Introduction
Overview
The purpose of the book of Proverbs is expressed clearly in the opening verses: “for learning wisdom and discipline,” “for receiving prudent instruction in righteousness, justice, and integrity” (1:2–3), and for teaching both the inexperienced or young and the wise and discerning (1:4–5). The book of Proverbs is tied theologically to the rest of the OT by 1:7, “The fear of the LORD is the beginning of knowledge,” thus underpinning the search for wise living to obedience before God. Proverbs at its core is about building character. It provides guidelines for right and wise character development. It stresses that character produces behavior and that behavior produces serious consequences.
Proverbs presents the norms of life—things that are generally and normally true. For example, Proverbs teaches that by working hard, one will prosper and do well. This is normally true, and a hard-work ethic is certainly a foundational virtue that will help one to live wisely. But this is not universally true; neither is it an unqualified promise from God. There are exceptions to this in life, as Job aptly illustrates. So Proverbs presents the norms of life, and other wisdom books (especially Job and Ecclesiastes) focus on the exceptions. Part of becoming truly and biblically wise is learning how to apply the various proverbial teachings in the book of Proverbs to the differing contexts of life.
Because the maxims in Proverbs are normally true, most of the time we can apply them to our lives quite easily. The book of Proverbs deals with the most basic aspects of life: family, neighbors, work, speech, society, and so on. Out of this day-to-day “living in the real world” context, several central themes emerge: wisdom versus folly; improper aspects of speech (anger, gossip, etc.); spouses and families (including sexual immorality); laziness versus hard work; proper attitudes toward the poor; and the righteous versus the wicked.
One of the ways that Proverbs teaches wisdom is through its portrayal of four basic character types. First there is the inexperienced (or gullible). This person is not too smart and doesn’t want to be. Second is the fool. He is not smart either, but he thinks he is, and he has convinced the inexperienced/gullible one that he is. Third is the mocker. He is actually very smart (in human terms), but he does not fear the Lord; thus his intelligence does not translate into true wisdom, and he becomes a bitter skeptic. The fourth character type is the wise, who is smart and discerning and who also fears the Lord. The central teaching in Proverbs is the exhortation to us to strive to become like the wise and not like the inexperienced, the fool, or the mocker.
Title and Authorship
The book of Proverbs contains several proverbial collections, each of which has its own brief title (10:1; 24:23; 25:1; 30:1; 31:1) or introductory section (22:17–21). The initial title in 1:1 (“The proverbs of Solomon son of David, king of Israel”) identifies the book’s dominant (but not only) literary form and author. This title is expanded in 1:2–7, which states the objectives and foundational premises of this wisdom text in a manner that parallels 22:17–21 and several Egyptian instructional texts. The titles of the proverbial collections in 10:1 and 25:1 similarly associate their contents with Solomon, which fits the portrayal of his reign in 1 Kings and 2 Chronicles. According to 1 Kg 3:12, God granted Solomon a “wise and understanding heart” that manifested itself in his judicial decisions, international relations, temple construction project, encyclopedic knowledge, and literary compositions. These are described most fully in 1 Kg 4:29–34, which makes several important claims: (1) Solomon’s wisdom was God given and surpassed that of all of his contemporaries. (2) During the united monarchy under Solomon, some Israelites had sufficient knowledge of and access to wisdom writings of the East (probably Mesopotamia, not Arabia) and Egypt to warrant such a comparison between Solomon and his contemporaries and to establish Solomon’s international reputation. (3) Solomon’s literary output included more than three thousand proverbs (which could have included many of the 950 verses in the book of Proverbs), as well as more than one thousand songs.
The book of Job balances the book of Proverbs, and the two should be interpreted together. Proverbs without Job can lead to incorrect practical theology, as Job’s three friends illustrate.
In light of these qualifications, Solomon’s traditional association with OT wisdom writings (including Ecclesiastes and Song of Songs) is understandable. This has even led some scholars to claim that he is the author of the entire book of Proverbs, viewing Agur (in Pr 30:1, “Gatherer”) and Lemuel (in 31:1, “Belonging to God”) as symbolic designations for Solomon. Nevertheless, many contemporary scholars deny that the present canonical book contains any proverbs or instructions that originated with Solomon. However, if Solomon was, in reality and not simply in legend, an incomparably wise ruler and sage, it is certainly plausible that many of the proverbial sayings that he personally formulated would be preserved in the canonical anthology ascribed to him.
To posit Solomonic authorship for some of the contents of the proverbial collections by no means demands his editorial responsibility for the entire book. Taking Pr 1:1 seriously does not exclude the extensive contribution of other unknown sages, authors, and editors. The textual basis for this is Pr 25:1, which may suggest a larger compositional or editorial role played by a scribal group in the time of Hezekiah, two centuries after Solomon—this group perhaps even added the introductory prologue in 1:8–9:18. As already noted, there are several additional authors mentioned in the titles to the individual subcollections of proverbs and sayings. Proverbs 30 constitutes “the words of Agur son of Jakeh. The pronouncement”; Pr 31 contains, similarly, “the words of King Lemuel, a pronouncement that his mother taught him.” (Neither Agur nor Lemuel is mentioned elsewhere in biblical or extrabiblical sources.) Proverbs 22:17 (“Listen closely, pay attention to the words of the wise”) and 24:23 (“These sayings also belong to the wise”) are usually taken as titles that introduce additional proverbial collections from anonymous sages. The Greek translators of these verses, however, viewed neither of them as constituting an introductory title, and the insertion of the subheading “Words of the Wise” into the text (before 22:17) simply reflects a Bible editor’s interpretation. Given the nature of proverbial wisdom, which often has an oral origin, it is likely that Solomon and other contributors to the book of Proverbs both coined and collected proverbial sayings.
Date
Seeking to determine the date of an anthology like the book of Proverbs is a tenuous undertaking. First of all, one must distinguish between the date of origin of individual proverbs, the date of their compilation into collections, and the date of the editing of the book of Proverbs, which certainly could have gone through several editions before the final canonical edition was completed. Second, the universal and timeless nature of the individual proverbial sayings and instructions makes them difficult to date. Third, the striking formal differences between Pr 1–9 and 10–31 require separate treatments of the two major sections of the book. Most scholars view chapters 10–31 as being earlier than 1–9, citing several notable features in support of this claim. From a form-critical perspective, Hermann Gunkel and his early followers claimed that the shorter forms (e.g., two-clause proverbial sayings in chaps. 10–31) are earlier than the longer instructional discourses (e.g., 1:8–19). From a conceptual standpoint, the figure of personified wisdom as developed in Pr 1–9 is seen to be dependent on later Persian or Greek models. In terms of content, Pr 1–9 is considered late due to its highly reflective theological content that closely links wisdom and its acquisition to personal piety and divine endowment. As a result, chapters 1–9 are commonly understood as a prologue that was composed much later to serve as a theological introduction to chapters 10–31.
There is no evidence, however, that any of the proverbial collections ever circulated in Israel independently from chapters 1–9. Apart from chapters 1–9, a proper framework for understanding the purpose and theological basis for chapters 10–29 is lacking. Furthermore, the arguments in support of a postexilic origin for Pr 1–9 have been countered by Egyptologists, such as Kenneth Kitchen, who note that proverbial collections preceded by lengthy prologues, the personification of abstract qualities such as wisdom, and similar theological and personal ethical reflection are found in various Egyptian and Mesopotamian wisdom collections dated to the third and second millennia BC, that is, prior to the time of Solomon. Divergent claims regarding the dating of texts within chapters 10–31 usually focus on the contents of those texts rather than on their language.
In any case, these issues have little bearing on how one should understand these individual proverbs within their present canonical-compositional collections. Nevertheless, given the book’s association with Solomon and its frequent focus on the duties of a king or courtier, it is likely that the book as a whole was composed in a royal-scribal setting. This does not preclude individual proverbs from originating in a tribal or rural setting, nor is there reason to believe that the canonical book was not intended to have a much broader readership. [Wisdom in the Ancient Near East]
Literary Features
A wide range of literary forms are used in the book of Proverbs, not all of which are native to or typical of wisdom discourse. These include instruction (chaps. 1–9), individual sentences (primarily chaps. 10–30), numerical sayings (6:16–19; 30:15–31, possibly also a riddle), beatitudes (3:13; 8:32, 34; 28:14), acrostics (i.e., alphabetic sequence, 31:10–31), and allegory (5:15–23). Especially in chapters 1–9, stylistic devices, such as the call to attention (4:1; 5:1), rhetorical questions (6:27–28), and personal observation and reflection (4:3–8; 7:6–23), are commonly employed. By far, the dominant form is the individual sentence or proverb. Most proverbs take the form of a wisdom saying, which consists of a declaration formulated with indicative verbs, including participles. In chapters 1–9 and 22–24, however, admonitions (commands or prohibitions), expressed with imperative verb forms, are also common. Admonitions typically contain a motivational clause that seeks to persuade the addressee to heed the instruction by noting promised benefits for obedience or adverse consequences for ignoring it (“Don’t love sleep, or you will become poor; open your eyes, and you’ll have enough to eat”; 20:13). Often this takes the form of an appeal to discernment on the basis of experience or common sense (“Don’t lust in your heart for her beauty or let her captivate you with her eyelashes. . . . Can a man embrace fire and his clothes not be burned? ”; 6:25, 27). Alternatively, it can involve an explicit reference to the way of life or death or to God (“Don’t rob a poor person because he is poor, and don’t crush the oppressed at the city gate, for the LORD will champion their cause and will plunder those who plunder them”; 22:22–23).
A proverb can be described as a short, paradigmatic, poetically crafted saying. The meaning of mashal, the Hebrew word for “proverb,” is disputed. The most commonly suggested meanings are (1) a comparison or noted similarity (from the verb “to resemble”) or (2) a powerful word (from the verb “to rule”). An individual proverb in the book of Proverbs usually consists of two parallel lines. The second line continues and completes the theme and thought of the first line by means of emphatic restatement or supplementary comment, striking comparison, contrast, illustration, or reference to the consequences of specific actions. This can be illustrated by 18:22–23: “A man who finds a wife finds a good thing / and obtains favor from the LORD” (supplementation); “The poor person pleads, / but the rich one answers roughly” (contrast). Individual proverbial assertions can be categorized according to the kind of comment they make regarding a given topic, such as classification (14:15; 27:7; 29:5), comparison (25:13; 26:14), evaluation (17:16; 22:1), and act-consequence (15:13; 19:20).
Structure and Theological Themes
Proverbs is best understood as a carefully edited anthology. All interpreters of Proverbs acknowledge that chapters 10–31 constitute an anthology containing various proverbial collections diverse in style, content, and origin, but what is disputed is the extent (or even the existence) of compositional design within and between the various collections. Stated simply, is the order (and literary context) of the individual proverbs significant and therefore to be taken into consideration when interpreting each verse? Or should one view each proverb as an independent literary unit and interpret it as such? The second approach has dominated commentaries in the past. In recent decades, however, the first approach has been explored in numerous studies and employed by most contemporary commentators. Those skeptical toward this newer approach dismiss alleged compositional patterns as imposed rather than identified by the interpreter, asserting that “whoever seeks, will find.”
Several lines of evidence converge in support of this newer viewpoint, without demonstrating that every proverb and every collection exhibit editorial design. (1) Since the ancient sages devoted themselves to analyzing and ordering their world, it is likely that they also gave order to their literary compositions. (2) Some of the ancient Near Eastern instructional texts, especially from Egypt, contain thematic groupings of proverbs. (3) There are dozens of paired proverbs within the book, which should be taken together (as proverbial pairs). (4) The repetition of words, phrases, clauses, half-verses, and entire verses within individual or adjoining chapters is too frequent to be coincidental. (5) Such repeated clauses or verses sometimes appear to mark the beginning and end of sections or subsections. (6) Consecutive proverbs frequently offer comments on the same general or specific topic. Since reading is essentially a sequential process, it is natural to read each succeeding proverb in light of those that immediately precede it. (7) The center of the book is marked by the highest concentration of references to Yahweh and the king, the same verbs being used with reference to both subjects. On the basis of these seven features, this commentary will seek to point out, where possible, striking indications and implications of compositional design in chapters 10–29.
This has a number of implications for how the book should be interpreted. First of all, chapters 1–9 function as a theological introduction to biblical wisdom and an interpretative introduction to the proverbial collections that follow. After the divine origin and God-centered orientation of wise behavior have been established in the prologue, even the “secular” proverbs in chapters 10–31 are to be read through this theological lens. Second, chapters 10–29 in turn often echo and offer numerous practical everyday illustrations of the theological principles set forth in chapters 1–9, including those exemplified by Lady Wisdom and Lady Folly. Third, even though many individual proverbs may have had an independent oral existence prior to their incorporation within the collections of the canonical book, they are now to be interpreted within the context of their present literary collections, in which various ordering principles can be identified. Numerous individual proverbs are repeated fully or in part elsewhere within the book and thus have a different emphasis or application in each of their respective contexts (compare, for example, 13:14 with 14:27). Fourth, chapters 30–31 form a literary bracket with chapters 1–9 (i.e., a theological prologue and epilogue; note the verbal links between 9:10 and 30:3 as well as 31:30) around the proverbial collections. Within this bracket, 30:1–9 (a sage’s confession and prayer) and 31:1–9 (a queen mother’s charge) offer complementary summaries of wise behavior, and 31:10–31 describes Lady Wisdom (from chaps. 1–9) incarnated as a real-life, if somewhat idealized, wife.
As Pr 1:7 already makes clear (“The fear of the LORD is the beginning of knowledge”), biblical wisdom involves more than intellectual prowess. Rather, wisdom is better defined as the ability—divinely bestowed and acquired through a lifelong process—that enables one in various situations to make and carry out decisions pleasing to God and ultimately socially and personally beneficial. With “wisdom” (Hb hokmah) serving as the broader term, related words, such as “understanding,” “knowledge,” “prudence,” “insight,” and “discernment,” express various intellectual and practical aspects of wise behavior. This is in contrast to the terms related to folly, which convey varying degrees of personal blame and hope for corrective change, from naïveté (1:4) to hard-core mockery of God-fearing wisdom (9:7) and practical atheism (17:21; cf. Pss 14:1; 53:1). Wisdom theology is rooted in creation, which reflects God’s sovereign ordering of all things (3:19–20) and enables one to derive insights even from the observation of this in nature (6:6). But it is also rooted in the law of God (Hb torah; Dt 4:44; Pr 6:23), claiming the same authority as the Mosaic instruction and promising the same benefits (and consequences) as are associated with obedience (and disobedience) to the covenantal stipulations (e.g., long life in the land; compare Dt 4:40 and Pr 2:21). Wisdom theology’s foundational principle is the fear of the Lord (Pr 1:7; 8:13; 9:10; 31:30), which involves not simply sincere reverence for God but also reliance on him and the avoidance of evil and is essentially the OT equivalent of saving faith in the NT. Thus the acquisition of wisdom is a lifelong process to be furthered through instruction and observation as well as through discipline and correction. This covenantal foundation and the broad ethical demands flowing from reverence for Yahweh distinguish Proverbs from the more utilitarian, courtly emphasis of Egyptian instructional literature, despite the many themes, stylistic features, and objectives that these texts share.
Outline
1. Foreword (1:1–7)
2. Prologue: Introducing the Way of Wisdom (1:8–9:18)
A. The Initial Appeals of the Parents and Lady Wisdom (1:8–33)
B. The Commendation of Wisdom (2:1–4:27)
C. Warnings against Folly, Especially Sexual Infidelity (5:1–7:27)
D. Wisdom’s Final Appeals (8:1–9:18)
3. Proverbial Collections: Advanced Instruction in Wisdom (10:1–29:27)
A. The Original Solomonic Collection (10:1–22:16)
B. Sayings of the Wise: Admonitions for Societal Relationships (22:17–24:22)
C. More Sayings of the Wise: The Necessity of Honesty and Diligence (24:23–34)
D. The Later Solomonic Collection (25:1–29:27)
4. Epilogue (30:1–31:31)
A. Agur’s Message: Relying on God’s Word, Learning from His Work (30:1–33)
B. The Message of Lemuel’s Mother: A Call for Royal Justice (31:1–9)
C. Lady Wisdom Exemplified (31:10–31)