into this journeying story is that a lot of text and effort is devoted just to getting the Israelites organized enough to move efficiently. The large numbers in the censuses underscore the mammoth task of organizing the twelve chaotic tribes into one unified people with a smoothly functioning worship system and a just legal system, a people who could travel through the desert in an organized manner, maintaining their focus on the centrality of God’s presence in the tabernacle.

Numbers is composed of numerous different types of literature: narrative stories, poems, songs, census results, laws, letters, and travel itineraries. Yet all of it combines to tell the story of how God moves the rebellious Israelites from Mount Sinai to the promised land.

Title

The Hebrew title of the book—Bemidbar, “In the Wilderness” (taken from 1:1)—is apt in describing its setting. The English title, Numbers, is from Latin Numeri, derived from the earlier Septuagint Greek Arithmoi, which primarily refers to two sets of census lists. These summaries of the adult generation that left Egypt (chaps. 1–4) and the younger generation finally permitted to enter Canaan (chap. 26) are major pillars in the literary structure of the book (see below).

Theological Themes

God’s treatment of the Israelites is much more severe in Numbers than in Exodus. In Exodus, he rescues them and provides water and food when they complain (Ex 14–17), and they are punished only after they commit themselves to a covenant with him (Ex 24) and break it by turning to idolatry (Ex 32). Divine punishments in Numbers are among the most dramatic in the Bible and escalate in severity, with high body counts.

In 1 Co 10:1–13 Paul refers directly to many of the negative events in the exodus (esp. Nm 20–21; 25), concluding, “These things took place as examples for us, so that we will not desire evil things as they did” (1 Co 10:6).

God’s behavior in Numbers raises the question of theodicy (justification of divine character). However, he had repeatedly delivered the Israelites (Ex 12; 14; 17) and miraculously sustained them with manna (cf. Ex 16) every day for a year before they left the Wilderness of Sinai, so he could justifiably hold them increasingly accountable for trusting that he would provide. He lavished grace upon them, but they steadfastly refused to develop a trusting heart relationship with him or learn from their mistakes when he disciplined them.

The story of extreme conflict in the wilderness serves as a warning to later people of God (1 Co 10:1–11), but it also gives hope. The fact that the Lord can bring the Israelite nation through drastic situations to victory implies that he can save anyone else, provided they choose to follow the example of Moses, Caleb, and Joshua rather than Korah, Dathan, and Abiram. It is possible to safely journey with God and be his holy people.

This silver amulet from the seventh century BC is inscribed with the priestly benediction of Nm 6:24–26. It is the oldest known fragment of a biblical text.

© Baker Publishing Group and Dr. James C. Martin. Collection of the Israel Museum, Jerusalem, and courtesy of the Israel Antiquity Authority, exhibited at the Israel Museum, Jerusalem.

Date and Authorship

Tradition and the NT regard Moses as the primary human author of the Pentateuch, including Numbers. Modern historical-critical scholars attribute most of Numbers, like Leviticus, to a much later “priestly source” (see the article “Who Wrote the Pentateuch?” in the introduction to Genesis; see also “Date and Authorship” in the introduction to Leviticus). However, these scholars acknowledge incorporation of some earlier materials, such as “the Book of the LORD’S Wars” (Nm 21:14–15) and a proverbial saying about the Amorite city of Heshbon (Nm 21:27–30).

Some extrabiblical inscriptions are relevant to the dating of Numbers. Two silver amulets, discovered in 1979 at a tomb above the Hinnom Valley outside ancient Jerusalem, are inscribed with the priestly blessing found in Nm 6:24–26 (see photo). They date to the end of the seventh century BC or the beginning of the sixth. So, if the blessing is a quotation from Numbers rather than vice versa, composition of at least this portion of Numbers must predate the amulets. Eighth-century-BC inscriptions on plaster walls at Deir ‘Allā, just east of the Jordan River, tell about a prophet of the gods called Balaam son of Beor. This evidence supports the idea that there was a preexilic historical figure by that name, as in Nm 22–24.

One could wish that archaeological data from places listed in the itinerary of Nm 33 would help us to date the Israelite presence there. But archaeological evidence of nomadic lifestyle, even of large groups, has a very short life span. Therefore, the ancient Israelite tent encampment has left no lasting footprint, and a number of stations along the itinerary have not even been identified. However, the borders of the promised land in Nm 34 imply a chronological framework because they coincide with those of the Egyptian province of Canaan during the fifteenth to thirteenth centuries BC. So the ideal shape of the territory of Israel, displacing the Asiatic portion of the Egyptian Empire, appears to have been formed during that period.

Like Leviticus, Numbers supports the exclusive authority and livelihood of a centralized Aaronic priesthood (Nm 3:10, 38; 16:35; 17:1–11; 18:1–32). This could be taken to support the theory that Numbers was written by self-serving priests, who stood to gain by persuading the Israelites of their obligations toward the elite religious dynasty. However, such a theory does not adequately reckon with other factors. These books do not hesitate to point out and emphasize failures of priests (Lv 10:1–2; 16:1; Nm 3:4; 26:61), including Aaron himself (Nm 20:12, 23–24). Furthermore, they lay onerous responsibilities and restrictions on priests (Lv 16:2, 13; 21:1–15; Nm 18:1).

Debates over the authorship of Numbers will continue for the foreseeable future. However, at present there seems to be no compelling evidence that the book’s basic material could not have originated from the early time it describes, that is, before Israelite entrance into Canaan and development of the monarchy. We do not know the process by which Numbers was formed and edited into its final canonical shape. But Nm 33:2 explicitly states that at least some of the book is based on records written by Moses, whose inspired leadership and prophetic communication from God preserved and shaped his nation.

Structure

The main divisions of Numbers are 1:1–10:10; 10:11–25:18; and 26:1–36:13. These sections begin with the census of the first generation (chaps. 1–3), departure from the Wilderness of Sinai to continue the journey toward Canaan (10:11–36), and the census of the second generation (chap. 26). Recapitulation of the census after journeying (census 1—journey—census 2) indicates an overall A B Aʹ structure.

The literary texture of Numbers is complicated and enriched by interplay between narrative and legal (including ritual law) genres. Shifts in narrative-legal texture further support the A B Aʹ structure of the book: 1:1–10:10 and 26:1–36:13 emphasize instructions, but 10:11–25:18 focuses on negative narrative events. There is a dynamic relationship between narrative and law: narrative shows how Israel responds to God’s instructions and how he reacts to their responses, including by giving more instructions. Some of these additional instructions are supplements to laws previously given (e.g., Nm 5:5–10 [cf. Lv 6:1–7]; and Nm 9:1–14 [cf. Ex 12:1–13]). Reminders of the earlier laws, which are necessary for supplementing them, provide didactic reinforcement of divine principles.

The Exodus and Desert Wanderings

Section one (1:1–10:10) is dominated by divine instructions given within a narrative framework. Some instructions or commands apply to only the temporary situation of the war camp (1:1–2:34; 5:1–4) and initial establishment of the ritual system (7:11). Others are formulated as ongoing laws that continue to apply after the conquest (5:5–6:27). Some instructions mix temporary or initial and ongoing aspects (3:1–4:49; 8:1–26; 9:1–10:10). In addition to providing settings for divine communication (with the narrative situation generating the need for law in 9:1–14), narrative also reports fulfillments of divine commands (e.g., 1:54; 2:34; 5:4).

After turning back from the threshold of the promised land, Israel spends many years wandering in the wilderness.

Section two (10:11–25:18) consists mainly of narratives recounting significant events during the forty-year journey from Mount Sinai to the steppes of Moab, just east of the Jordan River. All of the human failures and divine punishments in Numbers are described within this range of chapters. Some divine commands (e.g., 11:16–20; 12:4, 14; 13:1–2; 14:25) and fulfillments appear in these narratives. Chapters 15 and 18–19 contain ongoing laws. The Balaam story in chapters 22–24 is distinct in that its setting is away from (although directed toward) the Israelite encampment and that it presents only a positive picture of God’s covenant people.

Section three (26:1–36:13) is similar to section one (1:1–10:10) in that it begins with a census and mainly consists of divine instructions in a narrative framework. These instructions include commands for the temporary or initial situation (26:1–65; 31:1–2, 25–30; 33:50–56), ongoing laws (chaps. 27–30; 36, with the situation calling for law in chaps. 27; 36), or both (chaps. 34–35). Most of chapter 33 (vv. 1–49) is a narrative synopsis of the Israelite itinerary.

Embedded in the narrative framework of Numbers are not only laws but also units belonging to several other genres, such as census report (1:20–46), blessing (6:24–26), prayer (11:11–15; 12:13), diplomatic correspondence (20:14–20), poetry (21:17–18, 27–30), prophecy (24:3–9, 15–24), and itinerary (33:1–49). This literary variety enhances interest for the hearer or reader and highlights the multifaceted nature of the wilderness experience.

Outline

1. Preparations for Resuming the Journey (1:1–10:10)

A. Military Organization (1:1–2:34)

B. Organization of Sanctuary Personnel (3:1–4:49)

C. Laws and Blessing for Purity and Holiness (5:1–6:27)

D. Sanctuary Supplies and Service (7:1–8:26)

E. Passover and Final Organization (9:1–10:10)

2. Wilderness Journey with God (10:11–25:18)

A. Departure from the Wilderness of Sinai (10:11–36)

B. Escalating Rebellion (11:1–14:45)

C. Laws concerning Loyalty versus Disloyalty (15:1–41)

D. Rebellion of Korah and Aftermath (16:1–18:32)

E. Law of Purification from Corpse Impurity (19:1–22)

F. From Failure to Victory (20:1–21:35)

G. Balaam’s Failed Attempts to Curse Israel (22:1–24:25)

H. Apostasy with the Baal of Peor (25:1–18)

3. Preparation for Occupation of the Promised Land (26:1–36:13)

A. Organization of the Younger Generation (26:1–27:23)

B. Calendar of Communal Sacrifices (28:1–29:40)

C. Law of Vows (30:1–16)

D. Punishment of Midianites (31:1–54)

E. Allotment of Land in the Transjordan (32:1–42)

F. Itinerary (33:1–49)

G. Instructions for Conquest and Settlement of Canaan (33:50–36:13)