In transliterating Chinese words, I have employed the pinyin (PY) romanization system, with the exception of a few extremely common spellings, such as Sun Yat-sen (PY: Sun Yixian) and Chiang Kai-shek (PY: Jiang Jieshi). Pinyin is pronounced more or less the way it looks, with a few noteworthy exceptions: “q” sounds like the ch in cheek; “z” sounds like the ds in buds (unless followed immediately by an “h,” in which case the two letters together sound like the “j” in jump); “x” sounds like the sh in sheep; and “c” sounds like the ts in its (unless followed immediately by an “h,” in which case the two letters together sound like the ch in cheap). Thus, qing sounds like “cheeng”; zu sounds like “dsoo”; zhou sounds like “joe”; xing sounds like “sheeng”; can sounds like “tsawn”; and chu sounds like “chew.”
In the text, Chinese names usually appear in their original order, family name first, with the exception of authors who are known primarily for their English-language writings. I have followed this same basic rule in the notes (for details, see “Preliminary Remarks and Abbreviations” at the beginning of the endnotes). Most Chinese family names consist of one character, while most personal names are comprised of two (for example, Gong Zizhen). The reverse is possible, however, as is the use of two characters for both surname and given name (for example, Sima Xiangru). Polysyllabic Manchu and Mongol names are transliterated either by a single word (for example, Nurhaci) or by a string of sounds representing the characters used by the Chinese to render them (for example, Senggelinqin—the Chinese phonetic equivalent for Senggerinchin, a Mongol name).
Emperors in the Qing dynasty are usually referred to by their reign names (nianhao) rather than their personal names (which became taboo upon their accession to the throne). All reign names have felicitous meanings, but some, such as Guangxu (“Glorious Succession”), have a certain irony (see chapter 3).