Note on Russian words, names and transliteration: In the main text of the book, I have transliterated Russian from the Cyrillic alphabet in the way that I think is most accessible to English-language readers for any given word, name or phrase, facilitating readability and pronunciation. I have avoided a fixed system, taking every case on its own terms. Russianists (and perhaps Russians) will spot occasional inconsistent or unconventional forms, which are the result of my own judgement and not editorial error. The Library of Congress transliteration system commonly used by Anglophone Russia experts is followed in the Notes, though I present the titles of cited works and quotations from them in the forms adopted by their authors.
1 Colin Thubron, Among the Russians, London: Penguin, 1985, 1; Lady Verney, How the Peasant Owner Lives in Parts of France, Germany, Italy, Russia, London and New York: Macmillan, 1888, 110; Joe Biden, 23 January 2018 at Council for Foreign Relations, Washington, DC: https://www.apnews.com/4414f999aca94d228228c6e9f20d3762, accessed 27 November 2018; Evgenia Ginzburg, Into the Whirlwind, London: Harvill, 1999, 90; Alexander Werth, Moscow ’41, London: Hamish Hamilton, 1942, 268.
1 Marquis de Custine, Letters from Russia, trans. and ed. Robin Buss, London: Penguin, 1991, 144.
2 The Economist, 30 December 1848, 1468; 10 September 2011, 29; 15 February 2014, 28.
3 Christopher Clark, The Sleepwalkers: How Europe Went to War in 1914, London: Penguin, 2013, 421.
4 Olga Oliker, interviewed in Keith Gessen, ‘The Quiet Americans Behind the US-Russia Imbroglio’, The New York Times Magazine, 8 May 2018.
5 See video of 21 September 2017: https://www.realclearpolitics.com/video/2017/09/21/morgan_freeman_we_are_at_war_with_russia.html? D, accessed 27 November 2018.
6 Franklin Foer, ‘Putin’s Puppet’, Slate: http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/cover_story/2016/07/vladimir_putin_has_a_plan_for_destroying_the_west_and_it_looks_a_lot_like.html, accessed 27 November 2018.
7 Steele (‘Trump-Russia’) dossier, Company Intelligence Report of 20 June 2016.
8 Office of the Director of National Intelligence, ‘Background to “Assessing Russian Activities and Intentions in Recent US Elections”: The Analytical Process and Cyber Incident Attribution’, 6 January 2017, ii: https://www.dni.gov/files/documents/ICA_2017_01.pdf, accessed 27 November 2018.
9 Hillary Rodham Clinton, What Happened, New York and London: Simon and Schuster, 2017, 325–6.
10 Sean Guillory, ‘A Genealogy of American Russophobia’, InRussia, 2017: http://inrussia.com/a-genealogy-of-american-russophobia, accessed 27 November 2018.
11 Company Intelligence Report 2016/100, 5 August 2016: ‘Russia / USA: Growing Backlash in Kremlin’.
12 http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-42828218?intlink_from_url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/topics/cwlw3xz01e5t/gavin-williamson&link_location=live-reporting-story, accessed 27 November 2018.
13 Dzhul’etto K’eza [Giulietto Chiesa], Rusofobiia 2.0: bolezn’ ili oruzhie zapada?, Moscow: ‘E’, 2016, e.g. 39.
14 This is the basic argument of Guy Mettan, Russie-Occident, une guerre de mille ans: La Russophobie de Charlemagne à la crise ukrainienne, Paris: Editions des Syrtes, 2015.
15 Sigismund von Herberstein, Notes upon Russia: Being a Translation of the Earliest Account of that Country, Entitled Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii, London: Hakluyt Society, 1851 [first published 1549], 94–5.
16 Marshall T. Poe, ‘A People Born to Slavery’: Russia in Early Modern European Ethnography, 1476–1748, Ithaca, NY, and London: Cornell University Press, 2000, 32.
17 Giles Fletcher, Of the Russe Commonwealth, London: Thomas Charde, 1591, dedicatory epistle.
18 See, e.g., Nancy Shields Kollmann, Crime and Punishment in Early Modern Russia, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012; Daniel H. Kaiser, The Growth of the Law in Medieval Russia, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1980, Jarno T. Kotilaine, ‘Mercantilism in Pre-Petrine Russia’, in Kotilaine and Marshall Poe (eds.), Modernizing Muscovy: Reform and Social Change in Seventeenth-Century Russia, London: RoutledgeCurzon, 2004, 143–74.
19 As quoted in M. S. Anderson, Britain’s Discovery of Russia, 1553–1815, London: Macmillan, 1958, 112.
20 Anthony Cross, By the Banks of the Neva: Chapters from the Lives and Careers of the British in Eighteenth-Century Russia, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997, chs. 3, 8 (quotation on 390).
21 P. P. Cherkasov, Dvuglavyi orel i korolevskie lilii: Stanovlenie russko-frantsuzskikh otnoshenii v XVIII veke 1700–1775, Moscow: Nauka, 1995.
22 Albert Resis, ‘Russophobia and the “Testament” of Peter the Great, 1812–1980’, Slavic Review 44:4 (1985): 681–93.
23 David Kunzle, ‘Gustave Doré’s History of Holy Russia: Anti-Russian Propaganda from the Crimean War to the Cold War’, Russian Review 42:3 (1983): 271–99 (see esp. 295).
24 Raymond T. McNally, ‘The Origins of Russophobia in France: 1812–1830’, American Slavic and East European Review 17:2 (April 1958): 173–89.
25 Orlando Figes, Crimea: The Last Crusade, London: Penguin, 2011, 73–4, 78.
26 Barbara Jelavich, ‘British Means of Offence against Russia in the Nineteenth Century’, Russian History 1:2 (1974): 119–35 (124).
27 Simon Dixon, ‘Allegiance and Betrayal: British Residents in Russia during the Crimean War’, Slavonic and East European Review 94:3 (2016): 431–67.
28 Malcolm Yapp, ‘The Legend of the Great Game’, Proceedings of the British Academy 111 (2001): 179–98.
29 Alexander Morrison, ‘Beyond the “Great Game”: The Russian Origins of the Second Anglo-Afghan War’, Modern Asian Studies 51:3 (2017): 686–735.
30 Evgeny Sergeev, The Great Game 1856–1907: Russo-British Relations in Central and East Asia, Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2013.
31 Troy R. E. Paddock, ‘Still Stuck at Sevastopol: The Depiction of Russia during the Russo-Japanese War and the Beginning of the First World War in the German Press’, German History 16:3 (1998): 358–76 (366); see also Paddock, Creating the Russian Peril: Education, the Public Sphere, and National Identity in Imperial Germany, 1890–1914, Rochester, NY: Camden House, 2010.
32 Alexander Watson, Ring of Steel: Germany and Austria-Hungary at War, 1914–1918, London: Penguin, 2015.
33 Sean Guillory, ‘A Genealogy of Russophobia in America’, talk at Kennan Institute, Washington, DC, 11 April 2017 (audio recording at Sean’s Russia Blog).
34 In this paragraph I draw on Natal’ia Ten, Ot Pushkina do Putina: Obraz Rossii v sovremennom Kitae, 1991–2010gg, Moscow: Novoe literaturnoe obozrenie, 2016, passim and esp. 266–70.
35 Elizabeth McGuire, Red at Heart: How Chinese Communists Fell in Love with the Russian Revolution, New York: Oxford University Press, 2017.
36 Tom Røseth, ‘Moscow’s Response to a Rising China: Russia’s Partnership Policies in Its Military Relations with Beijing’, Problems of Post-Communism, 2018.
37 Constantin Katsakioris, ‘Burden or Allies? Third World Students and Internationalist Duty through Soviet Eyes’, Kritika: Explorations in European History 18:3 (2017): 539–67 (541).
38 E. N. Korendriasov, ‘Obshchee i osobennoe v formirovanii obraza Rossii v Afrike’, in T. L. Deich and Korendriasov (eds.), Rossiisko-Afrikanskoe otnosheniia i obraz Rossii v Afrike: Sbornik statei, Moscow: RAN Institut Afriki, 2007, 10–20.
39 I. A. Mal’kovskaia (ed.), Rossiia – Braziliia: Transkul’turnye dialogi, Moscow: URSS, 2012.
40 Katsakioris, ‘Burden or Allies?’, 541.
41 Ekaterina Kosevich, ‘Neset li Rossiia ugrozu budushchemu Meksiku’, Nezavisimaia gazeta, 15 March 2018, 3.
42 Kelly was speaking to a US Senate committee: Reuters.com, 6 April 2017.
43 Tony Wilson, ‘Russophobia and New Zealand–Russian Relations, 1900s to 1939’, New Zealand Slavonic Journal, 1999: 273–96 (esp. 277, 287–9, 292).
44 Anatole Lieven, ‘Against Russophobia’, World Policy Journal 17:4 (Winter 2000–2001): 25–32 (26).
45 Andrei P. Tsygankov, Russophobia: Anti-Russian Lobby and American Foreign Policy, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009, 166.
46 Mircea Platon, ‘Astolphe de Custine’s Letters from Russia and the Defence of the West: Patterns of Prejudice from Henri Massis to Walter Bedell Smith’, Russian History 43 (2016): 142–80.
47 For biographical details, I have relied on Anka Muhlstein, A Taste for Freedom: The Life of Astolphe de Custine, trans. Teresa Waugh, New York: Helen Marx, 1999.
48 Muhlstein, A Taste for Freedom, 344–5.
49 Custine, Letters from Russia, 133, 72, 102.
50 Custine, Letters from Russia, 233.
51 Geoffrey Hosking, Russia: People and Empire 1552–1917, London: Fontana, 1998.
52 Lawrence Freedman, The Future of War: A History, New York: Public Affairs, 2017, ch. 20; also Freedman, ‘Stop Overestimating the Threat Posed by Russia’s “New” Form of Warfare’, World Economic Forum, 4 January 2017: https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2017/01/stop-overestimating-the-threat-posed-by-russia-s-new-form-of-warfare/, accessed 27 November 2018.
53 For more on this, see Masha Gessen, The Man Without a Face: The Unlikely Rise of Vladimir Putin, London: Granta, 2012, 179–80, though I cite line 11 of the 1944 and 1977 anthems and line 7 of the 1977 and 2001 anthems for stricter comparability.
54 N. M. Karamzin, A Memoir on Ancient and Modern Russia, trans. Richard Pipes, New York: Atheneum, 1966, 103.
55 Muhlstein, A Taste for Freedom, 347.
56 Vladimir Medinsky, Mify o Rossii, 3 vols., Moscow: Olma, 2016 (first published 2011), vol. I, 36, 54–5, 59–60. The books were associated with a TV series.
57 Igor Prokopenko, Zlye mify o Rossii; chto o nas govoriat na zapade?, Moscow: ‘E’, 2016, 7–8. The book is based on the TV series Military Secrets.
58 Raymond T. McNally (ed.), The Major Works of Peter Chaadaev, South Bend, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1969, 37.
59 Custine, Letters from Russia, 236.
60 George F. Kennan, The Marquis de Custine and His Russia in 1839, London: Hutchinson, 1972, 39–41.
61 Although she does not mention Radishchev directly, this general argument is made by Irena Grudzinska Gross, ‘The Tangled Tradition: Custine, Herberstein, Karamzin, and the Critique of Russia’, Slavic Review 50:4 (1991): 989–98.
62 Aleksandr Nikolaevich Radishchev, A Journey from St Petersburg to Moscow, trans. Leo Weiner, ed. Roderick Page Thaler, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1958, 43.
63 Yuri Olesha, Envy, trans. Marian Schwartz, New York: New York Review of Books, 2004, 27.
64 Vladimir Sorokin, The Queue, trans. Sally Laird, New York: New York Review of Books, 2008, 73.
65 Oleg Gordievsky, Next Stop Execution, London: Macmillan, 1985, 197.
66 George F. Kennan, Memoirs, 1925–1950, Boston: Little, Brown, 1967, 189.
67 George F. Kennan, Memoirs, 1950–1963, London: Hutchinson, 1973, 155.
68 John Lewis Gaddis, George F. Kennan: An American Life, New York: Penguin Press, 695.
69 Kennan, Memoirs 1925–1950, 68.
70 Kennan, Memoirs 1925–1950, 57.
71 Kennan, Memoirs 1925–1950, 54.
72 The Long Telegram: Woodrow Wilson Center Digital Archive, digital archive.wilsoncenter.org.
73 Kennan, Memoirs 1950–1963, 135–7.
74 Kennan, Memoirs 1950–1963, 90–92 (quotation on 92).
75 Kennan, Memoirs 1950–1963, 40–43, 49–51.
76 Kennan, Memoirs 1925–1950, 53.
77 George F. Kennan, ‘Containment: 40 Years Later’, Foreign Affairs, spring 1987.
78 George F. Kennan, Around the Cragged Hill: A Personal and Political Philosophy, New York and London: W. W. Norton, 1993, 182–3.
79 Kennan, Around the Cragged Hill, 198.
80 Kenann, Around the Cragged Hill, 210.
81 Stephen F. Cohen, Failed Crusade: America and the Tragedy of Post-Communist Russia, New York and London: W. W. Norton, 2000.
82 A position identified and critiqued by Iver B. Neumann, ‘Russia as Europe’s Other’, Journal of Area Studies 6:12 (1989): 26–73 (29–30).
83 George F. Kennan, ‘The New Russia as a Neighbor’, in Kennan, At a Century’s Ending: Reflections, 1982–1995, New York and London: W. W. Norton, 1996, 320–21, 330, 333.
84 Kennan, The Marquis de Custine, 122–3.
85 Kennan, The Marquis de Custine, 124–33.
86 David S. Foglesong, ‘The Perils of Prophecy: American Predictions about Russia’s Future since 1881’, in Rossiia i SShA: poznavaia drug druga: Sbornik pamiati akademika Aleksandra Aleksanrovicha Fursenko, St Petersburg: Rossiiskaia Akademiia nauk Sankt-Peterburgskii Institut istorii RAN, 2015. For a sparkling overview of US expertise on Russia, see David C. Engerman, Know Your Enemy: The Rise and Fall of America’s Soviet Experts, New York: Oxford University Press, 2009.
1 This account draws on Jonathan Shepard, ‘The Origins of Rus’ (c.900–1015)’, in Maureen Perrie (ed.), The Cambridge History of Russia, vol. 1 of 3: From Early Rus’ to 1689, 47–72, and Janet Martin, Medieval Russia 980–1584, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995, ch. 1.
2 As recounted in Novaia Gazeta, 4 November 2016.
3 Serhii Plokhy disentangles the symbolism a little differently in Lost Kingdom: A History of Russian Nationalism from Ivan the Great to Vladimir Putin, London: Allen Lane, 2017, vii–viii.
4 Exchange on Twitter, 11–12 August 2016: Josh Marshall (127,000 followers) and Gerard di Trolio (1,148). Numbers correct on 14 August 2016.
5 The term ‘black legend’ has been influential in Spanish historiography to denote a similar issue. See, e.g., J. N. Hillgarth, ‘Spanish Historiography and Iberian Reality’, History and Theory 24:1 (1985): 23–43.
6 Richard Stengel, ‘Choosing Order Before Freedom’, Time Magazine 19 December 2007.
7 Tibor Szamuely, The Russian Tradition, London: Secker and Warburg, 1974, 9. The well-known quotation is also used by Stefan Hedlund as the epigraph of his book Russian Path Dependence, Abingdon: Routledge, 2005, as he seeks to make a similar point.
8 The Russian longue durée historiographical canon was formed by the nineteenth-century historians Nikolai Karamzin, Sergei Solov’ev and Vasily Klyuchevsky. Anglophone scholars with an eye for structure who have written long-range Russian histories are led by Richard Pipes, Russia under the Old Regime, London: Penguin, 1974; Geoffrey Hosking, Russia and the Russians: From Earliest Times to 2001, London: Penguin, 2001; Nicholas V. Riasanovsky, A History of Russia, New York: Oxford University Press, 1963; George Vernadsky, A History of Russia, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1943–69. Less conventional long-range structural accounts include Boris Akunin, Istoriia Rossiiskogo gosudarstva, Moscow: AST, 2013–, 6 vols. and ongoing, and L. N. Gumilev, Ot Rusi k Rossii, Moscow: Progress-Pangeiia, 1992. Historians who have shown at less length how one variable has over time shaped the Russian past include Arch Getty, Practicing Stalinism: Bolsheviks, Boyars, and the Persistence of Tradition, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2013; Alexander Etkind, Internal Colonization: Russia’s Imperial Experience, Cambridge: Polity, 2011; L. V. Milov, Velikorusskii pakhar i osobennosti rossiiskogo istoricheskogo protsessa, Moscow, 1998; B. N. Mironov, Sotsial’naia istoriia Rossii perioda imperii (XVIII–nachalo XX vv.), 2 vols, St Petersburg: Dmitrii Bulanin, 1999. The scholarly polemics most influential among students and an earlier generation of policymakers are Edward L. Keenan, ‘Muscovite Political Folkways’, Russian Review 45:2 (1986): 115–81; and Richard Hellie, ‘The Structure of Russian History: Toward a Dynamic Model’, Russian History 4:1 (1977): 1–22. Historians who have balanced the long range with a focus on individuals as agents of change include Orlando Figes, Natasha’s Dance: A Cultural History of Russia, London: Allen Lane, 2002; Catherine Merridale, Red Fortress: The Secret Heart of Russia’s History, London: Allen Lane, 2013; Simon Sebag Montefiore, The Romanovs: 1618–1918, London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 2016. An overall interpretation of Russian history that takes a different view from mine but which also emphasizes contingency is Marshall T. Poe, The Russian Moment in World History, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2003.
9 Ivan Turgenev, ‘Khor and Kalinych’, in Sketches from a Hunter’s Album, trans. Richard Freeborn, London: Penguin, 1990, 25.
10 Richard Hellie, Slavery in Russia 1450–1725, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982.
11 Richard Hellie, ‘The Peasantry’, in Perrie (ed.), The Cambridge History of Russia, vol. 1, 286–97 (esp. 294–7).
12 Richard Hellie, ‘The Economy, Trade and Serfdom’, in Perrie (ed.), The Cambridge History of Russia, vol. 1, 539–58 (551–7).
13 George L. Yaney, The Systematization of Russian Government: Social Evolution in the Domestic Administration of Imperial Russia, 1711–1905, Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press,1973, 129–35.
14 Richard Stites, Serfdom, Society and the Arts in Imperial Russia: The Pleasure and the Power, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2005.
15 Tracy Dennison, The Institutional Framework of Russian Serfdom, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011.
16 See the account in James H. Billington, The Icon and the Axe: An Interpretive History of Russian Culture, New York: Knopf, 1966, III.
17 Gregory Freeze, ‘Church and Politics in Late Imperial Russia’, in Anna Geifman (ed.), Russia under the Last Tsar, Oxford: Blackwell, 1999, 269–97.
18 Simon Dixon, ‘Orthodoxy and Revolution: The Restoration of the Russian Patriarchate in 1917’, Prothero Lecture, Royal Historical Society (read at University College London, 7 July 2017): https://royalhistsoc.org/prothero-lecture-2017/, accessed 27 November 2018.
19 Leonid Hertz, Russia on the Eve of Modernity: Popular Religion and Traditional Culture under the Last Tsars, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008, 22–6.
20 Tat’iana Nikolskaia, Russkii protestantizm i gosudarstvennaia vlast’ v 1905–1991 godakh, St Petersburg: Evropeiskii universitet v Sankt Peterburge, 2009.
21 A. Shitov, Iurii Trifonov: Khronika zhizni i tvorchestva 1925–1981gg, Ekaterinburg: Izdatel’stvo Ural’skogo universiteta, 1997, 261–2 (March 1955).
22 Marc Raeff, Origins of the Russian Intelligentsia: The Eighteenth-Century Nobility, New York: Harcourt, 1966.
23 G. M. Hamburg, ‘Russian Intelligentsias’, in William Leatherbarrow and Derek Offord (eds.), A History of Russian Thought, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010, 44–69.
24 Dina R. Spechler, Permitted Dissent in the USSR: Novy Mir and the Soviet Regime, New York: Praeger, 1982.
25 Janet Martin, Medieval Russia 980–1584, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995, 139.
26 Stefan Hedlund, Russian Path Dependence, Abingdon: Routledge, 2005. On the Muscovy and Novgorod counterfactuals: 45–6, 66–7.
27 Valerie Kivelson, ‘Muscovite “Citizenship”: Rights without Freedom’, Journal of Modern History, 74:3 (2002): 465–89.
28 Marie-Pierre Rey, Alexander I: The Tsar Who Defeated Napoleon, DeKalb, IL: Northern Illinois University Press, 2012, chs. 1 and 2.
29 Elise Kimerling Wirtschafter, Russia’s Age of Serfdom, 1649–1861, Oxford: Blackwell, 2008, 104.
30 John Gooding, ‘The Liberalism of Michael Speransky’, Slavonic and East European Review, 64:3 (1986): 401–24.
31 Marc Raeff, Understanding Imperial Russia: State and Society in the Old Regime, trans. Arthur Goldhammer, New York: Columbia University Press, 1984, 115–19.
32 Marc Raeff, The Well-Ordered Police State: Social and Institutional Change through Law in the Germanies and Russia, 1600–1800, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1983.
33 Marc Raeff, Michael Speransky: Statesman of Imperial Russia, 1772–1839, The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1969 (2nd edn), 37–46.
34 Raeff, Michael Speranksy, 361–2.
35 Richard Pipes, Karamzin’s Memoir on Ancient and Modern Russia: A Translation and Analysis, New York: Atheneum, 1966, 197.
36 Richard S. Wortman, The Development of a Russian Legal Consciousness, Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1976, ch. 2.
37 W. Bruce Lincoln, In the Vanguard of Reform: Russia’s Enlightened Bureaucrats, 1825–1861, DeKalb, IL: Northern Illinois University Press, 1982.
38 Georgy Bovt, ‘Putin Is Inspired by Russian Empire’, Moscow Times, 25 November 2014: https://themoscowtimes.com/articles/putin-is-inspired-by-russian-empire-41711, accessed 26 July 2016.
1 As this chapter selects from agreed-upon facts, I do not cite individual sources, but I rely most of all on the general works on Russian history that are cited elsewhere in this book, including the standard massive work A. N. Sakharov, et al., Istoriia Rossii s drevneishiikh vremen do nashikh dnei, Moscow: AST, 2018.
1 Mikhail Gorbachev, Perestroika, 1987; from Catherine to Alexander Vyazemsky, leading adviser, on his appointment, as quoted in Simon Dixon, Catherine the Great, London: Profile, 2009, 134; Sally Belfrage, A Room in Moscow, London: Andre Deutsch, 1958, 189–90.
1 For a fuller account of the assassination, see W. Bruce Lincoln, In War’s Dark Shadow: The Russians before the Great War, New York: Oxford University Press, 1983, 163–74.
2 Turgenev to P. V. Annenkov, 6–7 March 1881 (old style). I. S. Turgenev, Polnoe sobranie sochenenii i pisem v dvadtsati vos’mi tomakh. Pis’ma, vol. 13 of 13: 1880–1882, Leningrad: Nauka, 1968, 72–3.
3 Turgenev, ‘Alexander III’, in Polnoe sobranie sochinenii i pisem v 28-kh tomakh. Sochineniia, vol. 14 of 15, 280.
4 Ivan Turgenev, Virgin Soil, trans. Ashton W. Dilke, London: Macmillan, 1878, 14, 84, 98–9.
5 Cited in Henri Troyat, Turgenev, London: W. H. Allen, 1989, 53.
6 Alison Smith, For the Common Good and Their Own Wellbeing: Social Estates in Imperial Russia, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014.
7 Peter Waldron, Governing Tsarist Russia, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007, 108.
8 Catherine Evtuhov, Portrait of a Russian Province: Economy, Society, and Civilization in Nineteenth-Century Nizhnii Novgorod, Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2011, ch. 7.
9 Isabel de Madariaga, Russia in the Age of Catherine the Great, London: Phoenix, 2003, 299–304.
10 Simon Dixon, Catherine the Great, London: Profile, 2009, 173.
11 Simon Franklin, ‘Kieven Rus’ (1015–1125)’, in Perrie (ed.), The Cambridge History of Russia, vol. 1, 73–97 (83).
12 V. L. Ianin, ‘Medieval Novgorod’, in Perrie (ed.), The Cambridge History of Russia, vol. 1, 188–210 (203).
13 Marshall Poe, ‘The Central Government and Institutions’, in Perrie (ed.), The Cambridge History of Russia, vol. 1, 435–63 (458–60).
14 Isabel de Madariaga, Ivan the Terrible: First Tsar of Russia, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2005, ch. 12.
15 Almut Bues, ‘The Formation of the Polish-Lithuanian Monarchy in the Sixteenth Century’, in Richard Butterwick (ed.), The Polish-Lithuanian Monarchy in European Context, c. 1500–1795, Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2001, 58–81 (60, 69, 77).
16 Mariusz Markiewicz, ‘The Functioning of the Monarchy during the Reigns of the Electors of Saxony, 1697–1763’, in Butterwick (ed.), The Polish-Lithuanian Monarchy, 172–92 (173).
17 Donald Ostrowski, ‘The Assembly of the Land (Zemskii Sobor) as a Representative Institution’, in Jarno Kotilaine and Marshall Poe (eds.), Modernizing Muscovy: Reform and Social Change in Seventeenth-Century Russia, London: Routledge, 2004, 117–42 (135–42).
18 V. O. Klyuchevsky, A Course in Russian History: The Seventeenth Century, trans. Natalie Duddington, ed. Alfred J. Rieber, Chicago: Quadrangle, 1968, 71, 44, 91.
19 George Carson, Electoral Practices in the USSR, London: Atlantic, 1956, 2–3.
20 Victor Leontovitsch, The History of Liberalism in Russia, Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2012, 273–4 and 280.
21 Peter Vanneman, The Supreme Soviet: Politics and the Legislative Process in the Soviet Political System, Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1977, 20.
22 Leontovitsch, History of Liberalism, 285.
23 Geoffrey Hosking, The Russian Constitutional Experiment: Government and Duma 1907–1914, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1973.
24 Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, The Gulag Archipelago 1918-1956: An Experiment in Literary Investigation, Parts I and II, New York: Harper and Row, 1973, 70.
25 Ivan Turgenev, Fathers and Sons, trans. Peter Carson, London: Penguin, 2009 (first published 1862), 81.
26 Cited in Isaiah Berlin, Russian Thinkers, London: Penguin, 1984, 287.
27 Robert Tombs, France 1814–1914, London and New York: Longman, 1996, 396–7.
28 Fedor H. Friedgut, Political Participation in the USSR, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1979, 34–6.
29 Tombs, France 1814–1914, 429–31.
30 Robert Tombs, The Paris Commune of 1871, London and New York: Longman, 1999, 76–7.
31 Andy Willimott, Living the Revolution: Urban Communes and Soviet Socialism, 1917–1932, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017, 28, 42.
32 Tombs, The Paris Commune, 176, 199, 200–201.
33 Wendy Z. Goldman, Terror and Democracy in the Age of Stalin: The Social Dynamics of Repression, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007.
34 Goldman, Terror and Democracy, 146.
35 A. S. Kiselev et al. (eds.), Moskva poslevoennaia 1945–1947gg: Arkhivnye dokumenty i materialy, Moscow: Mosgorarkhiv, 2000, 103 (doc. 54).
36 E. S. Zubkova et al. (eds.), Sovetskaia zhizn’ 1945–1953gg, Moscow: ROSSPEN, 2003, 406 (doc. 134).
37 Zubkova et al. (eds.), Sovetskaia zhizn’, 399 (doc. 131).
38 Kiselev (ed.), Moskva poslevoennaia, 104 (doc. 55).
39 Friedgut, Political Participation in the USSR, 72.
40 Carson, Electoral Practices, 93–5.
41 Anatoly Sobchak, For a New Russia: The Mayor of St Petersburg’s Own Story of the Struggle for Justice and Democracy, London: HarperCollins, 1992, 5–19.
42 ‘Appeal to Leningraders’ by the Public Committee of Voters ‘Elections-89’, end of March 1989: A. D. Margolis et al. (eds.), Obshchestvennaia zhizn’ Leningrada v gody perestroiki 1985–1991: Sbornik materialov, St Petersburg: Serebrianyi vek, 2009, 148–50.
43 Geoffrey Hosking, The Awakening of the Soviet Union, Cambridge: MA: Harvard University Press, 1991.
44 Letter to editor, Izvestiya, 6 January 1989, reproduced in Current Digest of the Soviet Press (hereafter CDSP) 41 (1989): 3, 28.
45 Abel Aganbegyan, Moving the Mountain: Inside the Perestroika Revolution, London: Bantam, 1989, 174–5.
46 Robin Blackburn, ‘Economic Democracy: Meaningful, Desirable, Feasible?’, Daedalus (summer 2007): 36–45 (esp. 40–41).
47 For a thorough account, see David White, The Russian Democratic Party Yabloko: Opposition in a Managed Democracy, Aldershot: Ashgate, 2006.
48 Grigory Yavlinsky, ‘An Uncertain Prognosis’, Journal of Democracy 8:1 (1997): 3–11 (8–9).
49 As reported on the evening TV news, Vremia, Channel 1, 25 February 2018, 9 p.m.
50 Klyuchevsky, Course of Russian History: The Seventeenth Century, 41.
51 Leontovitsch, History of Liberalism, 38–9.
52 Marc Raeff, Origins of the Russian Intelligentsia: The Eighteenth-Century Nobility, New York: Harcourt, 1966.
53 Richard Stites, ‘Decembrists with a Spanish Accent’, Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History 12:1 (2011): 5–23.
54 Michael Hamm, ‘Liberal Policies in Wartime Russia: An Analysis of the Progressive Bloc’, Slavic Review 33:3 (1974): 453–68 (456).
55 Paul Miliukov, Russia and Its Crisis, London: Collier, 1962, 403.
56 V. P. Litvinov-Falinskii, Organizatsiia i praktika strakhovaniia rabochykh v Germanii i usloviia vozmozhnogo obespecheniia rabochikh v Rossii, St Petersburg, 1903.
57 Baron Tizengauzen of labour commission in opening speech to Duma, 19 April 1911: Gosudarstvennaia Duma stenograficheskii otchet 1911g, sessiia 4-aia, ch. 3, zas. 74–113.
58 Francis W. Wcislo, Tales of Imperial Russia: The Life and Times of Sergei Witte, 1849–1915, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011, 104.
59 Konstantin P. Pobedonostsev, Reflections of a Russian Statesman, Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 1965, 26–35.
60 Richard Pipes, Russian Conservatism and Its Critics: A Study in Political Culture, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2005.
61 William Leatherbarrow, ‘Conservatism in the Age of Alexander I and Nicholas I’, in William Leatherbarrow and Derek Offord (eds.), A History of Russian Thought, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010, 95–115 (esp. 98–102).
62 V. A. Gusev, Russkii konservatizm: osnovnye napravleniia i etapy razvitiia, Tver’: Tverskoi gosudarstvennyi universitet, 2001, 153–4, 171, 175.
63 As revealed in the Wikileaks scandal: Guardian, 2 December 2010.
64 Evan Osnos, David Remnick and Joshua Yaffa, ‘Active Measures’, New Yorker, 6 March 2017; Michael Crowley, ‘What Worries Ben Rhodes about Trump’, Politico Magazine, January 2017.
65 See, e.g., The Economist, 31 January 2008.
66 John le Carré, A Small Town in Germany, London: Sceptre, 2006 (first published 1968), 328.
67 Stephen White, Russia’s New Politics: The Management of a Postcommunist Society, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000, 273.
68 For an elaboration of these two defences of democracy, especially the first, see Amartya Sen, ‘Democracy as a Universal Value’, Journal of Democracy 10:3 (1999): 3–16.
69 David Daley, Ratf**ked: The True Story Behind the Secret Plan to Steal America’s Democracy, New York: Liveright, 2016, xxi–xxii.
70 Ethan Scheiner, Democracy Without Competition in Japan: Opposition Failure in a One-Party Dominant State, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006, 211.
71 Justin Buckler, Hiring and Firing Public Officials: Rethinking the Purpose of Elections, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011, 226–7.
72 John Dunn, Setting the People Free: The Story of Democracy, London: Atlantic, 2005, 160–61.
73 The case for sortition is laid out in David Van Reybrouck, Against Elections: The Case for Democracy, London: Bodley Head, 2016.
74 David Runciman, The Confidence Trap: A History of Democracy in Crisis from World War I to the Present, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2013, 324.
75 Arch Puddington and Tyler Roylance, ‘The Dual Threat of Populists and Anarchists’, Journal of Democracy 28:2 (2017): 105–19 (108–9).
1 Charles J. Halperin, ‘Ivan IV’s Insanity’, Russian History 34:1–4 (2007): 207–18.
2 Charles J. Halperin, ‘Did Ivan IV’s Oprichniki Carry Dogs’ Heads on Their Horses?’, Canadian–American Slavic Studies 46 (2012): 40–67.
3 Descriptions of these events can be found in Isabel de Madariaga, Ivan the Terrible: First Tsar of Russia, New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2005, 210–11, 245–7, 255–9.
4 Ronald Hingley, The Russian Secret Police: Muscovite, Imperial Russian and Soviet Political Security Operations 1565–1970, London: Hutchinson, 1970, 1–4.
5 Robert O. Crummey, ‘Reform under Ivan IV: Gradualism and Terror’, in Crummey (ed.), Reform in Russia and the USSR: Past and Prospects, Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1989, 12–27.
6 Martin Luther, ‘Against the Robbing and Murdering Hordes of Peasants’ (1525) in Carter Lindberg (ed.), The European Reformations Sourcebook, Oxford: Blackwell, 2000, 97–8.
7 John Guy, Henry VIII: The Quest for Fame, London: Allen Lane, 2014, vii.
8 Natalie Zemon Davis, ‘The Rites of Violence: Religious Riot in Sixteenth-Century France’, Past and Present 59 (1973): 51–91 (62).
9 Sara Beam, ‘Rites of Torture in Reformation Geneva’, Past and Present special supplement 7 (2012): 197–219 (204–5).
10 Act of Supremacy, 1534, in Lindberg (ed.), The European Reformations Sourcebook, 223, doc. 12.7.
11 Andy Wood, ‘The Deep Roots of Albion’s Fatal Tree: The Tudor State and the Monopoly of Violence’, History 99:336 (2014): 403–17 (407, 410, 414); for the statistics, Wood cites Sarah Covington, The Trail of Martyrdom: Persecution and Resistance in Sixteenth-Century England, Notre Dame, IN, 2003, 158.
12 Brendan Kane, ‘Ordinary Violence? Ireland as Emergency in the Tudor State’, History 99:336 (2014): 444–67 (460).
13 Peter H. Wilson, Europe’s Tragedy: A New History of the Thirty Years War, London: Penguin, 2010, 787.
14 Peter H. Wilson, The Thirty Years War: A Sourcebook, Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2010, 144, 149.
15 Blair Worden, The English Civil Wars 1640–1660, London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 2009, 73.
16 Susan K. Morrissey, ‘The “Apparel of Innocence”’: Toward a Moral Economy of Terrorism in Late Imperial Russia’, Journal of Modern History 84 (2012), 607–42 (626).
17 Vladimir Sorokin, ‘Let the Past Collapse on Time!’, New York Review of Books, 8 May 2014.
18 For more of this, see James Harris, The Great Fear: Stalin’s Terror of the 1930s, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016.
19 According to Filip Filippovich Vigel’, quoted in Alexander Martin, Romantics, Reformers, Reactionaries: Russian Conservative Thought and Politics in the Reign of Alexander I, DeKalb, IL: Northern Illinois University Press, 1997, 53.
20 In the words of a priest from Arakcheev’s estate: Michael Jenkins, Arakcheev: Grand Vizier of the Russian Empire, London: Faber and Faber, 1969, 11.
21 Quoted in Dominic Lieven, Russia against Napoleon: The Battle for Europe, 1807 to 1814, London: Allen Lane, 2009, ch. 4.
22 K. M. Iachmenikhin, ‘Aleksei Andreevich Arakcheev’, in A. I. Bokhanov (ed.), Rossiiskie konservatory, Moscow: Russkii mir, 1997, 17–62.
23 On the significance of the Gruzino visit, see Richard Pipes, ‘The Russian Military Colonies’, Journal of Modern History 22:3 (September 1950): 205–19 (206). Marc Raeff argues that the colonies appealed to Alexander’s military obsessions, or his ‘paradomania’, in Michael Speransky. On the decision of 1809 and for a more detailed but less provocatively phrased account, see Kenneth R. Whiting, ‘Aleksei Andreevich Arakcheev’, PhD dissertation, Harvard University, 1951, 147.
24 Janet M. Hartley, Alexander I, London and New York: Longman, 1994, 180.
25 John L. H. Keep, Soldiers of the Tsar: Army and Society in Russia, 1462–1874, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1985, 290–91.
26 On midwives: Janet Hartley, Russia, 1762–1825: Military Power, the State, and the People, Westport, CN: Praeger, 2008, 198; on schoolteachers: Pipes, ‘Russian Military Colonies’, 216.
27 Cited in V. A. Fedorov, M. M. Speranskii i A. A. Arakcheev, Moscow: Izdatel’stvo Moskovskogo Universiteta. 1997, 172.
28 Quoted in Rey, Alexander I, 326.
29 Keep, Soldiers of the Tsar, 297–301.
30 Robert Lyall, An Account of the Organization, Administration, and Present State of the Military Colonies of Russia, London: T. Cadell and W. Blackwood, 1824, 44.
31 James Cracraft, The Petrine Revolution in Russian Architecture, Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1988, 176–8.
32 Lindsey Hughes, Russia in the Age of Peter the Great, New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1998, 213.
33 As cited in W. Bruce Lincoln, Sunlight at Midnight: St Petersburg and the Rise of Modern Russia, Oxford: Perseus, 2000, 20–21.
34 Simon Dixon, The Modernisation of Russia 1676–1825, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999, 5.
35 Abraham Ascher, The Revolution of 1905, vol. 1: Russia in Disarray, Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1988, ch. 3.
36 Ascher, The Revolution of 1905, vol. 1, 322.
37 John Merriman, Massacre: The Life and Death of the Paris Commune of 1871, New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2014.
38 Norman N. Naimark, ‘Terrorism and the Fall of Imperial Russia’, Terrorism and Political Violence 2:2 (1990): 171–92 (174).
39 Morrissey, Apparel of Innocence’.
40 Orlando Figes, A People’s Tragedy: The Russian Revolution 1891–1924, London: Pimlico, 1997, 201–2.
41 Askoldov’s interview is recorded in the DVD of The Commissar produced by Artificial Eye.
42 Peter Holquist, ‘Violent Russia, Deadly Marxism? Russia in the Epoch of Violence, 1905–21’, Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History 4:3 (2003): 627–52.
43 Peter Holquist, Making War, Forging Revolution: Russia’s Continuum of Crisis, 1914–1921, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2002; Peter Gatrell, A Whole Empire Walking: Refugees in Russia during World War I, Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1999; Alexander Watson, Ring of Steel: Germany and Austria at War, 1914–1918, London: Allen Lane, 2014.
44 Alexander Yakovlev, A Century of Violence in Soviet Russia, New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2002, 65, 67, 79.
45 J. Arch Getty and Oleg V. Naumov, The Road to Terror: Stalin and the Self-Destruction of the Bolsheviks, 1932–1939, New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1999, 588 [table 5].
46 I refer readers to the detailed scholarship of Terry Martin, The Affirmative Action Empire: Nations and Nationalities in the Soviet Union, 1932–1939, Ithaca, NY, and London: Cornell University Press, 2001, and in contrast, Robert Conquest, Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivization and the Terror-Famine, New York: Oxford University Press, 1986, and Anne Applebaum, Red Famine: Stalin’s War on Ukraine, London: Allen Lane, 2017.
47 For a historiographical review, see Mark Edele, Stalinist Society 1928–1953, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011, ch. 9.
48 Oleg Khlevniuk, Stalin: New Biography of a Dictator, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2014; Stephen Kotkin, Stalin, vol. 2: Waiting for Hitler 1928–1941, London: Allen Lane, 2017, part II.
49 Harris, The Great Fear.
50 J. Arch Getty, Gábor T. Rittersporn and Viktor N. Zemskov, ‘Victims of the Soviet Penal System in the Pre-War Years: A First Appraisal on the Basis of Archival Evidence’, American Historical Review 98:4 (October 1993): 1017–49 (1039).
51 Lynne Viola, The Unknown Gulag: The Lost World of Stalin’s Special Settlements, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007.
52 Steven A. Barnes, Death and Redemption: The Gulag and the Shaping of Soviet Society, Princeton, NJ, and Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2011.
53 As told by ‘Pasha’ himself to the author in March 2000.
54 Simon Sebag Montefiore, Stalin: The Court of the Red Tsar, London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 2003, 448–9.
55 Jeffrey S. Hardy, The Gulag After Stalin: Redefining Punishment in Khrushchev’s Soviet Union, 1953–1964, Ithaca, NY, and London: Cornell University Press, 2016, 23.
56 Elena Monastireva-Ansdell, ‘Redressing the Commissar: Thaw Cinema Revises Soviet Structuring Myths’, Russian Review 65 (April 2006): 230–49 (quotation on 230).
57 William Wolf, ‘Askoldov! The Man Who Made Commissar’, Film Comment 24:3 (June 1988): 68–72.
1 Vladimir Polushin, Natalia Goncharova: Tsaritsa russkogo avangarda, Moscow: Molodaia gvardiia, 2016, 185. The train journey took place on 29 April according to the Julian calendar that was in operation in Russia until 1918.
2 John E. Bowlt and Matthew Drutt, Amazons of the Avant-Garde, London: Royal Academy of Arts, 1999.
3 Polushin, Natalia Goncharova, 185.
4 Kazimir Malevich, ‘From Cubism and Futurism to Suprematism: The New Painterly (Zhivopisnyi) Realism’, 1915, in John E. Bowlt (ed.), Russian Art of the Avant Garde: Theory and Criticism, London: Thames and Hudson, 1988, 121–3.
5 Jane Ashton Sharp, Russian Modernism Between East and West: Natal’ia Goncharova and the Moscow Avant-Garde, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006, 11.
6 Natalia Goncharova, ‘Preface to Catalogue of One-Man Exhibition’, 1913, in Bowlt (ed.), Russian Art of the Avant Garde, 55–6.
7 As did the Russian avant-garde in general: Evgeniia Petrova, ‘Narodnye istochniki i russkii avangard nachalo XX-ogo veka’, in Avangard i ego russkie istochniki, St Petersburg: Gosudarstvennyi Russkii Muzei, 1993; Robin Milner-Gullard, The Russians, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997, 197–208; Lindsey Hughes, ‘Restoring Religion to Russian Art’, in Geoffrey Hosking and Robert Service (eds.), Reinterpreting Russia, London: Arnold, 1999, 40–53.
8 John E. Bowlt, ‘Orthodoxy and the Avant-Garde: Sacred Images in the Work of Goncharova, Malevich, and Their Contemporaries’, in William C. Brumfield and Milos M. Velimirovic (eds.), Christianity and the Arts in Russia, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991, 145–50.
9 I owe the description of the tent and the dome, and the overall sense of Muscovy in this section, to James H. Billington, The Icon and the Axe: An Interpretive History of Russian Culture, New York: Vintage, 1970, 47–8.
10 Scott M. Kenworthy, The Heart of Russia: Trinity-Sergius, Monasticism, and Society after 1825, New York: Oxford University Press, 2010.
11 Nicholas V. Riasanovsky, Russian Identities: An Historical Survey, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005, ch. 1.
12 Yuval Noah Harari, Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind, London: Vintage, 2011.
13 Norman Davies, Europe: A History, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996, Introduction.
14 Milan Kundera, ‘The Tragedy of Central Europe’, New York Review of Books, April 1986.
15 These paragraphs draw on Norman Davies, ‘Fair Comparisons, False Contrasts: East and West in Modern European History’, in Davies, Europe East and West, London: Jonathan Cape, 2006, 22–45 (esp. 34–9), and Larry Wolff, Inventing Eastern Europe: The Map of Civilization on the Mind of the Enlightenment, Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1994.
16 Edward W. Said, Orientalism, London: Penguin, 2003 (first published 1978), e.g. 26, 100, 191.
17 These details and interpretations rely on Dimitri Obolensky, Six Byzantine Portraits, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988, ch. 3, Vladimir Monomakh, 83–114.
18 V. L. Ianin, ‘Medieval Novgorod’, in Perrie (ed.), The Cambridge History of Russia, vol. 1, 188–210 (196).
19 Sergei Bogatyrev, ‘Ivan the Terrible Discovers the West: The Cultural Transformation of Autocracy during the Early Northern Wars’, Russian History 34:1–4 (2007): 161–88 (166–7).
20 Chester Dunning, ‘A “Singular Affection” for Russia: Why King James Offered to Intervene in the Time of Troubles’, Russian History 34:1–4 (2007): 277–302 (286–7).
21 Erika Monahan, Merchants of Siberia: Trade in Early Modern Eurasia, Ithaca, NY, and London: Cornell University Press, 2016.
22 Dimitri Obolensky, The Byzantine Commonwealth: Eastern Europe, 500–1453, London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1971, 367.
23 Lindsey Hughes, Russia in the Age of Peter the Great, New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2000, 299.
24 John T. Faris, The Romance of Forgotten Towns, New York and London: Harper and Brothers, 1924, 13–37.
25 Peter J. S. Duncan, Russian Messianism: Third Rome, Revolution, Communism and After, London and New York: Routledge, 2000, 11.
26 Obolensky, The Byzantine Commonwealth, 364–7.
27 Katerina Clark, Moscow, The Fourth Rome: Stalinism, Cosmopolitanism, and the Evolution of Soviet Culture, 1931–1941, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2011, 1.
28 Dominic Lieven, Russia against Napoleon: The Battle for Europe, 1807 to 1914, London: Allen Lane, 2011.
29 Rey, Alexander I, 282.
30 Geoffrey Hosking, Russia: People and Empire, 1552–1917, London: Fontana, 1998, 271–4.
31 Vera Tolz, Russia: Inventing the Nation, London: Hodder, 2001, 93–4. See also Martin Malia, Russia under Western Eyes: From the Bronze Horseman to the Lenin Mausoleum, Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1999, ch. 2.
32 V. V. Alekseev, Opyt rossiiskikh modernizatsii XVIII–XX veka, Moscow: Nauka, 2000.
33 Larry Siedentop, Inventing the Individual: The Origins of Western Liberalism, London: Allen Lane, 2014, 2–3.
34 Peter Mandler, Return from the Natives: How Margaret Mead Won the Second World War and Lost the Cold War, New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2013, ch. 6 (esp. 229–30).
35 As quoted in Neil O’Sullivan, ‘The Weekend Started Here’, FT Weekend, 24 May 2015.
36 Sarah B. Snyder, Human Rights Activism and the End of the Cold War: A Transnational History of the Helsinki Network, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011; Daniel C. Thomas, The Helsinki Effect: International Norms, Human Rights, and the Demise of Communism, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2001.
37 Samuel Moyn, The Last Utopia, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012.
38 Benjamin Nathans, ‘The Dictatorship of Reason: Aleksandr Vol’pin and the Idea of Rights under Developed Socialism’, Slavic Review 66:4 (2007): 630–63.
39 David Priestland, Stalinism and the Politics of Mobilization: Ideas, Power, and Terror in Inter-war Russia, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007.
40 Hosking, Russia: People and Empire, 345–66; Tolz, Russia: Inventing the Nation, 94–9.
41 Mark B. Smith, ‘Social Rights in the Soviet Dictatorship: The Constitutional Right to Welfare from Stalin to Brezhnev’, Humanity 3:3 (2012): 385–406.
42 Daily Sketch, 9 December 1955; The Times, 27 April 1956. See also Mark B. Smith, ‘Peaceful Coexistence at All Costs: Cold War Exchanges between Britain and the Soviet Union in 1956’, Cold War History 12:3 (2012), 537–58.
43 http://www.wfdy.org/festivals/, accessed 4 July 2016.
44 https://www.olympic.org/melbourne-stockholm-1956, accessed 4 July 2016.
45 Pravda, 30 July 1957, 1; 2 August 1957, 3; 11 August 1957, 3; 12 August 1957, 1; F. Novikov and I. Pokrovskii, ‘V Moskve, gorode festivalia’, Arkhitektura SSSR 1957, 7, 6–8.
46 Opinions about the VI World Festival of Youth and Students for Peace and Friendship, Budapest, 1957, 19.
47 Kristin Roth-Ey, ‘“Loose Girls” on the Loose? Sex, Propaganda, and the 1957 Youth Festival’, in Melanie Ilic, Susan E. Reid and Lynne Attwood (eds.), Women in the Khrushchev Era, Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2004, 75–95.
48 Literaturnaia gazeta, 27 July 1957, 1 and 3.
49 New Statesman, 17 August 1957, 187.
50 Vladislav Zubok, Zhivago’s Children: The Last Russian Intelligentsia, Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2009, ch. 3.
51 Anne E. Gorsuch, All This Is Your World: Soviet Tourism at Home and Abroad after Stalin, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011, ch. 4 (esp. 109).
52 Georgii Arbatov, Chelovek sistemy: nabliudeniia i razmyshleniia ochevidtsa ee raspada, Moscow: Vagrius, 2002, 136.
53 O. V. Volobuev, ‘Prioritety sovetskogo gosudarstva’, in Volobuev et al. (eds.), Rossiia: gosudarstvennye prioritety i natsional’nye interesy, Moscow: Rosspen, 2000, 247–96 (285).
54 E. A. Ivanian, Kogda govoriat muzy: Istoriia rossiisko-amerikanskikh kul’turnykh sviazei, Moscow: Mezhdunarodnye otnosheniia, 2007, 383.
55 Steven Lee Myers, The New Tsar: The Rise and Reign of Vladimir Putin, New York: Knopf, 2015, 19.
56 Geoffrey Hosking, Rulers and Victims: The Russians in the Soviet Union, Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2006.
57 Nikolai Mitrokhin, Russkaia partiia: dvizhenie russkikh natsionalistov v SSSR 1953–1985gg, Moscow: Novoe literaturnoe obozrenie, 2003.
58 Andés Artal-Tur, Galina Romanova and Maria del Mar Vacquez-Mendez, ‘Tourism in Russia’, in Frédéric Dimanche and Lidia Andrades Caldito (eds.), Tourism in Russia: A Management Handbook, Bingley: Emerald, 2015, 9–56 (35, 39, 45).
59 Donald Ostrowski, Muscovy and the Mongols: Cross-Cultural Influences on the Steppe Frontier, 1304–1589, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998, 3 n. 9.
60 Lawrence N. Langer, ‘Muscovite Taxation and the Problem of Mongol Rule in Rus’’, Russian History 34:1–4 (2007): 101–29.
61 This paragraph as a whole broadly follows the arguments of Ostrowski, Muscovy and the Mongols. A contrasting and equally important account emphasizes devastation and the influences that flow from that, as well as growing wealth and a subordinate cooperation between Muscovites and Mongols: Charles J. Halperin, Russia and the Golden Horde: The Mongol Impact on Medieval Russian History, Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1985.
62 For Russia’s two would-be Asian moments, see the works of Dimitri Obolensky.
63 Alexandra Harrington, ‘Anna Akhmatova (1889–1966)’, in Stephen M. Norris and Willard Sunderland (eds.), Russia’s People of Empire: Life Stories from Eurasia, 1500 to the Present, Bloomington and Indianapolis, IN: Indiana University Press, 2012, 254–63.
64 In discussing Gumilev, I have drawn on Mark Bassin, The Gumilev Mystique: Biopolitics, Eurasianism, and the Construction of Community in Modern Russia, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2016.
65 Adapting John P. LeDonne, ‘Definitions, Methodology, and Argument’, Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History 16:4 (2015): 943–50 (943–4).
66 Stephen Kotkin, ‘Mongol Commonwealth? Exchange and Governance across the Post-Mongol Space’, Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History 8:3 (2007): 487–531.
67 Tat’iana Gurova, ‘Zapandnyi put’ Rossii zakonchen’, Ekspert, 16 April 2018.
68 Nezavisimaia gazeta, 18 April 2018, 2.
69 Uniqueness, in the end, is how Marshall T. Poe characterizes Russia in his important discussion of this matter: The Russian Moment in World History, Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2003.
1 This account draws heavily from Richard Pipes, Vixi: Memoirs of a Non-Belonger, New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2003, esp. 13–14.
2 Richard Pipes, Survival Is Not Enough: Soviet Realities and America’s Future, New York: Simon and Schuster, 1984, 37–9. The historical substance of the argument was laid out in Richard Pipes, Russia Under the Old Regime, London: Penguin, 1995 (1st edn, 1974), 79–84 and passim.
3 Pipes, Survival Is Not Enough, 67 (quotation), 71–7, 279–80.
4 Gordon Barrass, ‘Able Archer 83: What Were the Soviets Thinking?’ Survival: Global Politics and Strategy 58:6 (2016): 7–30.
5 David Rothkopf, Running the World: The Inside Story of the National Security Council and the Architects of American Power, New York: Public Affairs, 2004, 224–5.
6 Pipes, Vixi, 250.
7 Hosking, Russia and the Russians, 42.
8 Janet Martin, Treasure of the Land of Darkness: The Fur Trade and Its Significance for Medieval Russia, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986.
9 Martin Dimnik, ‘The Rus’ principalities (1125–1246)’, in Perrie (ed.), The Cambridge History of Russia, vol. 1, 98–126.
10 Plokhy, Lost Kingdom, parts II and III.
11 Faith Hollis, Children of Rus’: Right-Bank Ukraine and the Invention of a Russian Nation, Ithaca, NY, and London: Cornell University Press, 2013.
12 Plokhy, Lost Kingdom, 347–51.
13 Jane Burbank and Frederick Cooper, Empires in World History: Power and the Politics of Difference, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2010.
14 The statistic is cited in Stephen Kotkin, Stalin, vol. 1: Paradoxes of Power 1878–1928, London: Penguin, 2014, 11.
15 Serhii Plokhy, The Gates of Europe: A History of Ukraine, London: Penguin, 2015, 179.
16 Hans Rogger, Russia in the Age of Modernisation and Revolution 1881–1917, London and New York: Longman, 1983, 187.
17 Valerie A. Kivelson and Ronald Grigor Suny, Russia’s Empires, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017, 144.
18 Rogger, Russia in the Age of Modernisation and Revolution, 190.
19 Krista Sigler, ‘Mathilde Kshesinskaia (1872–1971)’, in Stephen M. Norris and Willard Sunderland (eds.), Russia’s People of Empire: Life Stories from Eurasia, 1500 to the Present, Bloomington and Indianapolis, IN: Indiana University Press, 2012, 232–41 (240).
20 Elizabeth Valkenier, Russian Realist Art. The State and Society: The Peredvizhniki and Their Tradition, Ann Arbor, MI: Ardis, 1977, 59–61.
21 Elizabeth Kridl Valkenier, Ilya Repin and the World of Russian Art, New York: Columbia University Press, 1990, 131–3.
22 Paul W. Werth, ‘The Emergence of “Freedom of Conscience” in Imperial Russia’, Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History 13:3 (2012): 585–610 (quotation on 596).
23 Michael Khodarkovsky, ‘“Ignoble Savages and Unfaithful Subjects”: Constructing Non-Christian Identities in Early Modern Russia’, in Daniel K. Brower and Edward J. Lazzerini (eds.), Russia’s Orient: Imperial Borderlands and Peoples, 1700–1917, Bloomington and Indianapolis, IN: Indiana University Press, 1997, 9–26 (10, 20).
24 Eugene M. Avrutin, Jews and the Imperial State: Identification Politics in Tsarist Russia, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2010.
25 Ekaterina Pravilova, ‘From the Zloty to the Ruble: The Kingdom of Poland in the Monetary Politics of the Russian Empire’, in Jane Burbank, Mark von Hagen and Anatoly Remnev (eds.), Russian Empire: Space, People, Power, 1700–1930, Bloomington and Indianapolis, IN: Indiana University Press, 2007, 295–319.
26 A. G. Hopkins, American Empire: A Global History, Princeton, NJ, and Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2018, 39.
27 Burbank and Cooper, Empires, 286.
28 Nancy Shields Kollmann, The Russian Empire 1450–1801, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017, 450–52, 457.
29 Alexander Etkind, Internal Colonization: Russia’s Imperial Experience, Cambridge: Polity, 2011, 72–8.
30 John Elliott, Empires of the Atlantic World: Britain and Spain in America, 1492–1830, New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2006.
31 James Belich, Replenishing the Earth: The Settler Revolution and the Rise of the Angloworld, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009.
32 Howard Zinn, A People’s History of the United States, New York: Harper Perennial Modern Classics, 2005 (first published 1980), 140.
33 This account of Surikov’s early life relies on G. Gor and V. Petrov, Vasilii Ivanovich Surikov 1848–1916, Moscow: Molodaia gvardiia, 1955, chs. 1–2. See also E. Iu. Bezyzvestnykh, Surikiov i Sibir’, Krasnoiarsk: Russkaia entsiklopediia, 1995, 10–14.
34 William Sunderland, ‘Ermak Timofeevich’, in Norris and Sunderland (eds.), Russia’s People of Empire, 17–26. See also W. Bruce Lincoln, The Conquest of a Continent: Siberia and the Russians, New York: Random House, 1994, 40–43.
35 G. L. Vasil’eva-Shliapina, Sibirskie krasavitsy V. Surikova: portret v tvorchestve khudozhnika, St Petersburg, 2002, 130; N. G. Mashkovtsev, V. I. Surikov, Moscow, 1994, 29.
36 Richard Wortman, Scenarios of Power: Myth and Ceremony in Russian Monarchy, vol. 2, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000, 328.
37 Nicholas V. Riasanovsky, ‘Asia through Russian Eyes’, in Wayne S. Vucinich (ed.), Russia and Asia: Essays on the Influence of Russia on the Asian Peoples, Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1972, 3–29 (here, 18).
38 David Schimmelpennick van der Oye, Toward the Rising Sun: Russian Ideologies of Empire and the Path to the War with Japan, DeKalb, IL: Northern Illinois University Press, 2001, 24ff and 42ff.
39 Wortman, Scenarios of Power, vol. 2, 175, 319–20.
40 For John LeDonne, expansionism was an ‘inclusive policy’, in the way that it involved local elites, Cossacks among many others. John P. LeDonne, The Russian Empire and the World, 1700–1917: The Geopolitics of Expansion and Containment, New York: Oxford University Press, 1999.
41 Letter from Surikov to his mother and brother Alexander, St Petersburg, 24 February 1895. V. I. Surikov, Pis’ma, vospominaniia o khudozhnike, Leningrad: Iskusstvo, 1977, 97, letter 119.
42 Hosking, Rulers and Victims.
43 Hélène Carrère, The Great Challenge: Nationalities and the Bolshevik State, 1917–1930, trans. Nancy Festinger, New York, 1992, chs. 1 and 2.
44 Terry Martin, The Affirmative Action Empire: Nations and Nationalism in the Soviet Union, 1923–1939, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2001.
45 Yuri Slezkine, The Jewish Century, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2004.
46 Martin, Affirmative Action Empire, 146, 377 (59 per cent figure is for 1935).
47 Douglas Northrop, Veiled Empire: Gender and Power in Stalinist Central Asia, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2004.
48 Marianne Kamp, ‘Jahon Obidova (1900–1967)’, in Norris and Sunderland (eds.), Russia’s People of Empire, 308–16 (313).
49 James Harris, The Great Fear: Stalin’s Terror of the 1930s, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016, 178–80.
50 Martin, Affirmative Action Empire, 102, 108.
51 Applebaum, Red Famine, xiii–xiv, xxiv.
52 Martin, Affirmative Action Empire, 345.
53 Applebaum, Red Famine, 353–62.
54 Martin, Affirmative Action Empire, 305.
55 Quoted in Kathleen E. Smith, Moscow 1956: The Silenced Spring, Cambridge. MA: Harvard University Press, 2017, 52.
56 Tarik Cyril Amar, The Paradox of Lviv: A Borderland City between Stalinists, Nazis, and Nationalists, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2015.
57 Dmitrii Shepilov, The Kremlin’s Scholar: A Memoir of Soviet Politics under Stalin and Khrushchev, New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2007, ed. Stephen V. Bittner, trans. Anthony Austin, 309–11.
58 Plokhy, Gates of Europe, 298–9.
59 Plokhy, Gates of Europe, 304.
60 Benjamin Tromly, Making the Soviet Intelligentsia: Universities and Intellectual Life under Stalin and Khrushchev, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014, ch. 8.
61 William Jay Risch, The Ukrainian West: Culture and the Fate of Empire in Soviet Lviv, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2011, 234–41; also 1–2.
62 Valerii Tishkov, The Mind Aflame: Ethnicity, Nationalism, and Conflict in and after the Soviet Union, London: Sage, 1997, 40–42.
63 Yuri Slezkine, Arctic Mirrors: Russia and the Small Peoples of the North, Ithaca, NY, and London: Cornell University Press, 1994, 373–5.
64 See Hosking, Russia: People and Empire, and idem, Rulers and Victims.
1 Margaret Thatcher speech at Kensington Town Hall, 19 January 1976: https://www.margaretthatcher.org/document/102939. See also Charles Moore, Margaret Thatcher: The Authorized Biography, vol. 1, London: Penguin, 2014, 332. On Pearl Harbor: Mark Hertling and Molly K. McKew in Politico Magazine (https://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2018/07/16/putin-russia-trump-2016-pearl-harbor-219015).
2 Cathy Porter, The Lonely Struggle of the Woman Who Defied Lenin, New York: Dial Press, 1980, 11–21.
3 Porter, The Lonely Struggle, 180.
4 Aleksandra Kollontai, Letopis’ moei zhizni, Moscow: Academia, 2004, 268.
5 Leonid Mlechin, Kollontai, Moscow: Molodaia gvardiia, 2013, 263.
6 Porter, The Lonely Struggle, 423.
7 A. M. Aleksandrov-Alentov, Ot Kollontai do Gorbacheva, Moscow: Mezhdunarodnye otnosheniia, 1994, 24 (italics added).
8 A. M. Kollontai, Diplomaticheskie dnevniki 1922–1940, vol. 2 of 2, Moscow: Academia, 2001, 257.
9 Kollontai, Diplomaticheskie dnevniki, vol. 2, 295.
10 Tobias Buck, ‘How Russian Gas Became Europe’s Most Divisive Commodity’, Financial Times, 17 July 2018.
11 Roger Moorhouse, The Devils’ Alliance: Hitler’s Pact with Stalin 1939–41, London: Bodley Head, 2014, 4; Timothy Snyder, Bloodlands: Europe between Hitler and Stalin, London: Bodley Head, 2011, xi; the diametrically opposite case is made by Geoffrey Roberts, Stalin’s Wars: From World War to Cold War, 1939–1953, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2006.
12 A. J. P. Taylor, The Origins of the Second World War, London: Penguin, 1961.
13 Taylor’s favourite among his books was The Trouble Makers: Dissent over Foreign Policy 1792–1939, London: Hamish Hamilton, 1957, and one of his biographies has a related title: Kathleen Burk, Troublemaker: The Life and History of A. J. P. Taylor, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2000.
14 Kotkin, Stalin, vol. 2, 582–83.
15 Zara Steiner, The Triumph of the Dark: European International History 1933–1939, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013, 427–30.
16 Jonathan Haslam, The Soviet Union and the Struggle for Collective Security in Europe, 1933–39, London: Macmillan 1984, 169.
17 David Reynolds, Summits: Six Meetings that Shaped the Twentieth Century, London: Penguin, 2008, ch. 2 (95 for Churchill on Chamberlain).
18 R. Gerald Hughes, ‘The Ghosts of Appeasement: Britain and the Legacy of the Munich Agreement’, Journal of Contemporary History 48:4 (2013): 715 for Blair on Chamberlain.
19 Guardian, 2 September 2014; Time, 1 April 2014; The Economist, 20 September 2014.
20 Daily Telegraph, 10 September 2014.
21 Brendan Simms, Europe: The Struggle for Supremacy 1453 to the Present, London: Penguin, 2014, 178–9.
22 Philip Bobbitt, The Shield of Achilles: War, Peace and the Course of History, London: Penguin, 2003, 551.
23 For more speculation along these lines, see Alexander Titov, ‘19th-Century Diplomacy Can Help with 21st-Century Russia’, The Conversation, 11 September 2014.
24 See Richard Sakwa, Frontline Ukraine: Crisis in the Borderlands, London: IB Tauris, 2016.
25 Fiona Hill and Clifford G. Gaddy, Mr Putin: Operative in the Kremlin, Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2015, 308: archive.kremlin.ru/eng speech of 2008/04/04.
26 As archived on 1tv.ru: Putin: dokumental’nyi fil’m Oliver Stouna (examples from episodes 3 and 4). Produced in English version by Showtime.
27 Michael McFaul, From Cold War to Hot Peace: The Inside Story of Russia and America, London: Allen Lane, 2018.
28 Richard Sakwa, Russia Against the Rest: The Post-Cold War Crisis of World Order, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2017, 325, 328.
29 David Bromwich, ‘American Breakdown’, London Review of Books, 9 August 2018.
30 On the connections between NATO expansion and Russian policy, see Constantine Pleshakov, The Crimean Nexus: Putin’s War and the Clash of Civilizations, New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2017 (Kennan quotation cited on 26).
31 Michael Jabara Carley, ‘Fiasco: The Anglo-Franco-Soviet Alliance That Never Was and the Unpublished British White Paper, 1939–1940’, International History Review, 2018 (advance publication online).
32 Steiner, The Triumph of the Dark, 885–90.
33 Kotkin, Stalin, vol. 2, 648.
34 Richard Pipes, Survival Is Not Enough: Soviet Realities and America’s Future, New York: Simon and Schuster, 1984.
35 Heather A. Conley et al., Understanding Russian Influence in Central and Eastern Europe, Center for Strategic and International Studies, Washington, DC, October 2016, x.
36 Christopher Clark, The Sleepwalkers: How Europe Went to War in 1914, London: Penguin, 2013, 475.
37 Patricia A. Weitsman, Dangerous Alliances: Proponents of Peace, Weapons of War, Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2004, 23, 173.
38 Norman Stone, The Eastern Front, 1914–1917, London: Penguin, 1998, 28.
39 Weitsman, Dangerous Alliances, 184–5.
40 Dominic Lieven, The End of Tsarist Russia: The March to World War I and Revolution, New York: Viking, 2015, 148.
41 For more on these calculations, which lie at the centre of my argument, see Clark, The Sleepwalkers.
42 Lieven, The End of Tsarist Russia, 284–7.
43 Sean McMeekin, The Russian Origins of the First World War, Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2011.
44 Niall Ferguson, The Pity of War, London: Allen Lane, 1998, 158–73.
45 Alexander Watson, Ring of Steel: Germany and Austria-Hungary at War, 1914–1918, London: Penguin, 2015, 35.
46 Lieven, The End of Tsarist Russia, 341.
47 Henry Kissinger, World Order, London: Penguin, 2015, 373 and passim.
48 House of Lords European Union Committee, 6th Report of Session 2014–15, ‘The EU and Russia: Before and Beyond the Crisis in Ukraine’, 6, 29.
49 Andrei P. Tsygankov, Russia and the West from Alexander II to Putin: Honor in International Relations, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012.
50 I. N. Nikitin, ‘Rasshirenie territorii kak geopoliticheskii faktor rossiiskoi gosudarstvennosti: kontseptual’nye voprosy’, in A. I. Aksenov et al. (eds.), Rossiiskaia imperiia ot istokov do nachala XIX veka: ocherki sotsial’no-politicheskoi i ekonomicheskoi istorii, Moscow: Russkaia panorama, 2011, 28–49 (44).
51 For overviews of Russian war and diplomacy, see William C. Fuller, Jr, Strategy and Power in Russia 1600–1914, New York: Free Press, 1992; Brian Davies, ‘Muscovy at War and Peace’, in Perrie (ed.), The Cambridge History of Russia, vol. 1, 486–520; the essays in Part VI of Dominic Lieven (ed.), The Cambridge History of Russia, vol. 2: Imperial Russia, 1689–1917; Barbara Jelavich, A Century of Russian Foreign Policy 1814–1914, Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1964.
52 Dominic Lieven, Russia Against Napoleon: The Battle for Europe 1807–1914, London: Allen Lane, 2010.
53 See Jonathan Haslam, Russia’s Cold War: From the October Revolution to the Fall of the Wall, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2012, ch. 1; Odd Arne Westad, The Cold War: A World History, London: Allen Lane, 2017, 4–5, 19, 68–9.
54 The same authors demonstrate connections between structural and contingent causes of the Cold War: Westad, The Cold War, 52–3, and Haslam, Russia’s Cold War, 32–3, 76.
55 Taylor, Origins of the Second World War.
56 Peter Beinart, ‘The US Needs to Face Up to Its Long History of Electoral Meddling’, The Atlantic, 22 July 2018; Don H. Levin, ‘Partisan Electoral Interventions by the Great Powers: Introducing the PEIG Dataset’, Conflict Management and Peace Science, 2016.
57 Joan Kruckewitt, ‘US Militarization of Honduras in the 1980s and the Creation of CIA-Backed Death Squads’, in Cecilia Menjívar and Néstor Rodriguez (eds.), When States Kill: Latin America, the U.S., and Technologies of Terror, Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 2005, 170–97 (175, 182–3).
58 Patrick Iber, Neither Peace Nor Freedom: The Cultural Cold War in Latin America, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2015.
59 Bob Woodward, Veil: The Secret Wars of the CIA, 1981–1987, New York: Simon and Schuster, 1987; idem, Fear: Trump in the White House, New York: Simon and Schuster, 2018.
60 Gabriel Gorodetsky (ed.), The Maisky Diaries: Red Ambassador to the Court of St James’s, 1932–43, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2015, 230–33 (6 October 1939).
61 Robert Caro, The Passage of Power: The Years of Lyndon Johnson, vol. 4, London: Bodley Head, 2012, 235–6.
62 Arthur Schlesinger, Jr, Robert Kennedy and His Times, New York: Ballantine, 1978, 127.
63 Denis Healey, The Time of My Life, London: Penguin, 1989, 309, 362.
64 New York Times, 27 May 2016.
65 Jonathan Haslam, Russia’s Cold War: From the October Revolution to the Fall of the Wall, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2011, 62–3.
66 Kai Bird, The Color of Truth: McGeorge Bundy and William Bundy: Brothers in Arms, New York, 1998, 94.
67 George F. Kennan, The Kennan Diaries, ed. Frank Costigliola, New York, 2014, 642
68 Haslam, Russia’s Cold War, 62–3; Bird, The Color of Truth, 94; Kennan, The Kennan Diaries, 642.
70 Giles Whittell, ‘This Is Russia’s Real Revolution’, The Times, 14 July 2018, 32–3.
71 Dmitri Trenin, Should We Fear Russia?, Cambridge: Polity, 2016, 54–5.
1 Cathy Porter, Alexandra Kollontai: The Lonely Struggle of the Woman Who Defied Lenin, New York: Dial Press, 1980, 489; Ivan Gorcharov, Oblomov, trans. David Magarshack, London: Penguin 1954 [1859], 68; Vladimir Sokolov, Eto vechnoe stikhotvoren’e Kniga liriki, Moscow: Literaturnaia gazeta, 2007, 514
1 Evgenia Ginzburg, Journey into the Whirlwind, New York: Harcourt, 1967; Within the Whirlwind, New York: Harcourt, 1981; see also www.sakharov-center.ru.
2 Iurii Trifonov, Otblesk kostra, in Izbrannye proizvedeniia, vol. 1, Moscow: Mir knigi, 2005, 212.
3 Iurii Trifonov, ‘Bul’varnoe kol’tso’, in Trifonov, Kak slovo nashe otzovetsia, Moscow: Sovetskaia Rossiia, 1985, 118.
4 Trifonov, ‘Bul’varnoe kol’tso’, 116.
5 Yuri Trifonov, Disappearance, trans. David Lowe, Evanston, IL: Northwestern Illinois University Press, 1996, 63.
6 Yuri Slezkine, The House of Government: A Saga of the Russian Revolution, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2017, 379.
7 Slezkine, The House of Government, 777.
8 Trifonov, Disappearance, 7.
9 A. Shitov, Iurii Trifonov: Khronika zhizni i tvorchestva 1925–1981, Ekaterinburg: Izdatel’stvo Ural’skogo Universiteta, 1997, 506.
10 Trifonov to I. Ia. Chernukhina, 10 April 1977: Shitov, Khronika, 548.
11 Trifonov, ‘Zapiska soseda’, Kak slovo, 138–74 (1972).
12 Geoffrey Hosking, Beyond Socialist Realism: Soviet Fiction Since ‘Ivan Denisovich’, London: Elek, 1980.
13 Yuri Trifonov, Another Life and The House on the Embankment, trans. Michael Glenny, Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 2004, 350.
14 Dina R. Spechler, Permitted Dissent in the USSR: Novy Mir and the Soviet Regime, New York: Praeger, 1982.
15 Shitov, Khronika, 504.
16 Literaturnaia gazeta, 23 June 1976, 2; 30 June 1976, 4.
17 Quoted in David Gillespie, Iurii Trifonov: Unity Through Time, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993, 8. Markov’s professional position is recorded in Iu. V. Goriachev, Tsentral’nyi komitet KPSS, VKP(b), PRK(b), RSDRP (b) 1917–1991: Istoriko-biograficheskii spravochnik, Moscow: Parad, 2005, 289.
18 Shitov, Khronika, 519.
19 Böll in conversation with G. Formvege; Shitov, Khronika, 628.
20 Shitov, Khronika, 636–7.
21 Zhores Medvedev and Roi Medvedev, Neizvestnyi Stalin, Moscow: Prava cheloveka, 2001, 123.
22 Sheila Fitzpatrick, On Stalin’s Team: The Years of Living Dangerously in Soviet Politics, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2015, 224ff.
23 Steven A. Barnes, Death and Redemption: The Gulag and the Shaping of Soviet Society, Princeton, NJ, and Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2011, 205.
24 Miriam Dobson, Khrushchev’s Cold Summer: Gulag Returnees, Crime, and the Fate of Reform under Stalin, Ithaca, NY, and London: Cornell University Press, 2009, esp. Part II.
25 Stephen V. Bittner, The Many Lives of Khrushchev’s Thaw: Experience and Memory in Moscow’s Arbat, Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 2008, ch. 2 (e.g. 54).
26 Denis Kozlov, The Readers of Novyi Mir: Coming to Terms with the Stalinist Past, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2013.
27 Miriam Dobson, ‘Contesting the Paradigms of De-Stalinization: Readers’ Responses to One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich’, Slavic Review 64:3 (2005): 580–600.
28 Kathleen E. Smith, Moscow 1956: The Silenced Spring, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2017, 36–42.
29 V. F. Morozov to Central Committee of CPSU, 10 January 1956: K. Aimermakher et al. (eds.), Doklad N. S. Khrushcheva o kul’te lichnosti Stalina na XX s’ezde KPSS: Dokumenty, Moscow, Rosspen, 2002, 173 (doc. 6).
30 Memoirs of Nikita Khrushchev, vol. 2: Reformer, 1945–1964, ed. Sergei Khrushchev, trans. George Shriver, University Park, PA: Pennsylvania University Press, 2006, 204, 212.
31 See the conclusion of Polly Jones, Myth, Memory, Trauma: Rethinking the Stalinist Past in the Soviet Union, 1953–70, New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2013.
32 Marcus Colla, ‘Prussian Palimpsests: Historic Architecture and Urban Spaces in East Germany, 1945–1961’, Central European History 50 (2017): 184–217.
33 Dan Stone, Goodbye to All That? The Story of Europe since 1945, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014, 46, 50–55.
34 Tony Judt, Postwar: A History of Europe since 1945, London: Heinemann, 2005, 805.
35 Dan Stone, ‘Memory Wars in the “New Europe”’, in Dan Stone (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Postwar European History, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012, 713–31 (esp. 717–26). Tina Rosenberg, The Haunted Land: Facing Europe’s Ghosts after Communism, New York: Vintage, 1996, 320–21.
36 Smith, Moscow 1956, 37.
37 Anne Applebaum, Red Famine: Stalin’s War on Ukraine, London: Allen Lane, 2017, ch. 15.
38 Geoffrey Hosking, Rulers and Victims: The Russians in the Soviet Union, Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2006, ch. 9.
39 Arkady Ostrovsky, The Invention of Russia: The Journey from Gorbachev’s Freedom to Putin’s War, London: Atlantic, 2015, 75.
40 Leon Aron, Roads to the Temple: Truth, Memory, and Ideals in the Making of the Russian Revolution, 1987–1991, New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2012, 72.
41 David Remnick, Lenin’s Tomb, London: Penguin, 1994, 70–86.
42 Cited in R. W. Davies, Soviet History in the Gorbachev Revolution, Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1989, 137.
43 Pravda, 6 January 1989. Translation: Current Digest of the Soviet Press 41:1 (1989): 13.
44 Moskovskie Novosti, 27 November 1988, 11. Translation: Current Digest of the Soviet Press 41:1 (1989): 15.
45 Adam Hochschild, The Unquiet Ghost: Russians Remember Stalin, New York: Viking, 1994.
46 Pravda, 25 May 1989, 4.
47 Interview undated, but it took place after Chubais became chair of Rosnano in 2011: http://strana.lenta.ru/russia/chubais.htm, accessed 27 November 2018.
48 Arup Banerji, Writing History in the Soviet Union: Making the Past Work, New Delhi: Esha Béteille Social Science Press, 2008, 261.
49 Catriona Kelly, St Petersburg: Shadows of the Past, New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2014, 251.
50 Alex Luhn, ‘New Wave of Musicians Tune in to the Soviet Past’, Guardian, 29 July 2015, 17.
51 Guy Chazan, ‘Grandmother Russia’ (‘Dinner with the FT: Svetlana Alexievich’), FT Weekend, 17–18 June 2017.
52 Pyotr Chaadaev, Philosophical Letters I, in McNally (ed.), Major Works.
53 Andreas Schönle, Architectures of Oblivion: Ruins and Historical Consciousness in Modern Russia, DeKalb, IL: Northern Illinois University Press, 2011.
54 Oleg V. Khlevniuk, Stalin: New Biography of a Dictator, New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2015, 330.
55 Tatyana Tsyrlina-Spady and Alan Stotskopf, ‘Russian History Textbooks in the Putin Era: Heroic Leaders Demand Loyal Citizens’, in Joseph Zajda et al. (eds.), Globalisation and Historiography of National Leaders, Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer, 2017, 15–33.
56 Steven Lee Myers, The New Tsar: The Rise and Reign of Vladimir Putin, New York: Knopf, 2015, 415, 424.
57 Mikhail Zygar, All the Kremlin’s Men: Inside the Court of Vladimir Putin, New York: Public Affairs, 2016, 152, 186–7.
58 Fiona Hill and Clifford G. Gaddy, Mr Putin: Operative in the Kremlin, Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 2015 (new and expanded edition), 70–71.
59 Mark Edele, ‘Fighting Russia’s History Wars: Vladimir Putin and the Codification of World War II’, History and Memory 29:2 (2017): 90–124. See also Shaun Walker, The Long Hangover: Putin’s New Russia and the Ghosts of the Past, New York: Oxford University Press, 2018. More generally on the legacies of the Second World War: Stephen Lovell, The Shadow of War: Russia and the Soviet Union, 1941 to the Present, Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010.
60 Natalia Shkurenok, ‘The Historian Who Dug Too Deep’, openDemocracy, 4 September 2017: https://www.opendemocracy.net/od-russia/natalia-shkurenok/yuri-dmitriev-sandarmoh, accessed 27 November 2018.
61 Donald Filtzer, ‘Russia’s Archives Are Still Open for Business’, Letter to Editor, Guardian, 16 February 2018.
62 Khlevniuk, Stalin, 330.
63 Arup Banerji, Writing History in the Soviet Union: Making the Past Work, New Delhi: Esha Béteille Social Science Press, 2008, 269.
64 Alexander N. Yakovlev, A Century of Violence in Soviet Russia, New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2002, 46–7 (Russian version published in Moscow in 2000).
65 Antony Beevor, ‘By Banning My Book, Russia Is Deluding Itself about Its Past’, Guardian, 5 August 2015.
66 Evgenii Anisimov, Istoriia Rossii ot Riurika do Putina: Liudi, sobytiia, daty, Moscow, St Petersburg (etc.): Piter, 2018.
67 From many examples: S. Papkova and K. Teraiama, Politicheskie i sotsial’nye aspekty istorii Stalinizma: Novye fakty i interpretatsii, Moscow: Rosspen, 2015.
68 Aleksandra Litvina and Ania Desnitskaia, Istoriia staroi kvartiry, Moscow: Memorial, 2017.
69 Roger Markwick, ‘The Great Patriotic War in Soviet and Post-Soviet Collective Memory’, in Stone (ed.), Oxford Handbook of Postwar European History, 692–713 (712).
70 Alexander Etkind, Warped Mourning: Stories of the Undead in the Land of the Unburied, Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2013, 246.
71 Judt, Postwar, 829, 831.
72 Bryan Ward Perkins, The Fall of Rome and the End of Civilization, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005.
73 Interview with Georgy Frangulyan, Istorik 10:34 (October 2017): 44–5.
74 David Rieff, In Praise of Forgetting: Historical Memory and Its Ironies, New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2016.
1 John Bowlt (ed.), Russian Art of the Avant Garde: Theory and Criticism, 1902–1934, New York: Viking, 1976, 293 (‘From Andrei Zhdanov’s Speech’).
2 Stephen F. Cohen, Failed Crusade: America and the Tragedy of Post-Communist Russia, New York: W. W. Norton, 2000.
3 Vladimir Popov, ‘Transformational Recession’, in Michael Alexeev and Shlomo Weber (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of the Russian Economy, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013, 102–31 (102).
4 E.g. Maxim Boyco, Andrei Shleifer and Robert Vishny, Privatizing Russia, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1996, 153.
5 Popov, ‘Transformational Recession’, 104–5.
6 Revold M. Entov and Oleg V. Lugovoy, ‘Growth Trends in Russia after 1998’, in Alexeev and Weber (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of the Russian Economy, 132–160 (132–3).
7 James H. Billington, The Icon and the Axe: An Interpretive History of Russian Culture, New York: Vintage, 1970, 55.
8 Pravda, 5 February 1931: see Robert Service, Stalin: A Biography, London: Macmillan, 2005, 272–3.
9 William Taubman, Khrushchev: The Man and His Era, New York: Free Press, 2003, 511.
10 Vladimir Mau and Tatiana Drobyshevskaya, ‘Modernization and the Russian Economy: Three Hundred Years of Catching Up’, in Alexeev and Weber (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of the Russian Economy, 29–51 (41).
11 See, e.g. Christian Raffensperger, Reimagining Europe: Kievan Rus in the Medieval World, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012; and Boris Akunin, Chast’ Evropy: Istoriia Rossiiskogo gosudarstva. Ot istokov do mongol’skogo nashestviia, Moscow: AST, 2014 (though his point is that from being a ‘part of Europe’ until 1240, things change thereafter).
12 Denis J. B. Shaw, ‘Towns and Commerce’, in Perrie (ed.), The Cambridge History of Russia, vol. 1, 298–316 (313–15).
13 Stephen Alford, London’s Triumph: Merchant Adventurers and the Tudor City, London: Allen Lane, 2017.
14 Richard Hellie, ‘The Economy, Trade and Serfdom’, in Perrie (ed.), The Cambridge History of Russia, vol. 1, 539–58 (544–5).
15 Marshall Poe, ‘A People Born to Slavery’: Russia in Early-Modern Ethnography, 1476–1748, Ithaca, NY, and London: Cornell University Press, 2000.
16 Jarno T. Kotilaine, ‘Mercantilism in Pre-Petrine Russia’, in Kotilaine and Marshall Poe (eds.), Modernizing Muscovy: Reform and Social Change in Seventeenth-Century Russia, London: RoutledgeCurzon, 2004, 143–74 (148–50).
17 Lindsey Hughes, Russia in the Age of Peter the Great, New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2000, 158.
18 Arcadius Kahan, The Plow, the Hammer, and the Knout: An Economic History of Eighteenth-Century Russia, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985, 163–5.
19 Brian R. Mitchell, International Historical Statistics: Europe 1750–1993, Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1998, 75, 422, 424, 818, 821.
20 Alexander Gerschenkron, ‘Economic Backwardness in Historical Perspective’ and ‘Russia: Patterns and Problems of Economic Development, 1861–1958’, in Gerschenkron, Economic Backwardness in Historical Perspective: A Book of Essays, Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1966, 5–30 and 119–51.
21 Leopold Haimson, The Russian Marxists and the Origins of Bolshevism, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1955; see the discussion in Jonathan Daly, ‘The Pleiade: Five Scholars Who Founded Russian Historical Studies in the United States’, Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History 18:4 (2017): 785–826 (813).
22 Jorg Baberowski, ‘Law, the Judicial System and the Legal Profession’, in Dominic Lieven (ed.), The Cambridge History of Russia, vol. 2: Imperial Russia, 1689–1917, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006, 344–68 (344).
23 Jane Burbank, ‘Legal Culture, Citizenship, and Peasant Jurisprudence: Perspectives from the Early Twentieth Century’, in Peter H. Solomon, Jr (ed.), Reforming Justice in Russia 1864–1996: Power, Culture, and the Limits of Legal Order, Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1997, 82–106 (esp. 95–6).
24 Larisa Zakharova, ‘The Reign of Alexander II: A Watershed?’, in Lieven (ed.), Cambridge History of Russia, vol. 2, 593–616 (609).
25 Baberowski, ‘Law, the Judicial System and the Legal Profession’, 351–2.
26 Girish N. Bhat, ‘The Consensual Dimension of Late Imperial Russian Criminal Procedure: The Example of Trial by Jury’, in Peter H. Solomon, Jr (ed.), Reforming Justice in Russia 1864–1996: Power, Culture, and the Limits of Legal Order, Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1997, 61–81.
27 Baberowski, ‘Law, the Judicial System and the Legal Profession’, 356–9.
28 Kathryn Hendley, Everyday Law in Russia, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2017.
29 David Remnick, Resurrection, London: Picador, 1998, 382.
30 Robert Tombs and Isabelle Tombs, That Sweet Enemy: The French and the British from the Sun King to the Present, London: Pimlico, 2007.
31 Sofya Kovalevskaya, A Russian Childhood, trans. Beatrice Stillman, New York: Springer Verlag, 1978, 91.
32 Ann Hibner Koblitz, A Convergence of Lives: Sofia Kovalevskaia: Scientist, Writer. Revolutionary, Boston, Basel and Stuttgart: Birkhauser, 1983, xv, 6, 270.
33 S. V. Kovalevskaia, Vospominaniia i pis’ma: izdanie ispravlennoe, Moscow: Akademiia Nauk SSSR, 1961, 148–65.
34 To G. Mittag-Leffler, 7 June 1881, in Kovalevskaia, Vospominaniia i pis’ma, 255.