1. Addison and Steele, The Spectator, no. 69. As Frederic Jameson explains, because “cultural monuments and masterworks” preserve “only a single voice in this class dialogue,” the critic is responsible for restoring “a voice for the most part stifled and reduced to silence, marginalized, its own utterances scattered to the winds, or reappropriated in their turn by hegemonic culture” (Political Unconscious, 85).
2. Jenkins, A Taste for China, 16.
3. Fumerton, Unsettled, xv. Many critical works cover vagrancy issues in the period 1550–1640; major studies include Beier, Masterless Men; Woodbridge, Vagrancy, Homelessness, and English Renaissance Literature; and Thirsk, Economic Policy and Projects. Restoration and early eighteenth-century books include Mowry, The Bawdy Politic in Stuart England, and Smith, Women, Work, and Clothes in the Eighteenth-Century Novel. Fumerton’s Unsettled is part of an increasing number of studies spanning both periods.
4. Fumerton, Unsettled, xvi.
5. See, too, Armstrong, Desire and Domestic Fiction.
6. McKeon, The Origins of the English Novel, 174; Mackie, introduction to The Commerce of Everyday Life, 5.
7. As Michael McKeon, Erin Mackie, and others remind us, while a “well-developed sense of middle class identity did not yet exist,” authors represent “people who occupied the social and economic territory somewhere between the poor wage laborer and the aristocratic elite” (Mackie, introduction to The Commerce of Everyday Life, 6). Margaret Hunt discredits the “theory of emulation,” which asserts that the “central aim of all trading people was to leave their origins behind . . . to make one’s way into the ranks of England’s relatively open landed elite” (The Middling Sort, 2).
8. See Fletcher and Massinger, Beggars’ Bush; Mowry, “Eliza Haywood’s Defense of London’s Body Politic,” 645.
9. In her Economic Thought and Ideology, 152, Appleby discusses the shift from masterless men to the working poor.
10. See Netzloff, England’s Internal Colonies.
11. In Britons, Linda Colley famously argues that resistance to the French forged British national identity. Sophie Gee summarizes other reasons for the assimilation of the lower orders: “Political culture drew upper, middle, and lower classes into civic life through public displays of judicial power, civilian law-enforcing, local government, and popular unrest stemming from hostility to Catholicism, antipathy to foreigners, and an attachment to independent city government” (“The Invention of the Wasteland,” 107n19).
12. Schmidgen, Exquisite Mixture, 11, 22.
13. Eagleton, The Function of Criticism, 10.
14. Pollock, Gender and the Fictions of the Public Sphere, 8, 9.
15. Addison and Steele, The Spectator, 3:379.
16. Addison and Steele, The Spectator, 3:380.
17. Hardt and Negri, Multitude, 152.
18. Tampio, “Can the Multitude Save the Left?”
19. Hardt and Negri, Multitude, 114.
20. McKeon, The Origins of the English Novel, 173.
21. Addison and Steele, The Spectator, 3:380.
22. Addison and Steele, The Spectator, 3:380.
23. As Pollock points out, “Precisely those systems of print publication and consumption that a long line of thinkers . . . have taken for granted as progressive, liberatory, and demystifying, were viewed by many of their contemporaries as a clever imposition, part of a larger project whereby ‘the ambitious might reap the more benefit from and govern vast numbers with greater ease and security’” (Gender and the Fictions of the Public Sphere, 2–3).
24. Hardt and Negri, Multitude, 123.
25. Addison and Steele, The Spectator, 3:381.
26. Addison and Steele, The Spectator, 3:381.
27. Addison and Steele, The Spectator, 3:380–81.
28. Smith, Women, Work, and Clothes in the Eighteenth-Century Novel, 52.
29. Hardt and Negri, Multitude, 146.
30. Hardt and Negri, Multitude, 152.
31. Addison and Steele, The Commerce of Everyday Life, 64–65.
32. Addison and Steele, The Spectator, 3:380.
33. Marvell, “The First Anniversary,” in The Poems of Andrew Marvell, l.248.
34. Markley, “‘Be Impudent, Be Saucy,’” 116.
35. Van Renen, “Reimagining Royalism,” 503.
36. Behn, The City Heiress, 5.1.388, in The Works of Aphra Behn, vol. 7.
37. Farquhar, The Recruiting Officer, in The Works of George Farquhar, 2:3.1.97–99.
38. See, for example, Roberts, Restoration Plays and Players. The Constant Couple “was such a success . . . that it almost took out the competition at Lincoln’s Inn Fields” (179).
39. Farquhar, The Recruiting Officer, in The Works of George Farquhar, 2:1.1.25.
40. Farquhar, The Recruiting Officer, in The Works of George Farquhar, 2:4.1.148.
41. Farquhar, The Recruiting Officer, in The Works of George Farquhar, 2:3.2.162–63.
42. Defoe, A Journal of the Plague Year, 50.
43. Perry, “Brother Trouble,” 290.
44. King, A Political Biography of Eliza Haywood, 39.
45. Lukács, The Theory of the Novel; McKeon, “Watt’s Rise of the Novel,” 255.
46. Ingrassia, Authorship, Commerce, and Gender, 85.
47. Farquhar, The Recruiting Officer, in The Works of George Farquhar, 2:2.3.36–37.
1. Baker, “The Allegory of a China Shop,” 164.
2. Mun, England’s Treasure by Forraign Trade, 5.
3. Forman, Tragicomic Redemptions, 5.
4. See Helgerson, Forms of Nationhood: “The monarch was unquestionably the single most powerful unifying force in the English state” (9).
5. Howard explains that theater was usually the venue by which “people of the period . . . made sense of this fast-changing urban milieu” (Theater of a City, 2).
6. Addison, “Addison on the History of a Shilling,” The Tatler, no. 249, in Addison and Steele, The Commerce of Everyday Life. The oft-cited example of Addison’s well-traveled coin personifies coin as an anonymous picaro, “merrily” traveling from its birthplace in Peru (185), undergoing transformations, and visiting all parts of the world. Addison’s coin provides the preeminent example of “free” trade, but by establishing the coin’s origins as exotic and representing British naturalization as unproblematic, he obviates how circulation troubles British national identity. Relying on Locke and other politico-economic theorists, Deborah Valenze describes how capitalism encourages the free circulation of money: “Only through circulation—in this case, through all society—could money renounce its inherently problematic identity” (The Social Life of Money in England’s Past, 129). The tension, then, in early capitalist ideas is what Valenze terms the “human element” in economics, which hinders trade—reputation or face-to-face encounters still regulate trade—and money shorn of its links to people and regulatory systems. See, too, Kibbie, “Circulating Anti-Semitism,” 242–60.
7. Lesser, “Tragical-Comical-Pastoral-Colonial,” 902.
8. In addition to the works already mentioned, see, among others, Baker, On Demand, and Appleby, Economic Thought and Ideology.
9. Jonson, The Staple of News, 1.5.61. All subsequent citations of this edition of Jonson’s play will be cited parenthetically in the text by act, scene, and line number(s).
10. Brome, The English Moor, Modern Text, in Richard Brome Online, 3.1.sp423. All subsequent citations are to this edition and will be cited parenthetically by act, scene, and line number(s).
11. Appleby, Economic Thought and Ideology, 41–51.
12. Malynes, The Ancient Law-Merchant, 477.
13. Deng, Coinage and State Formation, 189.
14. See Shell, Money, Language, and Thought: “The eventual development of coins whose politically authorized inscriptions were inadequate to the weights and purities of the ingots into which the inscriptions were stamped precipitated awareness of quandaries between face value (intellectual currency) and substantial value (material currency)” (1).
15. Deng, Coinage and State Formation, 23.
16. Appleby, Economic Thought and Ideology, 42.
17. Appleby, Economic Thought and Ideology, 47.
18. See Pocock, “Early Modern Capitalism” and Virtue, Commerce, and History; and Poovey, A History of the Modern Fact, esp. 130–31. Reading the tracts of the late-seventeenth-century economist Sir William Petty, Poovey asks readers to note that “the ‘value’ of human beings should be figured in monetary, not religious or ethical, terms.”
19. “Specie, n.,” def. #3b, OED Online, Oxford University Press, June 2015.
20. Moryson, An Itinerary, 276–77.
21. Muldrew, The Economy of Obligation, 124.
22. Bach, Colonial Transformations, 145.
23. Quoted in Lesser, “Tragical-Comical-Pastoral-Colonial,” 890.
24. Quoted in Lesser, “Tragical-Comical-Pastoral-Colonial,” 891.
25. Rockwood, “‘Know Thy Side,’” 135, 139. My chapter, too, builds on arguments about rumor’s challenge to sovereign power. In an article on the personification of rumor in 2 Henry IV, Meredith Evans claims, “Rumor’s annexation by competing powers is, in part, what constitutes its relevance for interrogations of sovereignty” (“Rumor,” 8).
26. Lesser, “Tragical-Comical-Pastoral-Colonial,” 890, 891.
27. Parr, introduction to Jonson, The Staple of News, 26.
28. See also Jonson’s News from the New World, in Jonson, Ben Jonson: The Complete Masques, 292–305. The “Factor” in that play exclaims, “And I have hope to erect a staple for news ere long, whither all shall be brought and thence again vented under the name staple-news” (294); but, with Parr, I argue that the quarrel between the merchants and James over the control of foreign posts and—more important to my argument—the economic disputes among Malynes, Misselden, and Mun need to evolve before Jonson can fully explore the connections between the circulation of news and specie. Without the Pennyboy clan in News from the New World, Jonson’s masque lacks many of the complexities explored here. This Twelfth Night masque for 1619–20 was more concerned with appeasing the different factions the year before the Thirty Years’ War began; see Butler, “Jonson’s News from the New World,” 158–78.
29. See Fox, Oral and Literate Culture in England. Fox demonstrates how news was spread orally, “radiating out from urban centers into the surrounding countryside from mouth to mouth” (41).
30. Rockwood, “‘Know Thy Side,’” 138, 139.
31. See Žižek, The Sublime Object of Ideology: “The cynical subject is quite aware of the distance between the ideological mask and the social reality, but he none the less still insists upon the mask” (29).
32. “Ethnic, n. and adj.,” OED Online, Oxford University Press, March 2016.
33. Landreth, “At Home with Mammon,” 248.
34. Landreth, “At Home with Mammon,” 248.
35. As Bradley Ryner puts it, elements in the play are “more effective at destabilizing interpretative frameworks than at imposing them” (Performing Economic Thought, 146).
36. See Howard, Theater of a City, 44 and 226n41; John Stow details the origins of Quicksands’s district: “so called, of a privilege sometime enjoyed to keepe a Mart there; long since discontinued, and therefore forgotten, so as nothing remaineth for memory, but the name of Mart lane, and that not uncorruptly termed Marke lane” (The Survey of London, 161).
37. Hall, Things of Darkness, 3–4.
38. As Andrea Stevens explains, “In plays such as John Webster’s The White Devil (1612), Moorish serving maids are negatively portrayed as unchaste, their blackness thought to invite rather than repel sexual attention. It soon becomes clear that Quicksands makes a poor reader of black bodies” (“Mastering Masques of Blackness,” 421).
39. Brome, The English Moore, 73.
40. Ryner, Performing Economic Thought, 146.
41. See Efstathiou-Lavabre, “Beauté noire et théâtre,” 217–29. “En effet, ce n’est plus la femme qui usurpe le rôle du Créateur en se maquillant, mais c’est l’homme qui va s’approprier ce rôle et violer cette divine beauté” (222).
42. The Octavo version does not include the last two lines; the entire speech appears in the MS version of Brome, The English Moore, 2.2.81–84.
43. Hall, Things of Darkness, 166.
44. See Ceri Sullivan for her definition of a joint stock company: “The joint stock company was . . . composed of transferable shares owned by a number of people . . . and was associated with risky or exploratory business (such as trading in the Americas)” (The Rhetoric of Credit, 150n39).
45. This speech, too, appears in Steen’s edition of Brome, The English Moore, 4.3.44–47.
46. Massinger, The Renegado, in Vitkus, Three Turkish Plays, 1.3.141; Daborne, A Christian Turned Turk, in Vitkus, Three Turkish Plays, 7.90–91.
47. Vitkus, introduction to Three Turkish Plays, 2.
48. Steggle, Richard Brome, 126.
49. Steggle, Richard Brome, 129.
50. Harvey, “The Urban Process under Capitalism,” 94.
51. Harvey, “The Urban Process under Capitalism,” 105.
52. Steggle, Richard Brome, 129.
53. Netzloff, England’s Internal Colonies, 22.
54. Howard, Theater of a City, 158.
1. See Butler, Theatre and Crisis, esp. ch. 7; in the 1630s, Butler reminds us, “The traditional configuration of court, city and country now had a fourth term, the town” (141).
2. See Kaufmann, Richard Brome; Sanders, Caroline Drama; Butler, Theatre and Crisis; Steggle, Richard Brome; and Zucker, “Laborless London.”
3. In England’s Internal Colonies, 6–8, Mark Netzloff provides a historical overview of the term “internal colonialism.” He emphasizes “the domestic foundations of early modern colonial discourse and practices” (6), demonstrating how the state’s treatment of the lower orders and the legal codes and discursive practices it disseminated provided a template for its expansion abroad.
4. See Walsh, “Performing Historicity,” 343n2, for a detailed explanation of the term “middling sort,” a rough approximation of our term “middle class.”
5. As Appleby explains in Economic Thought and Ideology, the “sustained demonstration of this Dutch commercial prowess acted more forcefully upon the English imagination than any other economic development of the seventeenth century” (73). See “The Dutch as a Source of Evidence,” 73–98.
6. Brome, The Weeding of Covent Garden, 3.2.sp695, 4.1.sp792, 4.1.sp709, and 4.2sp887. Subsequent references to this play are from this edition and will be cited parenthetically by act, scene, and speech number (abbreviated “sp”).
7. Zucker, “Laborless London,” 95.
8. Shakespeare, Richard II, 2.1.42–54.
9. Schmidt, Innocence Abroad, 140; Israel, The Dutch Republic, 346–48.
10. As Robert Brenner points out in Merchants and Revolution, the “newer trades had as their raison d’être . . . to be built up in commercial struggle against the Dutch” (599). Although the landed class in England sought to create permanent settlements abroad, the EIC’s officers were “hostile to any expenditures not immediately productive of profit and were constantly urging their agents to spend as little as possible on fortification or buildings of any sort” (171). I argue that this profit motive shaped domestic settlements as well as colonial fortifications abroad.
11. In Richard Brome, Steggle notes the many references to Holland in The Sparagus Garden; he concentrates on Brome’s comparison of “this two-acre project to a miniature fen-drainage” (76), arguing that “fen drainage raised difficult questions of land-ownership, authority, and ‘legitimate title’ to lands that did not previously exist” (77).
12. Jonson, The Entertainment at Britain’s Burse, ll. 45–47. Subsequent references to this text will be cited by line number(s).
13. See Appadurai, “Introduction”; Kerridge, Textile Manufactures in Early Modern England, 126–27.
14. Baker, On Demand, 101.
15. See Israel, “The Beginnings of the Dutch Colonial Empire,” in Israel, The Dutch Republic, 318–27.
16. Jonson immediately tries to lessen the anxieties over the reach of Dutch overseas trade by assuring the king that “my factors from lygourne [a trading port in Greece] haue aduertised that Warde the man of warre, for that is nowe the honorable name for a pyrate; hath taken theyr greatest Hulke. . . . It is thought they will come whom [home] verye mvch dissolued” (ll. 176–81). Ward, though, represents another threat to the king, as Daniel Vitkus points out: Ward “exemplified the success and autonomy that may be achieved through an unruly masculine virtue that is willing and able to defy the rules laid down by the Christian authorities” (Three Turk Plays, 26).
17. Turner, The English Renaissance Stage, 195.
18. See Bach, Colonial Transformations, 120, 144.
19. Ramsey, “The Language of Urbanization,” 255. Ramsey draws attention to the way urbanization shapes what she terms the “social topography” of London: “Examples of indiscriminate building narratively precede accounts of social and economic change, so . . . the material topography appears to dictate the social topography” (254–55). I concentrate on the “shock” Londoners register as they try to make sense of their new surroundings. See Dening, Islands and Beaches, 94.
20. Thornbury, Old and New London, 196.
21. Thornbury, Old and New London, 196.
22. McRae, God Speed the Plough, 105.
23. Steggle, Richard Brome, 76–77. See also Julie Sanders’s discussion of this issue in her introduction to The Sparagus Garden, para. 18.
24. Bedford became a lightning rod for fen drainage opponents, prompting Charles’s intervention; see Sharpe, The Personal Rule of Charles I, 255.
25. Sharpe, The Personal Rule of Charles I, 252–54.
26. H. C., A Discourse Concerning the Drayning of Fennes, A4.
27. Lindley, Fenland Riots and the English Revolution, 8.
28. Lindley, Fenland Riots and the English Revolution, 9.
29. “A True and Natural Description,” 78.
30. Lindley, Fenland Riots and the English Revolution, 19.
31. “A True and Natural Description,” 80.
32. “A True and Natural Description,” 81.
33. Some of the main critics on enclosure include Hill, Liberty against the Law; E. P. Thompson, Customs in Common; and Burt and Archer, Enclosure Acts.
34. “A True and Natural Description,” 75.
35. “A True and Natural Description,” 75–76. On “interlocked physicality,” see Parrish, “Rummaging/In and Out of Holds,” 297.
36. “A True and Natural Description,” 75–76.
37. Netzloff, England’s Internal Colonies, 4.
38. Jonson, Bartholomew Fair, “The Induction on the Stage” (Ind.), 6–11.
39. The play conflates the Puritans with an economic underclass as equal scourges to the state. When the play was presented at court, the prologue welcomed James I by alluding to the ongoing hostilities between Puritans and the crown: “Your Majesty is welcome to a Fair; / Such place, such men, such language, and such ware, / You must expect; with these, the zealous noise / Of your land’s Faction, scandalized at toys, / As babies, hobby-horses, puppet-plays” (Pr. 1–5).
40. Jonson, Bartholomew Fair, 3.4.30–32.
41. Bach, Colonial Transformations, 124, 120.
42. Jonson’s The New Inne, as Bach explains, was supposed to serve as a rejoinder to Bartholomew Fair’s unruly state: “As a later development of Smithfield, The New Inne is a domesticated colonial space” (Colonial Transformations, 135).
43. Butler, Theatre and Crisis, 156.
44. Leslie, introduction, in Brome, The Weeding of Covent Garden, para. 48 and 51.
45. Crosswill claims that James’s and Charles’s insistence on the continuation of traditional country sports and pastimes—practices Puritans denounced—forced Gabriel into the town, along with the chance to speak to banned pastors (1.1.sp40). Gabriel was resistant to visit the town and was only induced to accompany his father because in the teeming metropolis he could meet with small pockets of his radical brethren.
46. “A True and Natural Description,” 74.
47. Steggle, Richard Brome, 47. See Newman, “Inigo Jones and the Politics of Architecture,” for a discussion of Jones’s involvement as the King’s Surveyor in Covent Garden’s uniform architecture. Also see Zucker: “In the planning of the piazza, Bedford sought the assistance of Inigo Jones . . . the driving force behind the Stuart aesthetic of urban uniformity” (“Laborless London,” 99). Discussing the Earl of Bedford’s connections between fen drainage schemes and the development of Covent Garden, Sanders, in her introduction to The Sparagus Garden, notes: “Much of the profits he made from the lucrative fen drainage schemes was ploughed back into the very material and tangible product of building the area of London known as Covent Garden” (para. 18).
48. This is akin to Zucker’s formulation that “the erotic tension occasioned by the threshold space of the balcony structures a scene of disorderly sexuality that directly threatens the social tenor of the neighborhood by invoking the labor of prostitutes” (“Laborless London,” 106).
49. Howard, Theater of a City, 2.
50. Turner, The English Renaissance Stage, 195. Howard and Turner articulate an oft-repeated sentiment about early Jacobean seventeenth-century drama. Butler states: “Plays by Brome, Shirley, and Davenant offered the audience images of themselves in parks, squares, taverns, and gaming houses, supplying standards against which forms and codes of behavior could be established” (Theatre and Crisis, 110–11).
51. Yiu, “Sounding the Space between Men,” 73.
52. Zucker takes Crosswill’s injunction at face value: “A conventional story of young lovers effects an imaginary space on stage temporally purged of dis-ease, labor, and disorder. The Covent Garden neighborhood reproduced in comic form is finally ‘fitt . . . for gentlemen’” (“Laborless London,” 108).
53. Steggle, Richard Brome, 52.
54. Schmitt quoted in Agamben, Homo Sacer, 11.
55. Prynne quoted in Steggle, Richard Brome, 48.
56. Agamben, Homo Sacer, 105.
57. Agamben, Homo Sacer, 37.
58. Howard, Theater of a City, 158.
59. Goodman, Hollands Leaguer, 80; Howard, Theater of a City, 160.
60. As Steggle puts it, the site’s “perceived sexual and pseudo-military unruliness clearly touched a raw nerve in Caroline culture.” See Steggle, “The Knave in Grain,” 356.
61. Goodman, Hollands Leaguer, 56, 76.
62. Goodman, Hollands Leaguer, 75.
63. Goodman, Hollands Leaguer, 76.
64. Goodman, Hollands Leaguer, 78, 79.
65. Goodman, Hollands Leaguer, 78.
66. Goodman, Hollands Leaguer, 56.
67. Marvell, “The Character of Holland,” ll. 71–74, in Marvell, The Poems of Andrew Marvell.
68. Richard Brome, The Sparagus Garden, Modern Text, 3.1.sp416, 3.1.sp418. All subsequent references to this play are from this edition and will be cited parenthetically by act, scene, and speech number (abbreviated “sp”). As Sanders points out, we need not think of this garden as the only such site in London but as possibly one of several, “competing with one another for business.” See Sanders, introduction to The Sparagus Garden, para. 23.
69. Shirley, Hyde Park, 2.4 (edition has no line numbers), p. 17.
70. Helgerson, Forms of Nationhood, 117.
71. Butler writes: “Brome asks insistently what the ‘country’ is. . . . A Jovial Crew is a truly national play written at a turning point in the history of the English stage and the English nation” (Theatre and Crisis, 275).
72. See Butler, Theatre and Crisis, 269.
73. Brome, A Jovial Crew, Modern Text, 3.1.sp364. Unless otherwise noted, subsequent references to this play are from this edition and will be cited parenthetically by act, scene, and speech number (abbreviated “sp”).
74. See also Steggle, Richard Brome, 173.
75. See Martin Butler’s entry for Brome in the ODNB.
76. Brome, A Jovial Crew, Quarto Text, 11–15.
77. Brome, A Jovial Crew, Quarto Text, 23, 25.
78. Brome, A Jovial Crew, Quarto Text, 19–20.
79. Walsham, The Reformation of the Landscape, 396.
80. Walsham, The Reformation of the Landscape, 564.
1. See Steggle, Richard Brome, 168, and Cave et al., critical introduction to A Jovial Crew, para. 13: “Because living a life of leisure is the aim of both [courtiers and beggars] . . . they exist not in opposition to each other but as mirror images.”
2. Even if Brome represents the beggars conservatively in A Jovial Crew, the women, Rachel and Meriel, present very real rebuttals to patriarchal culture.
3. See Markley, “‘Be Impudent, Be Saucy”: Behn’s “distrust of partisan politics and incipient capitalism leads her to promote an idealized vision of a monarchical and benevolently paternalistic order that paradoxically frees women, in particular, from the demands of the patrilineal ideology on which it ultimately depends” (115).
4. Behn, The City Heiress, Ep.38, in The Works of Aphra Behn, vol. 7. Subsequent passages from this play will be cited parenthetically by the abbreviation CH, section or act, scene, and line number(s).
5. Roach, “Performance,” 23.
6. Roach, “Performance,” 23.
7. Behn, The Rover, 3.1.124–25, in The Works of Aphra Behn, vol. 5. Subsequent passages from this play will be cited parenthetically by the abbreviation R, section or act, scene, and line number(s).
8. Hughes, The Theatre of Aphra Behn, 147.
9. Pacheco, “Rape and the Female Subject,” 338; see also Lowenthal, Performing Identities, 119–23. She ultimately argues that “Angellica Bianca is finally doomed because she proffers an authenticity that seeks to transcend the paint and the commodification” (123).
10. Turner, The English Renaissance Stage, 164.
11. Turner, The English Renaissance Stage, 164.
12. See, too, Anderson, Female Playwrights, 79.
13. See Van Renen, “Reimagining Royalism,” 500–501.
14. Markley, “Aphra Behn’s The City Heiress,” 157. See also Hughes, The Theatre of Aphra Behn, 155: “It is an odd manifesto which portrays the favoured party as burglars, rapists, Fopingtons and voyeurs, yet such is The City-Heiress.”
15. Markley, “‘Be Impudent, Be Saucy,’” 135.
16. Peggy Thompson, Coyness and Crime, 2.
17. Todd, The Secret Life of Aphra Behn, 236.
18. Todd, The Secret Life of Aphra Behn, 238.
19. Peggy Thompson, Coyness and Crime, 71.
20. Dryden, Absalom and Achitophel, lines 218–19, in The Works of John Dryden.
21. Boym, The Future of Nostalgia, 108.
22. Behn, The Works of Aphra Behn, 7:6.
23. As Janet Todd explains in The Sign of Angellica, in writing, politics, and love, Behn “felt herself to be open and sincere” (72).
24. Behn, The Works of Aphra Behn, 7:6.
25. Todd, The Secret Life of Aphra Behn, 24; see also Kietzman, The Self-Fashioning of an Early Modern Englishwoman, and Pritchard, Outward Appearances.
26. Behn, The Dutch Lover, Ep.13–15, in The Works of Aphra Behn, vol. 5.
27. Kietzman, The Self-Fashioning of an Early Modern Englishwoman, 283.
28. Howe, The First English Actresses, 95.
29. Behn, The Feign’d Curtizans, 3.1.412–16, in The Works of Aphra Behn, vol. 6.
30. “Wholesome, adj. and n.,” OED Online, Oxford University Press, June 2015.
31. Markley, “‘Be Impudent, Be Saucy,’” 135, 116.
32. Pacheco, “Rape and the Female Subject,” 336.
33. Markley, “‘Be Impudent, Be Saucy,’” 133.
34. Markley, “‘Be Impudent, Be Saucy,’” 116.
35. Van Renen, “Reimagining Royalism,” 501.
36. See Canfield, The Baroque in English Neoclassical Literature.
37. Pacheco, “Rape and the Female Subject,” 330.
38. Hughes, The Theatre of Aphra Behn, 149.
39. Hughes, “Aphra Behn and Restoration Theatre,” 43.
40. Hardt and Negri, Multitude, 201.
1. Brunsman, The Evil Necessity, 2, 3.
2. Addison, “Addison on the History of a Shilling,” The Tatler, no. 249, in Addison and Steele, The Commerce of Everyday Life, 185.
3. Addison, “Addison on the History of a Shilling,” The Tatler, no. 249, in Addison and Steele, The Commerce of Everyday Life, 187.
4. Lincoln, “The Culture of War and Civil Society,” 456.
5. Farquhar, The Works of George Farquhar, 2:4.2.148. Subsequent passages from this play are from this edition and will be cited parenthetically by act, scene, and line number(s).
6. Gardner, “George Farquhar’s The Recruiting Officer,” 43.
7. McKeon, The Origins of the English Novel, 174.
8. Hardt and Negri, Multitude, 53.
9. Stern, introduction to The Recruiting Officer, xx, vii.
10. Kaul, Eighteenth-Century British Literature and Postcolonial Theory, 3; emphasis in original.
11. In The Tatler, Richard Steele mocks how “Shop-Statesmen” read reports of the war and neglect personal and business matters (in Addison and Steele, The Commerce of Everyday Life, 69); because their sphere has widened too quickly, they cannot adjust to the vertiginous spatial and temporal rescaling. Farquhar’s rural laborers, however, are wise to the sergeant’s blandishments: they refuse the “Granadeers” cap that Kite offers to fit on the mob, a gesture that signals their inclusion in a select company, because it “smells woundily of Sweat and Brimstone” (1.1.25).
12. See Braverman, “Capital Relations and The Way of the World” and Plots and Counterplots, and, more recently, MacKenzie, “Sexual Arithmetic.” Braverman considers The Way of the World as a play that ushers in a new post-Revolution hero “who represents a socio-political order based on relations of trust” instead of arbitrary power (Plots and Counterplots, 213). MacKenzie contends that Congreve’s play reflects the movement “away from mercantilist orthodoxy towards theories of uninterrupted productive circulation” (271).
13. Gardner, “George Farquhar’s The Recruiting Officer,” 46.
14. Gardner, “George Farquhar’s The Recruiting Officer,” 55.
15. This pun invokes the tension between the landscape as an extension of sociocultural practices and nature in earlier English drama as well; see, for example, Springlove and Oldrents’s debate in Richard Brome’s A Jovial Crew. Oldrents asks, “What air is wanting?” (1.1.209). He fails to understand that his ownership of the land constrains the potential of Springlove’s transactions with “air” free from these connotations: “But pardon me to think / Their sufferings [pilgrims] are much sweetened by delights, / Such as we find by shifting place and air” (1.1.214–16).
16. Markley, “‘Casualties and Disasters,’” 104.
17. Blake, introduction and notes, 125n107.
18. Farquhar, The Constant Couple, in The Works of George Farquhar, 1:2.4.154.
19. Farquhar, The Constant Couple, in The Works of George Farquhar, 1:1.1.130–37.
20. Farquhar, The Beaux’ Stratagem, in The Works of George Farquhar, 2:5.4.116–17.
21. Farquhar, The Constant Couple, in The Works of George Farquhar, 1:2.4.81.
22. See MacPhee and Naimou, “‘What the World Looks Like.’”
23. Paster, Humoring the Body, 219.
24. Arbuthnot, An Essay Concerning the Effect of Air, 147.
25. Lewis, Air’s Appearance, 65.
26. Golinski, British Weather, 5.
27. Arbuthnot, An Essay Concerning the Effect of Air, 16.
28. Gardner, “George Farquhar’s The Recruiting Officer,” 51.
29. See Harrison, Climates and Constitutions, and Wahrman, ch. 3 of The Making of the Modern Self. Plume’s recruitment perhaps prepares the English for other climes; as Harrison observes, tropical climates were thought to be “harmful, if not deadly, to Europeans” (11). Of course, Plume’s airs also effect in a moment what tropical zones cause over time.
30. Arendt, The Human Condition, 51.
31. Stern, introduction to The Recruiting Officer, xi.
32. See Kelleher and O’Leary, The Cambridge History of Irish Literature, 378. Kelleher and O’Leary describe how the playwright “was among the first dramatists to realize that he was living in a world of rapid social transformation that had made identity malleable in a way ideally suited to stage comedy, and this awareness runs through almost all of his work” (378).
33. Heard, Experimentation on the English Stage, 88.
34. Gardner, “George Farquhar’s The Recruiting Officer,” 55.
35. Paster in G. A. Sullivan, Sleep, Romance and Human Embodiment, 23.
36. Lewis, Air’s Appearance, 65.
37. Dimock, “Aesthetics at the Limits of the Nation,” 530.
38. Timothy Morton describes how we have trouble conceptualizing global climate change because the weather has “exist[ed] as a neutral-seeming background against which events take place” (The Ecological Thought, 28).
39. Canfield, The Baroque in English Neoclassical Literature, 16.
40. Beach, “Carnival Politics,” 7.
41. David Roberts notes that the post–Glorious Revolution domestic literature “saw out the aggressive, discredited ideology of the Stuarts, to be replaced by a reformed comedy of ‘sentimental’ sociability” (Restoration Plays and Players, 171–72).
42. Shaffer, Performing Patriotism, 74.
43. Pincus, 1688, 13.
44. Colley, Britons, 112.
45. Thomson, The Seasons, Su.313–14.
46. See Van Renen, “‘A Hollow Moan.’”
47. See Orr, Empire on the English Stage. Orr observes that Plume “delegates” the labor of recruiting to Kite “and attracts no odium for these activities” (243), but Plume’s diminishment of marriage and other cherished modes of rural life is more insidious than Kite’s transparent scams; Kite’s long speech justifying his actions as self-preservation is more reminiscent of a struggling actor (3.1.134–40).
48. Farquhar is quite familiar with Dryden’s comedy. Archer, the impoverished rake who endeavors to restore his fortune through marriage, seduces Mrs. Sullen by fashioning himself as “Jupiter in Love, and you shall be my Alcmena” (The Beaux’ Stratagem, 2:5.2.31–32), Amphitryon’s wife.
49. Dryden, Amphitryon, 1.1.73–79, in The Works of John Dryden.
50. Stern, introduction to The Recruiting Officer, xiv.
51. Gardner, “George Farquhar’s The Recruiting Officer,” 50.
52. Mackie, Rakes, Highwaymen, and Pirates, 8, 9.
53. Shaffer, Performing Patriotism, 76.
54. Koot, “A ‘Dangerous Principle.’”
55. McLeod, The Geography of Empire, 15.
56. Arendt, The Human Condition, 237.
57. Gardner, “George Farquhar’s The Recruiting Officer,” 43; Stern, introduction to The Recruiting Officer, vii.
58. Dobie, “The Enlightenment at War,” 1852.
59. Mackie, Rakes, Highwaymen, and Pirates, 6.
1. In The Anatomy of Exchange-Alley, for example, Defoe laments that stockjobbing undermines England’s commercial prowess, characterized by its mercantile interests. In a critique reminiscent of Ben Jonson’s The Staple of News, Defoe decries that individuals’ susceptibility to “false” and “imaginary” news can make or break fortunes: “a compleat System of Knavery; that ’tis a Trade founded in Fraud, born of Deceit, and nourished by Trick, Cheat, Wheedle, Forgeries, Falshoods, and all sorts of Delusions; Coining false News, this way good, that way bad; whispering imaginary Terrors, Frights, Hopes, Expectations, and then preying upon the Weakness of those, whose imaginations they have wrought upon, whom they have either elevated or depress’d” (3–4).
2. Boluk and Lenz, “Infection, Media, and Capitalism,” 132.
3. Defoe, A Journal of the Plague Year, 78. All references are to this edition.
4. Gee, “The Invention of the Wasteland,” 89.
5. Roberts, introduction to Defoe, A Journal of the Plague Year, xix.
6. Roberts, introduction to Defoe, A Journal of the Plague Year, xxii.
7. Mackie, “Gulliver and the Houyhnhnm Good Life,” 111.
8. Hill, Liberty against the Law, 17.
9. Sorensen, “Vulgar Tongues,” 438. See, too, Netzloff, England’s Internal Colonies, and Stallybrass and White, The Poetics and Politics of Transgression.
10. Cervantes, “Convict Transportation,” 316, 317.
11. Defoe, The History and Remarkable Life of the Truly Honourable Col. Jacque, 162.
12. Gaby, “Of Vagabonds and Commonwealths,” 406, 407.
13. Mackie, “Gulliver and the Houyhnhnm Good Life,” 110.
14. Berlant describes how the “fantasies that are fraying include, particularly, upward mobility, job security, political and social equality, and lively durable intimacy” (Cruel Optimism, 3).
15. Berlant, Cruel Optimism, 44.
16. Berlant, Cruel Optimism, 10.
17. Brome, A Jovial Crew, sp1.1.54.
18. Boym, The Future of Nostalgia, 54.
19. Hardt and Negri, Multitude, 170.
20. Hardt and Negri, Multitude, 176.
21. Hardt and Negri, Multitude, 133, 134.
22. Mackie, introduction to The Commerce of Everyday Life, 6.
23. Defoe, Robinson Crusoe, 48.
24. Dryden, Annus Mirabilis, ll. 1162–63, in The Works of John Dryden.
25. Foucault, The History of Sexuality, 143.
26. Copeland, “Defoe and the London Wall,” 413.
27. Ingrassia, Authorship, Commerce, and Gender, 19.
28. During, Exit Capitalism, 25.
29. Wall, The Literary and Cultural Spaces of Restoration London, 142.
30. McDowell, “Defoe and the Contagion of the Oral,” 101.
31. Melissa Mowry describes Defoe as rejecting working poor communities and reinstating “the state as the ascendant social category” in his Moll Flanders. Defoe, she argues, especially maligns “a debased and effeminate commonality” and reassigns work as “a solitary contribution to the commonweal” (“Women, Work, Rearguard Politics,” 110, 101, 98).
32. Mackie, “Being Too Positive about the Public Sphere,” 98; emphasis in original.
33. H.F. reports that “out Ports . . . enjoyed a very great trade, especially to the adjacent countries and to our own plantations.” He adds, “The Cities of Bristol and Exeter, with the port of Plymouth, had the like advantage to Spain, to the Canaries, to Guinea, and to the West Indies, and particularly to Ireland” (186). However, the plague eventually spread to these commercial centers, and other countries refused to trade with England.
34. Boluk and Lenz, “Infection, Media, and Capitalism,” 131. And contagion provides the ideational basis for international trade; see Nixon, “Keep Bleeding.”
35. Mackie, introduction to The Commerce of Everyday Life, 31.
36. I am mindful of Tim Harris’s claims of the many distinctions in the “London crowd.” Yet I am arguing that H.F. gradually responds to the whole spectrum of the “other” London, women, “destitute poor, vagrants, beggars, and slum-dwellers” (Harris, London Crowds, 12).
37. Roberts, introduction to Defoe, A Journal of the Plague Year, 241n97.
38. Sudan, Fair Exotics, 159n24.
39. Appadurai, “Introduction,” 38.
40. Appadurai, “Introduction,” 56.
41. Hardt and Negri, Multitude, 137.
42. Hardt and Negri, Multitude, 146.
43. Hardt and Negri, Multitude, 130.
44. Hardt and Negri, Multitude, 130.
45. Hardt and Negri, Multitude, 131.
46. Earle, A City Full of People, 111.
47. Dunn, The Political Economy of Global Capitalism and Crisis, 17.
48. Defoe, The History and Remarkable Life of the Truly Honourable Col. Jacque, 46.
49. Smollett, The Expedition of Humphry Clinker, 86. See, too, Van Renen, “Biogeography, Climate, and National Identity in Smollett’s Humphry Clinker.”
50. Landa in Defoe, A Journal of the Plague Year, 240n87.
51. Boym, The Future of Nostalgia, 77.
52. Boym, The Future of Nostalgia, 50.
53. DeGabriele, “Intimacy, Survival, and Resistance,” 13.
54. DeGabriele, “Intimacy, Survival, and Resistance,” 15.
55. Cruise, “Defoe’s Grammatology,” 491.
56. Boluk and Lenz, “Infection, Media, and Capitalism,” 131.
57. Hardt and Negri, Multitude, 153.
58. See Netzloff, England’s Internal Colonies.
59. See, too, DeGabriele, who terms the travelers a “self-sufficient state” (“Intimacy, Survival, and Resistance,” 13).
60. Morton, The Ecological Thought, 48.
61. Morton, The Ecological Thought, 7.
62. Roberts, introduction to Defoe, A Journal of the Plague Year, xvii. In Moll Flanders Defoe describes Moll’s “WANDRING” as leading to “a Voice spoken to me over my Shoulder” to begin her life of crime (151). Mowry treats this section in depth (“Women, Work, Rearguard Politics”). For me “wandring” provides access to otherwise unavailable ontologies.
63. Hardt and Negri write: “We are a multiplicity of singular forms of life and at the same time share a common global existence. The anthropology of the multitude is an anthropology of singularity and commonality” (Multitude, 127).
64. McDowell, “Defoe and the Contagion of the Oral,” 92. Gilman makes a similar point in Plague Writing in Early Modern England, 230–31.
65. McDowell, “Defoe and the Contagion of the Oral,” 100.
66. John orders “the Joyner Richard to Work to cut some Poles out of the Trees, and shape them as like Guns as he could” (117).
67. Hardt and Negri, Multitude, 152.
1. Fuchs, Romance, 116.
2. Haywood, The British Recluse, 223. Subsequent references to this novel will be cited parenthetically by page number.
3. Backscheider, introduction, in Haywood, Selected Fiction and Drama of Eliza Haywood, xxi.
4. See, too, King, “Genre Crossings,” 86–100
5. Ingrassia and Dillon link credit-based finance with novels. Ingrassia explicitly explains, “Reading a novel, like investing in a speculative financial venture, demanded readers’ imaginative participation in a narrative that could potentially be a vehicle with which early modern subjects could reinvent themselves and envisage their lives differently” (Authorship, Commerce, and Gender, 2). Credit-based finance “involves an explicitly fictive element—stories, sayings, and apparitions are all forms of the imaginative work upon which contract and credit rely” (Dillon, “The Original American Novel,” 245). Marc Shell, too, observes, “Credit, or belief, involves the very ground of aesthetic experience, and the same medium that seems to confer belief in fiduciary money (bank notes) and in scriptural money (created in the process of bookkeeping) also seems to confer it in literature” (Money, Language, and Thought, 7). But these critics sometimes conflate romance and the novel. Borrowing from Lukács, I hope to demonstrate how a romance offers an entirely different socioeconomic worldview.
6. See Watt, The Rise of the Novel. For a counterexample, see Paige, Before Fiction. Paige asserts that language about the “rise” of the novel misleads: “It’s convenient to think of fiction rising, but a slope that goes on for so long may be closer to a stretch of even ground” (23). Recent criticism has witnessed a slew of reevaluations of Watt, including Aravamudan, Enlightenment Orientalism, and Moretti, The Novel, books that chart global influences on the form.
7. Lukács, The Theory of the Novel, 64.
8. McKeon, “Watt’s Rise of the Novel,” 255.
9. Lukács, The Theory of the Novel, 64. 63.
10. Lukács, The Theory of the Novel, 64. 63.
11. Lukács, The Theory of the Novel, 64.
12. Lukács, The Theory of the Novel, 64.
13. Lukács, The Theory of the Novel, 64.
14. Lukács, The Theory of the Novel, 64; Haywood, The Agreeable Caledonian, 84.
15. Lukács, The Theory of the Novel, 73.
16. Lukács, The Theory of the Novel, 76, 77.
17. Lukács, The Theory of the Novel, 80.
18. Haywood, The Mercenary Lover, in Selected Fiction and Drama of Eliza Haywood, 143. All other citations will be cited parenthetically.
19. Lukács, The Theory of the Novel, 85.
20. Lukács, The Theory of the Novel, 64.
21. Shell, Money, Language, and Thought, 14.
22. Shell, Money, Language, and Thought, 19.
23. Lukács, The Theory of the Novel, 83.
24. McKeon, The Secret History of Domesticity, 255; Lukács, The Theory of the Novel, 60.
25. Haywood, The City Jilt, in Selected Fiction and Drama of Eliza Haywood, 88.
26. Haywood, The City Jilt, in Selected Fiction and Drama of Eliza Haywood, 93.
27. Lukács, The Theory of the Novel, 84, 79.
28. For a different reading, see Tierney-Hynes, “Fictional Mechanics.”
29. Ingrassia, Authorship, Commerce, and Gender, 97.
30. Dillon, “The Original American Novel,” 245.
31. McKeon, The Secret History of Domesticity, 444.
32. Mayer, “Did You Say Middle Class?,” 290.
33. King, A Political Biography of Eliza Haywood, 9.
34. Laurence, Maltby, and Rutterford remind us that “women had been significant investors as early as 1685 and were able legally to deal in the market because, being a new phenomenon, no one had thought to exclude them” (Women and Their Money, 4).
35. Dale, The First Crash, 4.
36. The Advantages of the East-India Trade to England, 46.
37. The Advantages of the East-India Trade to England, 46.
38. Reading romance supposedly miseducates, a commonplace famously illustrated by the characters of Don Quixote and Emma Bovary. This characterization seems almost perpetrated by savvy novelists to diminish a rival form. If anything, the mimetic realism of the novel, because it has a greater propensity to capture readers’ attention than the obvious artifice of the romance, constrains growth. See, too, Fuchs’s discussion of Clara Reeve’s The Progress of Romance (1785), 108–9.
39. Ingrassia, Authorship, Commerce, and Gender, 88.
40. King, A Political Biography of Eliza Haywood, 39.
41. Backscheider, introduction, in Haywood, Selected Fiction and Drama of Eliza Haywood, xxi.
42. Backscheider, introduction, in Haywood, Selected Fiction and Drama of Eliza Haywood, xx.
43. Lukács, The Theory of the Novel, 81.
44. McKeon, “Watt’s Rise of the Novel,” 257, 258.
45. Lukács, The Theory of the Novel, 77.
46. Lukács, The Theory of the Novel, 78.
47. Ingrassia, Authorship, Commerce, and Gender, 100.
48. Johnson, The Lives of the Poets, 65.
49. Lukács, The Theory of the Novel, 72–73.
50. Lukács, The Theory of the Novel, 78.
1. Swift, “A Description of a City Shower,” in The Essential Writings of Jonathan Swift, l. 29. Subsequent citations of line numbers refer to this edition.
2. Fabricant, Swift’s Landscape, 72.
3. Fabricant, Swift’s Landscape, 75.
4. Rosenberg, Critical Enthusiasm, 173, 177.
5. Rosenberg, Critical Enthusiasm, 182, 173, 174.
6. Golinski, British Weather, 2.
7. Addison, The Spectator, no. 61, in Addison and Steele, The Commerce of Everyday Life.
8. “Nap, n. 2,” OED Online, Oxford University Press, March 2016.
9. See Rosenberg, Critical Enthusiasm, 176–78.
10. Benedict, “Encounters with the Object,” 203.
11. Arendt, The Human Condition, 125–26.