Illustrations and photos are indicated by bold page numbers.
Acidelia. See photo section
Adirondack (Spirit's first rock), 179, 180
aerobraking, 109–10, 117–18, 150, 159, 199–201
example of, 200
as a way to save fuel, 109, 159, 199
See also photo section
See also photo section
airbags, 245
and the Mars Exploration Rovers, 173, 174, 185, 186
and Mars Express, 144
not being used for MSL lander, 254
and Pathfinder, 124–25, 127, 135–36, 147, 282
and the Phoenix lander, 245
air on Mars. See atmosphere on Mars
airplanes, developing for Mars use, 269
Alba Mons (aka Alba Patera), 30–32
albedo features on Mars, 33
Albor Tholis (volcano), 31
Aldrin, Buzz, 268
Alice in Wonderland (Carroll) and naming Mars features, 238
Alpha Proton X-Ray Spectrometer (APXS), 123, 131, 172, 256, 261, 281
Al Qahira (ancient Arabic name for Mars), 37
Amazonian Period, 33
Amazonis Planatia (Amazonian Plain), 33
American Association for the Advancement of Science, 43
American Astronomical Society, 189
Ames Research Center (NASA), 247, 271, 273, 283
ammonia on Mars, 145
andesite rock, 131
Angaraka (Sanskrit name for Mars), 37
Angry Red Planet (movie), 49
Antarctica, 214, 243, 276, 283, 284, 309n1 (chap. 24)
as analogy for Mars, 104, 204, 248, 271, 274, 276–77, 278, 284–85
katabatic (gravity-fed) winds (aka drainage wind), 276, 312n2
meteors found that originated on Mars, 36
Antoniadi, Eugene (efforts to map Mars). See photo section
Apollo program, 21, 73–74, 136, 152, 177, 198, 253, 255, 257, 268, 291, 298n2
Apollo-Soyuz Test Project, 291
Apple Macintosh®, 159, 196, 310n2
APXS. See Alpha Proton X-Ray Spectrometer
Arabia Terra (Land of Arabia), 33, 163
Arctic as analogy for Mars, 274, 276–77, 285–87
See also Devon Island
Ares (Greek name for Mars), 38
Arkhangelsky Crater. See photo section
Arsia Mons (shield volcano), 30
Artistarchus of Samos, 39
Ascraeus Mons (shield volcano), 30
ASP. See automated sequence processor
asteroid, mission to visit, 190, 293–94
Atacama Desert, 271, 273–76, 284
Atlas rocket, 302n1
atmosphere on Mars, 27, 34, 35, 41, 74, 91, 135, 145, 209–10
atmospheric pressure, 32, 66, 101–102
measuring atmospheric effect on radio waves, 53
spectroscopic analyses of, 45, 64
See also weather on Mars
atomic force microscope (AFM), 233
Aurorae Sinus (Bay of the Dawn), 33
automated sequence processor (ASP), 116
autonomous hazard-avoidance software, 178, 181
See also photo section
axial tilt of Mars, 27–28, 34, 40
barchan (type of sand dune).
See photo section
“Barnacle Bill” (Sojourner's first rock), 121, 127–28
Barsoom (name for Mars in Burroughs's literature), 49
See also volcanic activity on Mars
bathtub ring (layer of sediment around Victoria Crater), 222
BDL. See “Big, Dumb Landers”
“beach balls.” See airbags
See also “blueberries”
Big Mac®, cost of compared to big Mars missions, 121
“blueberries” (hematite spherules), 182–83, 185–86, 213, 215, 222–23, 262
See also photo section
Bonneville (crater approached by Spirit), 183
“bridles” used to assist MSL lander, 254
brightness. See albedo features on Mars
Brin, David, 261
California Institute of Technology (Caltech), 23, 58, 67, 69–70, 79, 87, 99, 154, 267
Cameron, James, 255
Cameron, Roy, 104
Campbell, William Wallace, 44–45
Canadian Arctic. See Arctic as analogy for Mars
canals of Mars theory of Lowell, 45–48, 47, 102–103
See also photo section
Cape Verde (inside Victoria Crater). See photo section
carbon dioxide on Mars, 29, 34, 64, 66, 91, 102, 145, 209, 238
Carter, John (fictional character), 49
Carter, Julia (fictional character), 289–90
Case for Mars, The (Zubrin), 285–86
Cassini, Giovanni, 40
Cassini mission, 243, 309n1 (chap. 22)
Centauri Montes (crater), 113
Center for Planetary Exploration, 99
Ceres (asteroid), 267
Challenger (space shuttle), 302n1
ChemCam, 256
Chinese space plans, 293
Chryse Planitia (Golden Plain) (Viking 1's landing spot), 21, 23–24, 86–87, 90, 91, 126
See also photo section
clays, water-derived, 204, 248, 258
climate of Mars. See weather on Mars
clouds. See weather on Mars
CNN (TV network), 141
Cobra Heads (rocks examined by Spirit), 214
Collier's Weekly (magazine), 291
Columbia (space shuttle), 174, 192, 217
Columbia Hills (in Gusev), 183, 187, 191–92, 213, 214
communications
with Earth from Mars, 89. See also photo section
dealing with time lag, 18, 52–53, 89, 139, 176–79, 221, 231
and the MER rovers, 171–72, 179–80
US communications with space vehicles
Mars Climate Orbiter, 151
Mars Global Surveyor ending communication, 113–14
See also Deep Space Network
Compact Reconnaissance Imaging Spectrometers for Mars (CRISM), 196–97, 205
Constellation/Mars mission, 293–94
Context Imager (CTX), 196–97, 204–205
Copernicus, Nicolaus, 39
Cornell University, 189, 190, 267
Cosmos 419 (Soviet Union), 149
craters on Mars, 29, 31, 51, 54–56, 59, 86, 111, 161, 187, 192–93, 207
formation of in Noachian Period, 32
hydrated materials found in, 203
See also names of specific craters, i.e., Bonneville, Victoria, etc.
CRISM. See Compact Reconnaissance Imaging Spectrometers for Mars
“cross-lamination,” 185
Crystal Cave (Mexico), testing for noninvasive analysis, 283–84
CTX. See Context Imager
Curiosity (rover), 253–59, 262
compared to other rovers, 253–54
See also Mars Science Laboratory project
cyanobacteria, 284
Cydonia area, 112
DAN. See Dynamic Albedo of Neutrons device
day (sol), length of on Mars, 27, 40, 124, 238
See also photo section
decontamination, need for. See planetary quarantine of Mars
Deep Space 1, size of data return from, 309n1 (chap. 22)
Deep Space 2, failure of, 150
Deep Space A and B (impactors), 153
Deep Space Network (DSN), 61, 69–70, 231
See also photo section
Deimos (terror) (name of one of Mars's moons), 38, 43, 77, 184
See also photo section
de-Lowellization of beliefs about Mars, 102–103
Delta rocket, 108, 109, 152, 158, 302n1
descent imagers. See DISR (the Descent Imager/Spectral Radiometer); Mars Descent Imager
Devon Island (in Arctic, site of FMARS), 271, 272, 274
dirt on Mars. See soil on Mars
Discovery Channel (TV network), 272
DISR (the Descent Imager/Spectral Radiometer), 244
distance
between Mars and Earth, 27, 39, 52–53, 144, 158–59
of Mars from the sun, 46
Dr. Carl Sagan Memorial Station, 124
Dodo (trench dug by Phoenix), 237
drainage wind (aka katabatic or gravity-fed), 276, 312n2
driver's education classes for rover drivers. See Field Integrated Design and Operations
DSN. See Deep Space Network
Duck Bay (in Victoria Crater, found by Opportunity), 221
dust on Mars
dust clouds, 75, 75–76, 80, 206–207
dust storms, 75, 75–76, 78, 80, 85, 91, 210, 221–22. See photo section; weather on Mars
DVD containing four million names, 174–75
Dynamic Albedo of Neutrons device (DAN), 256
Eagle Crater (actual landing site for Opportunity), 181–82, 185, 186, 192, 223, 226
Earth
life beginning on Mars and coming to Earth, 35–36, 299n5
and Martian meteorites, 131
as a “terrestrial” planet, 298n3
using places on Earth to mimic Mars, 271–79, 281–88. See also names of specific places, i.e., Antarctica, Atacama Desert, etc.
See also communications
earth organisms, danger of on Mars. See planetary quarantine of Mars
earthquakes. See “Marsquakes”
El Capitan (area near Opportunity Ledge), 182
Electra (radio on MRO), 198
elevations of Martian topography, 111
Elysium Mons (volcano), 31, 145–46
Endeavor Crater (targeted by Opportunity), 193, 225, 226, 228
See also photo section
Endurance Crater (searched by Opportunity), 186–87, 214–15, 217, 223, 226
engineering experiment as description of Mariner 6 and 7, 63, 68
HMS Erebus (British exploration vessel), 309n1 (chap. 24)
Erebus Crater (Opportunity examined), 219, 309n1 (chap. 24)
European Space Agency, 200, 267, 297n1
and the ExoMars probe, 146, 268, 306n4, 311n1 (chap. 29)
and the Mars Express mission, 143–46
potential missions 2021–2030, 294
EVAs (Extra Vehicular Activities), 272
ExoMars probe, 146, 268, 306n4, 311n1 (chap. 29)
explosions, use of, 23
extraterrestrial life. See life on Mars
Extra Vehicular Activities. See EVAs
face in the Cydonia area, 112, 303n3
Failure Review Board, 153
Feynman, Richard, 58
Field Integrated Design and Operations (FIDO), 176–78
“fire star” (Chinese name for Mars), 38
Flammarion, Camille, 41–43, 45
Flashline Research Station (FMARS), simulating Mars missions on Earth, 271–73, 285
Florida State University, 283
FMARS. See Flashline Research Station
Fourier Spectrometer, 144
Friedmann, Imre, 283
frost heave, 203
fuel for Mars missions, 18, 21, 169, 212
need for extra fuel for braking into orbit, 74
use of aerobraking to save fuel, 109, 159, 199
galactic cosmic rays, 164
Gale Crater (MSL landing site), 212, 257
See also photo section
Galileo program, 134
gamma-ray spectrometer, 158, 162, 247
Gas Chromatograph/Mass Spectrometer experiment (Viking landers), 88, 91–92, 95, 100
Gas-Exchange experiment (Viking landers), 88, 95
elevations of Martian topography measured, 111
See also craters on Mars; oceans on Mars; polar caps of Mars; volcanic activity on Mars
geology on Mars, 29, 31, 54–55, 90, 104, 110, 127, 128, 162, 204, 264–65
diversity of geology found, 262
Gusev as a geologic transition zone, 173
geologically active planet, 182–83, 217, 311n1 (chap. 29)
molten core, 29, 111, 120. See also magnetic field on Mars
three geologic eras, 32–33, 145
See also rocks on Mars; volcanic activity on Mars; water on Mars
glaciers, 205
goethite, 216
Goldilocks (trench dug by Phoenix), 237
“Goldilocks Zone” (aka “habitable zone”), 28, 298n1
gravity of Mars, 28, 29, 77, 198
Great Galactic Ghoul and mission failures, 147–55, 157, 159, 202
JPL regaining public trust with Mars Odyssey mission, 162
timeline of mission failures, 148–50
Green Valley (Phoenix landing site), 234
Gulliver (used on Viking), 103
Gusev (crater, Spirit landing site), 173, 183, 216
Half Dome (rock Sojourner got stuck on), 130
Halley's Comet, 218
Hank's Hollow (Spirit examined), 213
Hartley 2 (comet), 267
Haughton Impact crater (Devon Island), 273, 274
HD. See high definition, Mars seen in
heat shield, 18, 124, 253, 254 and John Glenn, 9–10
rovers finding their own on Mars, 183, 217, 218
Heat Shield Rock (examined by Opportunity), 217
Hecates Tholus (volcano), 31
Hellas Planitia (basin), 32
hematite (iron oxide), 38, 39, 215, 302–303n2
“blueberries” (hematite spherules), 182–83, 185–86, 213, 222–23, 262. See also photo section
relationship to water, 111, 181, 183, 213, 216, 262, 302–303n2
HEND. See High Energy Neutron Detector
Herschel, William, 40
Hesperian Period, 33
high definition, Mars seen in, 195–207, 255
High Energy Neutron Detector (HEND), 158
High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment (HIRISE), 196, 197, 204–207
Hobby, George, 101
Home Plate (examined by Spirit), 219
Horus (Egyptian God). See photo section
Horus Am Akhet (Horus on the horizon), then Horus Her Deshur (Horus the red) (Egyptian name for Mars), 37–38
Hubbard, Jerry, 101
Hubble Space Telescope. See photo section
Humphrey (one of Spirit's rocks), 182
Huntress, Wesley, 135
Husband Hill (climbed by Spirit), 217, 219
Huygens probe (of Titan, Saturn's moon), 243–44
hydrated materials. See water on Mars
hydrazine, 21
hydrogen on Mars, 158, 160, 167, 256
IBM, 232
ice. See permafrost; water on Mars, water ice
IMP (camera used by Pathfinder mission), 245
infrared imaging on Mars, 62, 64, 101, 111, 144, 162, 175, 176, 196, 262
See also Mars Climate Sounder; Thermal Emission Imaging System; Thermal Emission Spectrometer
“intelligent Martian” club, 41–49, 54
and face in the Cydonia area, 112, 303n3
International Space Station, 164, 293
iron on Mars, 38, 173, 217, 262
iron oxide. See hematite
lack of an iron-rich core, 111
James Webb Space Telescope, 267
Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), 17, 23, 24, 297n2, 304–305n1
ability to extend missions, 113
Bruce Murray as director of, 68
cooperative efforts of, 267–70, 309–10n1. See also Phoenix lander
impact of government frugality on, 108
internal review on software error ending MGS mission, 303–304n4
“JPL'ers.” See Brooks, Robert (Bob); Crisp, Joy; Horowitz, Norman; Leighton, Robert; Manning, Robert (Rob); Murray, Bruce; Plaut, Jeffrey; Smith, Peter; Soderblom, Laurence; Squyres, Steve; Zurek, Richard
measuring atmospheric effect on radio waves, 53
mission failures, 147–55, 157, 159, 202. See also Great Galactic Ghoul and mission failures
regaining public trust, 162
timeline of mission failures, 148–50
publishing the Universe (JPL newspaper), 133
See also longevity of Mars missions; National Aeronautics and Space Administration; unmanned explorations sent to Mars
Jupiter (planet), 267
Karatepe (Black Hill) (Opportunity's entry point in Endurance Crater), 215
katabatic (gravity-fed) winds (aka drainage wind), 276, 312n2
Labeled-Release experiment (Viking landers), 88, 95
Lahonten Crater (examined by Spirit), 213
Langley Research Center, 133
La planète Mars (Flammarion), 45
laser-powered radar (LIDAR), 234
Last Chance (rock examined by Opportunity), 184, 185
Late Heavy Bombardment (period of impacts), 32
Lee, Pascal, 271
Levin, Gilbert, 103
LIDAR. See laser-powered radar life on Mars, 35–36, 55, 59
attempts to keep Earth microbes off of Mars, 21, 297n2
chemical reactions mimicking life, 95
conditions necessary for, 298n1. See also
“Goldilocks Zone”
“dead Mars” group not believing in, 34, 81. See also photo section
early misunderstandings about (“intelligent Martian” club), 41–49, 54
and face in the Cydonia area, 112, 303n3
importance of finding water, 181, 204
looking at extremophiles on Earth as a way to study, 283
Mars Odyssey search for, 160, 162
MSL project's search for, 263
Norman Horowitz's efforts to find, 99–105
panspermia theory, 299n5
and presence of perchlorate, 34, 240, 250, 278
search for life-forms in soil, 85, 88–89, 93–95
search for organics as precursors to life, 233, 248–49
Viking program's search for, 83–97
experiments planned, 84, 88–89, 93, 95, 100–101
See also microbes on Mars; photo section
light-toned deposits (LTDs), 204
Lockheed Martin, 108, 158, 171, 195, 231, 244
longevity of Mars missions, 77, 96, 114, 120–21, 164, 168–69, 259, 267, 301n1 (chap. 8)
Lowell, Percival, 23–24, 34, 41, 45–49, 47, 56, 58, 101
See also photo section
Lowell Observatory, 85
“Low Power Fault” (safe mode for Mars rovers), 222
LTDs. See light-toned deposits
Ma'adim Vallis valley, 174
Macintosh® computer. See Apple Macintosh®
Magellan, Ferdinand, 219
Magellan Venus project, 190, 309n1 (chap. 22)
magnetic field on Mars seeming lack of, 29, 120 weakness of, 55, 111
magnetometer, 111
magnets, use of to study ferrous metal, 175
MAHLI. See Mars Hand Lens Imager
Malin Space Science Systems, 255
Mangala (Hindu name for Mars), 37
Manning, Robert (Rob), 9–11, 133–41, 281–82
mapping of Mars
from Earth
Antoniadi's work. See photo section
composite of telescopic images of Mars. See photo section
Flammarion's work, 41
Lowell's work, 45–48, 47. See photo section
naming features on Mars, 33, 44
Schiaparelli's work, 41, 43–44, 44. See photo section
from the Hubble Space Telescope. See photo section
on Mars
by Sojourner and Pathfinder, 176, 178, 179
from orbit
by Mariner missions, 74–76, 80, 84
Mars Global Surveyor, 110, 111, 117
Mars Odyssey, 158, 159, 163, 167, 168
by Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter using HD, 197, 201, 206
Viking orbiters' analyses, 112. See also photo section
See also photographing Mars
MARCI. See Mars Color Imager
MARDI. See Mars Descent Imager
Mare Erythraeum (Erythraean Sea), 33
Mare Sirenum (Sea of Sirens), 33
MARIE. See Mars Radiation Environment Experiment
Mariner program
Mariner 1 (failure of), 52
Mariner 2 (flyby of Venus), 52, 57
Mariner 3 (failure of), 51–52, 148
Mariner 4 (NASA's first journey to Mars), 51–60, 73, 81, 102, 103, 137, 182, 198, 209–10. See also photo section
amount of Martian surface studied, 84
compared to Mariner 6 and 7, 61, 62, 64, 68
Mariner 6 (to Mars), 20, 61–66, 65, 81, 84, 209–10
Mariner 7 (to Mars), 20, 61–66, 65, 84, 209–10
Mariner 8 (failure of), 64, 74, 77–78, 80, 149
Mariner 9 (to Mars), 54, 64, 69, 73–78, 104, 110, 210. See also photo section
amount of Martian surface studied, 84
discovering volcanoes, 75, 76–77, 80
finding water channels, 191
first to orbit another world, 74, 79–80, 209
longevity of mission, 77, 301n1 (chap. 8)
quality of photos from, 20, 85, 126
showing volcanic activity, 31
Mariner 10 (to Mercury), 67–71, 78
total cost of, 78
Marley, Bob, 175
Mars (Lowell), 46
Mars (planet)
basic planetary information, 27–36
early misunderstandings about (“intelligent Martian” club), 41–49, 54
and face in the Cydonia area, 112, 303n3
future of explorations of a crewed mission to Mars, 288, 291
potential missions 2010–2030, 292–94
history of man's interest in, 37–50
as a “terrestrial” planet, 32, 298n3
See also northern hemisphere of Mars; polar caps of Mars; southern hemisphere of Mars; unmanned explorations sent to Mars
Mars (Roman name for Greek god Ares), 38
Mars and Its Canals (Lowell), 46
Mars as the Abode of Life (Lowell), 46
Mars Climate Orbiter (MCO), failure of, 150–52, 154, 211, 229, 231, 246, 249, 268
Mars Climate Sounder (MCS), 197, 202
Mars Color Imager (MARCI), 197
Mars Descent Imager (MARDI), 256
Mars Exploration Rovers mission (MER), 120, 161, 166, 171–87, 193, 212, 213–28, 232, 261, 262
compared to MSL rover, 253
finding own airbag, 184–85, 186
Sojourner as a first step toward, 132
use of Mars Odyssey as a relay station, 101, 164
use of as relay station for MER, 171
use of “rocker-bogie” system from the Sojourner rover, 175, 308n1 (chap. 20)
See also Opportunity (rover); photo section; Spirit (rover)
Mars Express mission (of Russian Federation and European Space Agency), 143–46, 166, 200, 267, 311n1 (chap. 29)
Mars Global Surveyor (MGS) program, 108–14, 112, 131, 151, 153, 161, 162, 200
end of mission, 113–14, 120–21, 303–304n4
and Mars Odyssey, 163
size of data return from, 309n1 (chap. 22)
use of as relay station for MER, 101, 164, 171
use of redundancy in planning, 307n1 (chap. 18)
See also photo section
Mars Hand Lens Imager (MAHLI), 255–56
Mars Hill (Lowell's observatory), 46
MARSIS radar altimeter, 144–46
Mars missions by the Soviet Union. See Soviet Union's space programs, attempts to probe Mars
Mars 96 mission, failure of, 143
Mars Observer (MO) program, 115, 116
losing communication, 107–108, 149
Mars Odyssey program, 112, 145, 157–64, 171, 200, 232, 234, 247, 267, 307n1 (chap. 18)
comparing photos taken by MRO, 207
enabling selection of future landing sites, 161
longest operational spacecraft at Mars, 164, 168–69
size of data return from, 309n1 (chap. 22)
use of as relay station for MER, 101, 164, 171
working with MGS, 163
Mars Polar Lander (MPL), failure of, 150–54, 166, 211, 229, 230, 246, 249, 268
See also photo section
Mars Program Independent Assessment Team, 154
Mars Radiation Environment Experiment (MARIE), 158, 164, 168
Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) program, 113, 145, 166, 195–207, 200, 235, 267
comparing photos taken by Mars Odyssey, 207
photographing Phoenix lander, 205, 206, 234
size of data return from, 195, 309n1 (chap. 22)
See also photo section
Mars sample-return mission, 268–69
Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) project, 11, 96, 133, 169, 200, 212, 253–59, 277, 285, 310–11n1
Curiosity compared to other rovers, 253–54
See also Curiosity (rover); photo section
Mars Society, the, 271, 272, 285–88
See also Flashline Research Station
Mars Surveyor Lander program (canceled), 166, 229, 247
Mars Surveyor Operations Project (MSOP), 115–16, 151–52
Martian Chronicles, The (Bradbury), 49–50
mascons (mass concentrations), 29, 198, 298n2
mass spectrometer, 19
Mastcam (camera mounted to mast of rover), 255
MAVEN (Scout-class program), 267–68
McKay, Chris, 247, 273–77, 283–85, 286
MCO. See Mars Climate Orbiter
MCS. See Mars Climate Sounder
MECA. See Microscopy, Electrochemistry, and Conductivity Analyzer
MEDLI. See MSL Entry Descent and Landing
Instrumentation
MER. See Mars Exploration Rovers mission
Mercury (planet), 111
Mariner 10 mission to, 67, 78, 267. See also photo section
as a “terrestrial” planet, 298n3
Mercury Theater of the Air (radio program), 49
Meridiani Planum (intended landing site for Opportunity), 181, 183, 184, 192, 222, 227
See also photo section
meteor, first found on another planet, 217
meteorology on Mars. See weather on Mars
meteors on Earth originating from Mars, 36
methane on Mars, 145, 146, 233, 311n1 (chap. 29)
MGS. See Mars Global Surveyor program
microbes on Mars, 35–36, 55, 168, 248
attempts to keep Earth microbes off of Mars, 21, 297n2
Norman Horowitz's efforts to find, 99–105
testing techniques on Earth for finding on Mars, 104, 275, 278–79
Viking program's search for, 83–97
experiments planned, 84, 88–89, 93, 95, 100–101
See also life on Mars; photo section
Microscopic Imager, 172
Microscopy, Electrochemistry, and Conductivity Analyzer (MECA), 233
Mid-Atlantic Ridge (on Earth), 30
Middle Ages characterization of Mars's influence on man, 38–39
Mini Cooper® car, 254
mission failures. See Great Galactic Ghoul and mission failures
MO. See Mars Observer program
moons of Mars, 38, 41, 43, 184, 294
photos of by Mariner 9, 77
Moses Lake, Washington, 282
Mössbauer spectrometer, 173, 262
Motorola Power PC® chip, 159, 196
Mount Wilson Observatory data that de-Lowellized beliefs about Mars, 101–103
MPCV. See Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle
MPL. See Mars Polar Lander
MRO. See Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter program
MSL. See Mars Science Laboratory project
MSL Entry Descent and Landing Instrumentation (MEDLI), 257
MSOP. See Mars Surveyo Operations Project
Muirhead, Brian, 134
Musk, Elon, 292
Mutch, Thomas, 96
Naica Mountain. See Crystal Cave
National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)
Ames Research Center, 247, 271, 273, 283
approving instruments to study Mars based on terrestrial environment, 103
cooperative efforts of, 267–70, 309–10n1. See also ExoMars probe; Mars Express mission; Mars Society, the; Phoenix lander
and the Deep Space Network, 70
finances, 124, 136–37, 139, 152, 155, 157, 231
budget cuts causing withdrawal from ExoMars mission, 306n4
budget in the 1960s, 73
cost of Pathfinder and Sojourner, 136
costs for large missions compared to cost of a Big Mac®, 121
difficult budget environment, 287–88
“faster, better, cheaper” as an approach for missions, 124, 136–37, 139, 152, 155, 157, 231
MSL as an expensive undertaking, 258–59
a crewed mission to Mars, 288, 291, 294
fictional potential future, 289–90
potential future missions, 292–94
Jet Propulsion Laboratory as a part of NASA, 154, 267.
See also Jet Propulsion Laboratory
program of quarantine for Mars, 21, 297n2
and promoting missions, 245
running out of fuel for RTGs, 310–11n1
tendency to use redundancy (doing projects in pairs), 159, 307n1 (chap. 18)
See also longevity of Mars missions; names of specific missions, i.e., Apollo program, Mariner program, Voyager program etc. ; unmanned explorations sent to Mars
National Geographic (magazine), 9
Navarro-Gozález, Rafael, 275
Near Earth Asteroid Rendezvous mission, 190
Near-Earth Object (NEO) mission, 293–94
NEO. See Near-Earth Object mission
Neptune (planet), 267
Nergal (Babylonian name for Mars), 37, 38
Neugebauer, Gerry, 58
Nix Olympica. See photo section
Noachian Period, 32
Noctis Labyrinthus, 204
See also photo section
northern hemisphere of Mars, 31, 32, 76, 163, 201, 206–207
See also polar caps of Mars
Nozomi (Planet-B) program (Japan), 150
occultation experiment, 53
oceans on Mars, 29, 41, 298–99n4
olivine, presence of on Mars, 161–62, 191
See also photo section
OMEGA spectrometer, 144
Open University (United Kingdom), 144
Ophir Chasma. See photo section
Opportunity (rover), 169, 171–87, 205, 213–28, 226, 262, 264
compared to MSL rover, 253
finding own heat shield, 217, 218
getting stuck in sand, 218, 220
mechanical problems, 224
still operational in 2012, 267
See also Mars Exploration Rovers mission; photo section
Opportunity Ledge (searched by Opportunity), 182
orbiting Mars
Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter program, 195–207
MGS almost heading for impact with Mars, 118–20
polar orbits, 110, 159. See also photo section
radiation in Martian orbital path, 158, 164
elliptical shape of, 157
measuring radiation in Martian orbital path, 158, 164
retrograde motion, 39, 40, 299n2
organics, search for (precursors to life), 233, 248–49
See also life on Mars
Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle (MPCV), 270, 292–94
outflow channels, 35
oxidation process on Mars, 29, 34, 39, 51, 297n2
panspermia theory, 299n5
Pathfinder mission, 202, 244, 261, 262, 307n1 (chap. 18)
compared to Mars Odyssey mission, 160, 166
compared to MER, 177
compared to Phoenix lander, 230–32, 234
JPL's robotics section report on, 304–305n1
landing of, 124
MER landing patterned after, 172
using different technique than Viking, 124–25, 135
outliving its primary mission, 131
providing knowledge for building MER rovers, 171, 173, 174
reasons for success of, 137–39
See also Sojourner (rover)
Pavonis Mons (shield volcano), 30
Pearson's Magazine, 48
perchlorate, 95–96, 240, 273, 275–76, 278, 284, 290
permafrost
on Mars, 163, 235, 248, 285. See also weather on Mars
Phobos (fear) (one of Martian moons), 38, 43, 77, 294
Phobos-Grunt mission, 297n1
Phobos Mission (possible future mission), 294
Phobos program (Soviet Union), 149
Phoenix lander, 167–68, 229–41, 256, 264, 275, 277
ceasing operation, 241
mechanical and communication problems, 235–36, 238, 239–40, 249
MRO photograph of lander, 205, 206, 235
See also Sojourner (rover)
photographing Mars, 85–87, 90, 128, 144
attempts to de-Lowellize beliefs about Mars, 101–103
infrared photo taken at Mount Wilson, 101
by Mariner programs, 20, 52–54, 57–59, 61, 65, 70–71, 77, 81, 104, 126
by Mars Global Surveyor, 110, 112, 112, 118, 153
by Mars Odyssey, 112, 159, 160
by Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter using HD, 195–207, 206, 255
by Pathfinder and Sojourner, 127, 128, 131–32, 140
taken by the MER rovers, 178, 184–85, 186
by the Viking mission
taken by landers, 21–24, 22, 89–90
taken by orbiters, 20, 21, 25, 85, 110, 125
See also mapping of Mars; photo section
photosynthesis on Mars, search for, 88–89
phyllosilicates, 202
Pioneer program, 152, 243, 267
“Planetary Patrol,” 85
planetary quarantine of Mars, 21, 297n2
Planum Australe (Southern Plain) (southern polar cap), 33–35
Planum Boreum (Northern Plain) (northern polar cap), 33
polar caps of Mars, 145
denser air found over, 199–200
need for further study of, 269–70
northern polar cap, 33, 202. See also photo section
Phoenix lander visiting polar regions, 230, 248, 250
See also northern hemisphere of Mars; southern hemisphere of Mars
See also photo section
Pot of Gold (rock examined by Spirit), 213–14
Power PC chips®, 257
Project Skylab, 291 Ptolemy, 39
Pyroeis (Greek name for planet Mars), 38
Pyrolitic-Release experiment (Viking landers), 88–89, 95, 101
quarantine. See planetary quarantine of Mars
RAD. See Radiation Assessment Detector
radar, 255
laser-powered radar, 234
radar altimeter, 124, 144, 145–46
subsurface radar, 197
use of to find landing sites for Viking, 19–20, 86, 87
Radiation Assessment Detector (RAD), 256–57
radiation in Martian orbital path, 158, 164
Radioisotope Thermal Generators (RTGs), 121, 310–11n1
radiometric analyses of Mars, 62
radio waves, measuring Mars's atmospheric effect on, 53
Ranger program, 73
RAT. See Rock Abrasion Tool
Rawlings, Pat. See photo section
reaction wheels, 198
red color of Mars, 29, 34, 39, 40
redundancy in planning, 159, 307n1 (chap. 18)
regolith. See soil on Mars
REMS. See Rover Environmental Monitoring Station
Remus and Romulus (Mars's two sons), 38
retrograde motion, 39, 40, 299n2
Rhea-Silvia (Roman goddess mother of Mars), 38
robotic arm. See sampler arms
Rock Abrasion Tool (RAT), 173, 179, 180, 182, 213, 258
“rocker-bogie” system, Sojourner's used by MER, 308n1 (chap. 20)
Rock Garden (area to be explored by Sojourner), 130
cooling rates of rocks, 162
drilling rocks as part of Mars Science Laboratory project, 263–64, 285
finding crystals, 182
found by Opportunity, 184, 185, 215–17
found by Sojourner, 121, 127–31
found by Spirit, 179–82, 213–14, 225
Romulus and Remus (Mars's two sons), 38
rotational period of Mars, 27, 40
Rover Environmental Monitoring Station (REMS), 257
rovers
creating an astrobiology-laboratory rover, 269
See also 10-K rover at FMARS; Curiosity (rover); Opportunity (rover); Pathfinder mission; Sojourner (rover); Spirit (rover)
RTGs. See Radioisotope Thermal Generators
Russian Federation, 306n1
and the ExoMars probe, 146
and the Mars Express mission, 143–46
and the Mars Science Laboratory project, 256
potential missions 2021–2030, 294
and Soyuz capsule, 293
See also Soviet Union's space programs
Dr. Carl Sagan Memorial Station, 124
Sample Analysis at Mars (SAM), 256, 263
sampler arms, 85, 88, 92, 93, 144, 153, 167–68, 172, 180, 232, 239, 258, 263, 302n3
problems with, 214, 223, 224, 235, 239–40, 249–50
See also photo section
data return from the Cassini probe, 309n1 (chap. 22)
Titan (a moon of Saturn), 33, 243–44
Saunders, Steve, 166
scanning calorimetry, 310n3
Schiaparelli, Giovanni, 41, 43–45, 44
See also photo section
Science (journal), 216
“Scout missions” (low-cost missions), 249, 311–12n2
MAVEN scheduled for possible launch in 2012, 267–68
Phoenix lander as an example, 230. See also Phoenix lander
seasons. See weather on Mars
sedimentation exploration, 174, 182
“bathtub ring” in Victoria Crater, 222
buried in lava, 191
finding “cross-lamination,” 185
using CTX camera to study water-deposited sediments, 197
See also soil on Mars
“Send Your Name to Mars” outreach program, 175
Shallow Subsurface Radar (SHARAD), 197
Shark (rock found by Sojourner), 129
Shenzhou/Soyuz (Chinese mission), 293
shock sensor causing MPL lander crash, 230
Sinus Meridiani (Meridian Bay), 33
size of Mars, 41
Skycrane (system to land MSL), 254
Sleepy Hollow (basin near landing site of Spirit), 174
SLS. See Space Launch System
able to support some earthly crops, 238–39
equipment for testing. See Microscopy, Electrochemistry, and Conductivity Analyzer; Thermal and Electrical Conductivity Probe; Thermal and Evolved Gas Analyzer
examined at microscopic levels, 233
and the Mars Odyssey program, 162
measuring soil movement, 111
and the MRO, 205
need for deep-soil drilling, 269–70
and Phoenix, 235–37. See also photo section
search for life-forms in, 85, 88–89, 93–95
and Spirit, 179
water ice in soil. See permafrost
See also perchlorate; sedimentation exploration
Sojourner (rover), 127–32, 134, 176, 232–33, 245, 253, 256
getting stuck in sand, 130
length of successful operations, 172
providing knowledge for building Spirit and Opportunity, 171, 173, 174
“rocker-bogie” system, 175, 308n1 (chap. 20)
See also Pathfinder mission; photo section
sol (a Martian day), length of, 27, 40, 124, 238
solar panels, 222, 254, 310–11n1
and the Mars Global Surveyor
broken strut, 108, 109, 117–18
solar panel failing after ten years, 114
Phoenix lander's panels cracking from the cold, 241
used on MER, 172
See also photo section
solar radiation on Mars, 164, 297n2
southern hemisphere of Mars, 32, 42, 62, 64, 69, 201, 219
See also polar caps of Mars
Soviet Union's space programs, 293
attempts to probe Mars, 21, 52, 57, 76, 79, 86, 107, 143, 147, 297n1, 306nn1–2, 300n1 (chap. 4), 301n1 (chap. 10)
attempts to probe Venus, 57, 107, 143, 297n1, 306n1, 300n1 (chap. 4)
See also Russian Federation
Soyuz capsule (Russian), 293
Space Exploration Technologies (SpaceX), 292
Space Launch System (SLS), 292, 293
discontinuing program, 292, 295
SpaceX. See Space Exploration Technologies
spectroscopic analyses of Mars, 45, 62, 64
Alpha Proton X-Ray Spectrometer (APXS), 121, 131, 172
Compact Reconnaissance Imaging Spectrometers for Mars (CRISM), 196
Fourier Spectrometer, 144
gamma-ray spectrometer, 158, 162, 247
Gas Chromatograph/Mass Spectrometer experiment (Viking landers), 88
laser spectrometer, 258
mass spectrometer, 19
Mössbauer spectrometer, 173, 262
OMEGA spectrometer, 144
SPICAM spectrometer, 144
Thermal Emission Spectrometer, 172
thermal infrared spectrometer, 262
spherules. See “blueberries” SPICAM spectrometer, 144
Spirit (rover), 164, 171–87, 213–28, 262, 264
ceasing operation, 193, 227–28
compared to MSL rover, 253
finding own heat shield, 183
getting stuck in sand, 226, 227
re-creation of the entrapment. See photo section
mechanical problems, 214, 216–17, 225–26
See also Mars Exploration Rovers mission (MER)
“Spirit Point” (Opportunity's point of arrival at Endeavor Crater), 228
Sputnik program (Soviet Union), 57, 148
SSI. See surface stereo imager Stanford University, 267
Stapledon (rock examined by Spirit), 225
sunset on Mars. See photo section
surface stereo imager (SSI), 232–33
surveying Mars. See mapping of Mars; photographing Mars
Surveyor program (targeting the Moon), 73–74
Syrtis Major Planum, 31, 33, 40, 40
TECP. See Thermal and Electrical Conductivity Probe
TEGA. See Thermal and Evolved Gas Analyzer
telescopic exploration of Mars, 43–44, 47
measuring upper atmosphere, 19
misinterpretation of, 41
See also mapping of Mars; photo section
Tempel 1 (comet), 267
temperatures. See weather on Mars
10-K rover at FMARS, 274
Terra Sirenum (crater), 112, 113
“terrestrial” planets, 32, 298n3
Tharsis Bulge (volcanic region), 29–32, 76, 210
THEMIS. See Thermal Emission Imaging System
Thermal and Electrical Conductivity Probe (TECP), 233
Thermal and Evolved Gas Analyzer (TEGA), 233, 235–40, 310n3
See also photo section
Thermal Emission Imaging System (THEMIS), 158, 167, 175
Thermal Emission Spectrometer, 172, 175
thermal information from Mars Odyssey program, 162–63
thermal infrared spectrometer, 262
Thomas Mutch Memorial Station, 96
Time (magazine), 147
Titan (a moon of Saturn), 33, 243–44
Titanic (movie), cost of, 136
TUMS®, 240
UCLA. See University of California, Los Angeles
United States Geological Survey (USGS), 79
Universe, The (JPL newspaper), 133
University of Arizona, 267
and Phoenix program, 229–41, 309–10n1
University of California, Los Angeles, 261
University of Colorado, 267, 273
University of Leicester, 144
University of Southern California, 115
University of Washington, 210
University Valley (Antarctica), 284–85
unmanned explorations sent to Mars, 126, 300n1 (chap. 4)
budget for in the 1960s, 73
“faster, better, cheaper” as approach to, 124, 136–37, 139, 152, 155, 157, 231
future potential missions, 292–94
Great Galactic Ghoul impact on failures, 147–55
timeline of mission failures, 148–50
use of “Big Dumb Landers,” 20, 126
See also longevity of Mars missions; Mariner program; Mars Climate Orbiter; Mars Exploration Rovers mission; Mars Express; Mars Global Surveyor program; Mars Observer program; Mars Odyssey program; Mars Polar Lander; Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter program; Mars Science Laboratory project; Pathfinder mission; Phoenix lander; Soviet Union's space programs; Viking program
Uranus (planet), 267
USGS. See United States Geological Survey
Utah desert as a research site for the Mars Society, 286–87
Utopia Planitia (Nowhere Plain) (landing site for Viking 2 lander), 25, 87, 302n2
See also photo section
See also photo section
Vastitas Borealis (Northern Waste), 234
Venus (planet), 267
Magellan Venus project, 190
myths about surface of, 101
Soviet Union's attempts to probe, 57, 107, 143, 297n1, 306n1
as a “terrestrial” planet, 298n3
Vesta (asteroid), 267
Victoria Crater, 205, 219–23, 224, 225, 226
“bathtub ring,” 222
Cape Verde. See photo section
Duck Bay, 221
See also photo section
Viking program, 133, 152, 166, 205, 283
compared to Phoenix lander, 232, 234
and the search for life on Mars, 83–97, 263, 275, 284
experiments planned, 84, 88–89, 93, 95, 100–101, 276
Norman Horowitz's efforts to find, 99–105
use of redundancy in planning, 307n1 (chap. 18)
Viking 1 lander, 17–25, 124, 126, 253, 297n1. See also photo section
different landing technique used by Pathfinder, 124–25, 135
first images of Viking 1's footpad, 22, 89–90
problems encountered, 91–94, 96–97
Viking 1 orbiter, 17, 20, 23, 112, 126, 205, 210
deactivation of, 96
photographic surveys of Mars, 21, 25, 85, 110, 125. See also photo section
Viking 2 lander, 25, 87, 124, 126, 181, 234, 253. See also photo section
depiction of Martian explorer revisiting site of landing. See also photo section
different landing technique used by Pathfinder, 124
end of mission, 96
photographic surveys of Mars, 25, 85, 110, 125, 126. See also photo section
Viking life-science lab, 256
Viking sampler arm, 85, 88, 92, 93, 302n3
visual target tracking, 220–21
volcanic activity on Mars, 29–33, 54, 69, 120, 131
Mariner 9 discovering volcanoes, 75, 76–77, 80
and melted ice, 204
MGS confirming widespread volcanism, 111
See also names of specific volcanoes, i.e., Arsia Mons, Tharsis Bulge, etc. ; photo section
Von Braun, Wernher, 291
Voyager program, 121, 134, 190, 243, 267
vugs (empty areas), 183
War of the Worlds, The (1953 movie), 49
War of the Worlds, The (Wells), 48–49
canals of Mars theories, 43–47, 55
early misunderstandings about, 34
leading to major features' names, 33
hydrated materials found, 145, 202–204
as an indicator of possible life, 181, 204. See also life on Mars
Mount Wilson Observatory data that de-Lowellized beliefs about Mars, 102–103
new discoveries of water, 34–35, 110–11, 183
finding evidence of flowing water, 185
finding hematite, 111, 183, 213, 216, 262, 302–303n2
finding that Mars had water at one time, 104
formation of rocks, 213, 216, 224
and Mars Odyssey, 158, 160, 163–64, 167–68
measuring northern ice cap, 202
and MER, 183, 185, 190–91, 262
new equipment to look for, 196–97
and Pathfinder, 128
and sedimentation, 182
planning for contingency of no water on Mars, 103
spectroscopic analyses of, 45
water ice, 64, 145, 163, 167–68, 203, 238. See also photo section
ice layer under northern plains, 247–48
and the Phoenix lander, 239, 240, 249–50
recent melting of water snow, 161
water ice in soil. See permafrost
wide distribution of, 163
water vapor, 238
water-worn features found, 77, 110
WCL. See wet chemistry lab
weather on Mars, 90–91, 110, 197, 211, 221–22, 233–34
active meteorological system, 163
clouds, 24, 29, 76, 85, 130, 220, 298n4
dust clouds, 75, 75–76, 80, 206–207
dust storms, 75, 75–76, 78, 80, 85, 91, 210, 221–22. See also photo section
seasons, 34, 40, 69, 161, 197, 277
winter, 163, 219, 227, 235. See also photo section
temperatures, 125, 126, 130, 162, 163, 200, 235
impact of on Pathfinder, 129, 131
THEMIS used to map temperatures, 158, 167
warmer and wetter in first billion years, 191, 216
winds, 34, 55, 124, 223, 298–99n4. See also photo section
aeolian (wind-sculpted) features found, 77, 110
study of windblown dust, 175
See also atmosphere on Mars; permafrost; photo section
Wedge (rock found by Sojourner), 129
Welles, Orson, 49
wet chemistry lab (WCL), 233, 277
White Boat (second rock found by Spirit), 180–81
winds. See weather on Mars
winter. See weather on Mars
Wonderful World of Disney, The (TV show), 291
Wonderland (trench dug by Phoenix), 237
Wopmay (rock found by Opportunity), 215
year, length of on Mars, 27–28
Yogi (second rock found by Sojourner), 128
See also photo section
Young, Thomas, 154
Zond 2 (Soviet Union), 148