Notes

ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THE NOTES

In citing sources in the notes, short titles have generally been used. Sources frequently cited have been identified by the following abbreviations:

B.L.	British Library
CO	Colonial Office papers
FO	Foreign Office papers
NHBS	New Hebrides British Service records
P.I.M.	Pacific Islands Monthly
R.C.	Royal Commission
R.G.S.	Royal Geographical Society archives
S.C.	Select Committee
S.O.A.S.	School of Oriental and African Studies
TNA	The National Archives of the United Kingdom
WPHC	Western Pacific High Commission records

INTRODUCTION

1. Anon., Journal of the sufferings of the Carpenter’s Mate, Northumberland, 1782: manuscript copy, MLMSS A 1727. Sydney’s Mitchell Library has been unable to locate the original manuscript from which its copy came.

2. Ibid. For English-speaking traders, the New Guinea coast remained perilous. Nine years after the Northumberland’s encounter with hostile Islanders, an American ship, the Massachusetts, nearly lost both its supply boats under similar circumstances. That ship’s second officer minced few words: the “wooly headed” people of New Guinea’s western straits were “well known to hate white people,” a hatred “traceable to our own misconduct toward them.” Amasa Delano, A Narrative of Voyages and Travels (Boston, 1817), 78–80.

3. Greg Dening, Islands and Beaches (Honolulu: University Press of Hawai‘i, 1980), 263–64.

4. Andrew Sinclair, The Savage (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1977), 1–2.

5. Bernard Smith, European Vision and the South Pacific, 2nd ed. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985), 317–32.

6. Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th ed. (New York, 1910–11), s.v. “Humboldt, Alexander von.”

7. Alexander von Humboldt, Personal Narrative of Travels, 7 vols. (London, 1814), 1: xliv–xlv; William Mariner, Account of the Natives, 2 vols. (London, 1817), 1: title page.

8. Rod Edmond explains that the adjective “tropical” did not acquire its extra-geographic meaning of “ardent” or “luxuriant” before the nineteenth century. Edmond, “Returning Fears,” in Felix Driver and Luciana Martins, eds., Tropical Visions (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005), 175–76.

9. Oxford English Dictionary online, 3rd ed. (2012), s.v. “savage”; F.J. Turner, “Significance of the Frontier” [1893], in Turner, Early Writings of Frederick Jackson Turner (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1938), 187–88; Henry Nash Smith, Virgin Land (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1950), 251.

10. Sinclair, The Savage, 2; O.E.D. online, s.v. “savage.”

11. William Yate, Account of New Zealand [1835], facsimile ed. (Dublin: Irish University Press, 1970), 130.

12. Lorimer Fison, Tales from Old Fiji (London: Alexander Moring [1904]), xiii–xiv.

13. H.M. Stanley, Great Forest of Central Africa (London, 1890).

14. J. Beete Jukes, Narrative of the Surveying Voyage, 2 vols. (London, 1847), 1: 288–89.

15. J.C. Beaglehole, Life of Captain James Cook (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1974), 394.

16. Christopher Lasch, Haven in a Heartless World (New York: Basic Books, 1979). On the ideological interplay among “home,” “family,” and “privacy,” see George Behlmer, Friends of the Family (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1998), 1–28.

17. Thomas Carlyle, Past and Present [1843] (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1965), 9–10; The Times [London] (4–6 August 1841).

18. Cardinal Manning and Benjamin Waugh, “Child of the English Savage,” Contemporary Review, 49 (May 1886): 688–89.

19. The Times (21 December 1872), as quoted in Carolyn A. Conley, “Wars Among Savages,” Journal of British Studies, 44 (October 2005): 777.

20. Johann F. Blumenbach, Anthropological Treatises (London, 1865), 165; “Lord Monboddo’s Account,” in Selection of Curious Articles, 4 vols. (London, 1811), 4: 581–84; Julia Douthwaite, The Wild Girl (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 2002), 21–25.

21. James Greenwood, Wild Man at Home (London [1879]), 1–2.

22. Charles Darwin, Journal of Researches [1839] (New York: Hafner, 1952), 235–36.

23. Satadru Sen, Savagery and Colonialism in the Indian Ocean (New York: Routledge 2010), 19–20; James Bonwick, Daily Life . . . of the Tasmanians [1870], reprint ed. (New York: Johnson Reprint, 1967), 42–43; Henrika Kuklick, Savage Within (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 250–51; Sen, “Primitivism,” in Hilary Callan, ed., International Encyclopedia of Anthropology, forthcoming.

24. Anthony Ashley Cooper [3rd Earl of Shaftesbury], “Soliloquy, or Advice to an Author,” in Cooper, Characteristics of Men [1711], ed. Lawrence Klein (Cambridge, 1999), 153–55.

25. Nadja Durbach, Spectacle of Deformity (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2010), 22–23; Carrie Yang Costello, “Teratology,” Journal of Historical Sociology, 19 (March 2006): 1–3.

26. Oscar Wilde, Picture of Dorian Gray [1890] (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2011), 78–79, 94, 96, 192.

27. William Falconer, Remarks on the Influence of Climate (London, 1781), 258–59; Joseph-Marie Dégerando, Observation of Savage Peoples [1800] (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969), 86; J.R. McCulloch, Principles of Political Economy (Edinburgh, 1825), 397–98; Everard Im Thurn, “On the Thoughts of South Sea Islanders,” Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, 51 (January–June 1921): 15–16.

28. H. Calderwood, “Moral Philosophy,” Contemporary Review, 19 (January 1872): 210–12.

29. John Foster Fraser, Quaint Subjects of the King (London: Cassell, 1909), v–vi.

30. Ibid.

31. Prospectus of a Proposed Aboriginal Museum (London [1850?]), n.p.

32. Patrick Wolfe, “History and Imperialism,” American Historical Review, 102 (April 1997): 410–11; Antoinette Burton, “Who Needs the Nation?,” in Catherine Hall, ed., Cultures of Empire (New York: Routledge, 2000), 138–39.

33. Nicholas Thomas and Diane Losche, “Introduction,” in Thomas and Losche, eds., Double Vision (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 2–3; Jeffrey Auerbach, “Art and Empire,” in R. Winks, ed., Oxford History of the British Empire, 5 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999): 578–79; C.A. Bayly, “Second British Empire,” in ibid., 70.

34. For a critique of the undifferentiated Other, see Dane Kennedy, “Imperial History,” Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 24 (September 1996): 354–55.

35. E.B. Tylor, Anthropology [1881] (New York, 1898), 23–25.

36. Ter Ellingson, Myth of the Noble Savage (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001), 81–83. Ellingson asserts that the phrase became familiar only after 1859. In that year, John Crawfurd, soon to be elected President of the Ethnological Society of London, wielded the phrase only to destroy it—all part of Crawfurd’s “racist agenda.” Ellingson, 291, 295–97.

37. Jean Jacques Rousseau, Discourse upon the Origin and Foundation of . . . Inequality [1754] (London, 1761), 78; Rousseau, Émile [1762] (London: Dent, 1974).

38. John Reinold Forster, Observations Made During a Voyage (London, 1778), 325.

39. Nicholas Thomas, Colonialism’s Culture (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1994), 99–100; Patrick Brantlinger, Dark Vanishings (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2003), 3. The Victorian philologist Max Müller noted the absurdities that could result when people “imagine that the same name must always mean the same thing.” Take the three signs of the “true” savage: (1) that he murders his children; (2) that he kills and eats his companions; and (3) that he disregards certain laws of nature. Müller then dismissed this creature. The first man could not have been a savage, “for if he had murdered his children we should not be alive.” Similarly, “if he had eaten his fellow-men, supposing there were any to eat, again we should not be alive.” Müller, “The Savage,” Nineteenth Century, 17 (January 1885): 116.

40. Richard Lansdown, “Dark Parts,” Times Literary Supplement (17 August 2004), 12–13.

41. Charles Dickens, “Noble Savage,” Household Words, 7 (11 June 1853): 337–38.

42. Anon., “Pacific Islanders’ Protection Bill,” Westminster Review, n.s. 48 (July and October 1875): 81; Dickens, “Noble Savage,” 338.

43. K.R. Howe, “Fate of the ‘Savage,’” New Zealand Journal of History, 11 (October 1977): 137–38, 147–48; Matt K. Matsuda, “The Pacific,” American Historical Review, 111 (June 2006): 771–72.

44. See especially J.W. Davidson, “Problems of Pacific History,” Journal of Pacific History, 1 (1966): 5–21; and H.E. Maude, “Pacific History,” Journal of Pacific History, 6 (1971): 3–24.

45. Jane Samson, Imperial Benevolence (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1998), 2.

46. James Belich, “Victorian Interpretation of Racial Conflict,” Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 15 (January 1987): 123–24.

47. Nicholas Thomas, “Epilogue,” in Michael O’Hanlon and Robert Welsch, eds., Hunting the Gatherers (New York: Berghahn Books, 2000), 274–76.

48. Bronwen Douglas, Science, Voyages, and Encounters in Oceania (Basingstoke, Hampshire, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014), 24–26; Douglas, “Art as Ethno-historical Text,” in Thomas and Losche, eds., Double Vision, 79–82.

49. John Williams, Narrative of Missionary Enterprises (London, 1837), 461–62.

50. Ibid.

51. H.E. Maude, “Beachcombers and Castaways,” in Maude, Of Islands and Men (Melbourne, Australia: Oxford University Press, 1968), 161–62; Dening, Islands and Beaches, 247.

52. S.C. on Aborigines (British Settlements), P.P., 1836, VII (538): 682; Sen, Savagery and Colonialism, 2, 27, 42.

53. Alice Bullard, Exile to Paradise (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2000), 72, 93.

54. Ibid., 133–34.

55. [Julian Thomas], Cannibals and Convicts (London, 1886), 120–21; Daily Telegraph (22 December 1883).

56. Letters 11–15, 22, and 26, Correspondence respecting New Guinea, P.P., 1883, XLVII [C. 3814]; Stuart Ward, “Security,” in D. Schreuder and S. Ward, eds., Australia’s Empire (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008), 236–37; Luke Trainor, British Imperialism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 38–39.

57. Lyell, Principles of Geology, 3 vols. (London, 1830–33), 2: 255.

58. “Dying Fauna of an Empire,” Saturday Review (24 November 1906), 635; Journal of the Society for the Preservation of the Wild Fauna of the Empire, 1 (London, 1904): 1–6.

59. W.H.R. Rivers, “Psychological Factor,” in Rivers, ed., Essays in the Depopulation of Melanesia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1922), 84–113.

60. Sen, Savagery and Colonialism, 22, 128–29.

61. H. Ling Roth, Aborigines of Tasmania, facsimile of 2nd ed. [1899] (Hobart, Tasmania, Australia: Fullers Bookshop, 1968), 162–63; James Bonwick, Last of the Tasmanians [1870], facsimile ed. (Adelaide, Australia, 1969), 61–62, 386–87. Tom Lawson, a self-described “Holocaust historian,” has located the Tasmanian story in a wider discussion of genocide in the British world. Lawson, Last Man (London: I.B. Tauris, 2014).

62. Ardagh’s speech on dumdums, 14 June 1899, as quoted in Barbara Tuchman, Proud Tower (New York: Macmillan, 1966), 261–62.

63. Cadwallader Colden, History of the Five Indian Nations, 2nd ed. (London, 1750), 9–10; A.M. Hocart, “Warfare in Eddystone,” Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, 61 (1931): 301; Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th ed. (New York, 1910–11), s.v. “tomahawk.”

64. Peter Dillon, Narrative . . . of a Voyage, 2 vols. (London, 1829), 1: lx–lxi.

65. A.B. Brewster, Hill Tribes of Fiji [1922], reprint ed. (New York: Johnson Reprint, 1967), 259–60; John Gaggin, Among the Man-Eaters (London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1900), 97–98.

66. Manual of Scientific Enquiry, 5th ed. (London, 1886), 231; Clements R. Markham, Commodore J.G. Goodenough (Portsmouth, UK, 1876), 33–35; The Times (24 August 1875); Goodenough to the Admiralty, letter dictated 13 August 1875, TNA, CO 83/7/f. 427.

67. W.R. Gowers, Manual of Diseases, 2 vols. (London, 1886–1888), 2: 623–24, 631–32, 641–46; “Health of the Navy,” Edinburgh Medical Journal, 23 (May 1878): 1023. In twenty-first-century terms, tetanus is an acute poisoning from a neurotoxin produced by Clostridium tetani.

68. F. Milford, “On Tetanus,” New South Wales Medical Gazette, 2 (April 1872): 196.

69. R.H. Codrington, On Poisoned Arrows (London, 1889), 218–19; Codrington, The Melanesians (Oxford, 1891), 306–08.

70. A.G. Hopkins, “Back to the Future,” Past and Present, 164 (August 1999): 198–99.

71. Kathleen Wilson, “Introduction,” in Wilson, ed., New Imperial History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 2. Dipesh Chakrabarty, for example, doubts that “Europe” can be unseated as the “sovereign, theoretical subject of all histories.” Chakrabarty, Provincializing Europe (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000), 27–29.

72. Nicholas Thomas, “Force of Ethnology,” Current Anthropology, 30 (February 1989): 30.

73. Tracey Banivanua-Mar, Violence and Colonial Dialogue (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2007), 3, 23–24.

74. Marshall Sahlins, “Poor Man, Rich Man,” Comparative Studies in Society and History, 5 (April 1963): 286–89, 295; Thomas, “Force of Ethnology,” 27–28, 31–32.

75. Epile Hau‘ofa, “Our Sea of Islands,” Contemporary Pacific, 6 (Spring 1994): 153; Matsuda, “The Pacific,” 759, 761–62.

76. Clive Moore, New Guinea (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2003), 4–5.

77. Paul S. Landau, Popular Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 1–2; Chris Lowe et al., Talking about ‘Tribe’ (Washington, DC: African Policy Information Center, November 1997), 1–8.

78. W.H.R. Rivers, Social Organization, ed. W.J. Penny (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1924), 32.

79. Brian Stanley, Bible and the Flag (Leicester, UK: Apollos, 1990), 34.

80. Richard Price, “One Big Thing,” Journal of British Studies, 45 (July 2006): 612–13; Rod Edmond, Representing the South Pacific (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 14–15.

81. W.D. McIntyre, “Australia, New Zealand,” in Louis and Brown, eds., Oxford History of the British Empire, 4: 667.

82. Robert A. Stafford, “Scientific Exploration,” in Porter, ed., Oxford History of the British Empire, 3: 314–15; Richard D. Fulton and Peter H. Hoffenberg, eds., Oceania (Farnham, Surrey, UK: Ashgate, 2013), 1–2.

83. Maude, “Pacific History,” 4–5, 24.

CHAPTER 1

1. Anna Reid, Leningrad (New York: Walker, 2011), 286–92; Yuki Tanaka, Hidden Horrors (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1996), 126–29; Antony Beevor, Second World War (New York: Little, Brown, 2012), 619, 780.

2. “Cannibal Evidence Discovered at Jamestown,” Los Angeles Times (1 May 2013).

3. “Victim of Cannibal Agreed to Be Eaten,” The Guardian [London] (14 December 2003); “Mass Murder and Cannibalism Claims Emerge in Congo,” The Independent [London] (21 May 2003).

4. Alfred St. Johnston, Camping Among Cannibals (London, 1889), 230, 228. Italics added.

5. Gananath Obeyesekere, Cannibal Talk (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005), chap. 6.

6. Maggie Kilgour, “Function of Cannibalism,” in F. Barker, P. Hulme, and M. Iversen, eds., Cannibalism and the Colonial World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 240–241.

7. W. Arens, Man-Eating Myth (New York: Oxford University Press, 1979), 44–45; Lewis Petrinovich, Cannibal Within (New York: Aldine De Gruyter, 2000), 4–5. Peter Hulme and Neil Whitehead, eds., Wild Majesty (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992), 29–34; Hulme, “Introduction,” in F. Barker et al., Cannibalism and the Colonial World, 18–19.

8. Long, History of Jamaica [1774], as quoted in Jean Comaroff and John Comaroff, Of Revelation and Revolution, 2 vols. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991), 1: 123–24.

9. Georg W.F. Hegel, Philosophy of History [1822] (Buffalo, NY: Prometheus Books, 1991), 95.

10. George Orwell, Coming Up for Air [1939] (San Diego: Harcourt, 1969), 31. Orwell’s inept everyman, George Bowling, had it wrong. “King Zog,” born Ahmet Muhtar Bej Zogolli, was in fact the Muslim ruler of Albania from 1928 to 1939.

11. John Campbell, Maritime Discovery (London, 1840), 436–37.

12. George Cousins, Story of the South Seas (London, 1894), 132.

13. John Crawfurd, “On Cannibalism,” Transactions of the Ethnological Society of London, n.s. 4 (1866): 114; R.L. Stevenson, “In the South Seas,” in Stevenson, Letters and Miscellanies (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1909), 98–99.

14. Cyprian Bridge, “Cruises in Melanesia,” Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, n.s. 8 (September 1886): 561; Mary Wallis [1851], as quoted in Tracey Banivanua-Mar, “Cannibalism and Colonialism,” Comparative Studies in Society and History, 52 (April 2010): 263.

15. Cook’s journal entry for 23 November 1773 in J.C. Beaglehole, ed., Journals of Captain James Cook, vol. 2, The Resolution and Adventure 1772–1775 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1961), 294.

16. James Burney, With Captain Cook, ed. Beverley Hooper (Canberra: National Library of Australia, 1975), 96–97; Frances Burney, Early Diary of Frances Burney, ed. Annie R. Ellis, 2 vols. (London: G. Bell & Sons, 1907), 2: 283.

17. Johann R. Forster, Observations Made During a Voyage (London, 1778), 328–32; Jonathan Lamb, Vanessa Smith, and Nicholas Thomas, eds., Exploration and Exchange (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000), 92–93.

18. Anne Salmon, Between Worlds (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1997), 337–38; Judith Binney, Legacy of Guilt (Christchurch, New Zealand: Oxford University Press, 1968), 82–83; George French Angas, Savage Life [1847], facsimile ed., 2 vols. (Adelaide: Libraries Board of South Australia, 1969), 1: 337–39; Rev. M. Russell, Polynesia, 3rd ed. (Edinburgh, 1845), 414–15.

19. Obeyeskere, Cannibal Talk, 150.

20. Howard L. Malchow, Gothic Images of Race (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1996), 4–5, 261, n.6.

21. Geoffrey Sanborn, Sign of the Cannibal (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1998), 16–17.

22. Robert Darnton, Great Cat Massacre (New York: Random House, 1985), 64.

23. Rudolf S. Steinmetz, “Endokannibalismus,” Mitteilungen der Anthropologischen Gesellschaft in Wien, 26 (1896): 1–60; J. Deniker, Races of Man, 2nd ed. (London: Walter Scott, [1900]), 148; J.A. MacCulloch, “Cannibalism,” in Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, 3 (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1910): 195–96; Napoleon Chagnon, Yanomamö, 3rd ed. (Fort Worth, TX: Holt Rinehart & Winston, 1983), 105–06.

24. Eli Sagan, Cannibalism (New York: Harper & Row, 1974), 9, 28.

25. Marvin Harris, Cannibals and Kings (New York: Vintage Books, 1978), 157–66; Michael Harner, “Ecological Basis,” American Ethnologist, 4 (February 1977): 117–35.

26. Harris, Cannibals and Kings, 165.

27. Marshall Sahlins, “Culture as Protein and Profit,” New York Review of Books, 25 (23 November 1978): 53; Peggy R. Sanday, Divine Hunger (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), 18–19.

28. W. Arens and M. Sahlins, “Cannibalism: An Exchange,” N.Y.R.B., 26 (22 March 1979): 45; Arens, Man-Eating Myth, vi.

29. Arens and Sahlins, “Cannibalism,” 46–47.

30. Obeyesekere, “Narratives of the Self,” in Barbara Creed and Jeanette Hoorn, eds., Body Trade (New York: Routledge, 2001), 69–70.

31. See especially Robert Borofsky, “Cook, Lono,” in Borofsky, ed., Remembrance of Pacific Pasts (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2000), 420–42; and Hulme, “Introduction: The Cannibal Scene,” 19.

32. Obeyesekere, Apotheosis of Captain Cook (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1992), 8–9, 21–22.

33. Sahlins, How “Natives” Think (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995), ix, 5–6; Sahlins, “Artificially Maintained Controversies (part 2),” Anthropology Today, 19 (December 2003): 21.

34. Obeyesekere, Cannibal Talk, 267.

35. Sahlins, “Artificially Maintained Controversies (part 1),” Anthropology Today, 19 (June 2003): 3; Sahlins, “Raw Women, Cooked Men,” in Paula Brown and Donald Tuzin, eds., Ethnography of Cannibalism (Washington, DC: Society for Psychological Anthropology, 1983), 88.

36. Tracey Banivanua-Mar, “Cannibalism and Colonialism,” 256–57; Banivanua-Mar, “Cannibalism in Fiji,” in Patricia Grimshaw and Russell McGregor, eds., Collisions of Cultures (Melbourne, Australia: Melbourne University Press, 2007), 203–04. A modern zoologist holds that there is nothing at all strange about cannibalism. For within every class of vertebrates, Bill Schutt points out, eating one’s own kind is “perfectly natural.” Schutt, Cannibalism (Chapel Hill, NC: Algonquin Books, 2017).

37. Malchow, Gothic Images, 63, 66; William Dampier, New Voyage Round the World [1729], facsimile of 7th ed. (New York: Dover, 1968), 325–26.

38. Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2nd ed. (London, 1778), s.v. “anthropophagi.”

39. Encyclopaedia Britannica, 3rd ed. (London, 1788–1797), s.v. “anthropophagi.”

40. Edmund Burke, Reflections [1790] (Harmondsworth, Middlesex, UK: Penguin Books, 1969), 164; Linda Colley, Britons (London: Yale University Press, 1992), 332.

41. Encyclopaedia Britannica, 9th ed. (New York, 1878), s.v. “cannibalism.”

42. Herman Melville, Moby-Dick [1851] (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981), chap. 65, 299.

43. Stevenson, “In the South Seas,” 96.

44. Hugh H. Romilly, From My Verandah (London, 1889), 68–69.

45. Richard D. Altick, English Common Reader, 2nd ed. (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1998), 63, 220, 258; Ian Watt, “Robinson Crusoe as a Myth,” in Michael Shinagel, ed., Robinson Crusoe [1719] (New York: W.W. Norton, 1994), 288–306. George Borrow, Victorian wanderer and philologist, reckoned in 1851 that Daniel Defoe’s book had “exerted over the minds of Englishmen an influence certainly greater than any other of modern times . . . and with the contents of which even those who cannot read are to a certain extent acquainted.” Lavengro [1851] (London: J.M. Dent, 1906), 23–24.

46. Woodes Rogers, Cruising Voyage [1712], as abridged in Shinagel, ed., Robinson Crusoe, 230–35; Kathleen Wilson, Island Race (London: Routledge, 2003), 88.

47. Harry Stone, Night Side of Dickens (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1994), 60–61.

48. Defoe, Robinson Crusoe, ed. Shinagel, 124.

49. Ibid., 112, 119–20, 168–71, 116.

50. Peter Hulme, Colonial Encounters (London: Methuen, 1986), 184–85, 211–14; Felix Padel, Sacrifice of Human Beings (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1995), 151–152.

51. Defoe, Robinson Crusoe, 152; Frank Lestringant, Cannibals (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1997), 137–39; Patrick Brantlinger, Taming Cannibals (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2011), 2–3; Samuel Patterson, Narrative of Adventures [1817], quoted in Sanborn, Sign of the Cannibal, 27.

52. Capt. Charles Johnson, General History of . . . the Most Famous Highwaymen (London, 1734), 132–33; Richard Charnock, “Cannibalism in Europe,” Journal of the Anthropological Society, 4 (1866): xxvii.

53. Notes and Queries on Anthropology (London, 1874), 45.

54. William Shakespeare, Richard II, act 2, scene 1. It is an aged John of Gaunt who offers this island image.

55. Wilson, Island Race, 5.

56. John Gillis, Islands of the Mind (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004), 112; William Falconer, Remarks on the Influence of Climate (London, 1781), 170–73.

57. Charles de Secondat Montesquieu, Spirit of the Laws [1748] (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), part 3, book 18, chap. 5; Falconer, Remarks, 171.

58. Andrew Kippis, Life of Captain James Cook (Dublin [1788]), 482; Cook, Journals of Captain James Cook, ed. J.C. Beaglehole, 4 vols. (Woodbridge, Suffolk, UK: Boydell & Brewer, 1999), 1: xxii–xxiii.

59. Harriet Guest, “Ornament and Use,” in Kathleen Wilson, ed., New Imperial History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 317–19; Greg Dening, Mr. Bligh’s Bad Language (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 271–73.

60. “Old Stories Re-Told,” All the Year Round, n.s. 8 (18 May 1872): 12.

61. A.W. Humphreys, Orpheus, and Concert-Room Companion (London, 1832); Harold Scott, Early Doors (London: Nicholson & Watson, 1946), 20–21; Peter Bailey, Leisure and Class (London; Methuen, 1987), 166–67; Henry Mayhew, London Labour [1861–1862], facsimile ed., 4 vols. (New York: Dover, 1968), 1: 213; Leslie Shepard, History of Street Literature (Newton Abbot, Devon, UK: David & Charles, 1973), 21–22; Martha Vicinus, Industrial Muse (New York: Barnes & Noble, 1974), 13–14.

62. Paul Cowdell, “Cannibal Ballads,” Folk Music Journal, 9 (2010): 729; “King of the Cannibal Islands,” Punch, 6 (January–June 1844): 79.

63. Barry A. Joyce, Shaping of American Ethnography (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2001), 98; Madeline House and Graham Story, eds., Letters of Charles Dickens, vol. 2, 1840–1841 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1969), 262–63.

64. Herman Melville, Typee [1846] (New York: Viking Press, 1952), 16–17; Henry David Thoreau, Walden [1854] (New York: W.W. Norton, 1966), 17; Zack Bowen, Musical Allusions (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1974), 97–98; E.W. Hornung, Amateur Cracksman [1899] (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1908), 204; The Times [London] (27 December 1876); Anon., Travesty Burlesque of Hamlet (Slough, Berkshire, UK, 1847); Edward B. Taylor, Anahuac (London, 1869), 211–13; Oxford Dictionary of Nursery Rhymes, eds. Iona and Peter Opie, 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), 249.

65. James Catnach, Catalogue of Songs [1832], in Shepard, History of Street Literature, 217–21; J. Bruton, “Queen of the Cannibal Islands,” in Humphreys, Orpheus, 28–30.

66. Edward Reeves, Brown Men and Women (London, 1898), 268; Thomas Mayne Reid, Odd People (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1860), 164–65.

67. Basil Thomson, The Fijians (London: William Heinemann, 1908), 1.

68. Peter Dillon, Narrative . . . of a Voyage, 2 vols. (London, 1829), 1: 12–21.

69. Obeyesekere, “Narratives of the Self,” 69–70, 84, 101, 111.

70. Ruth Richardson, Death, Dissection (London: Penguin, 1989), 221–22.

71. Thomas Carlyle, Chartism [1839] (Boston, 1840), 28, 30–31; Patrick Brantlinger, Dark Vanishings (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2003), 94–95.

72. The Times (14 August 1845 and 16 August 1845); S.C. on Andover Union, P.P., 1846, V (666-1): vi, xix; James Vernon, Hunger (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007), 18–20; Ian Miller, “Feeding in the Workhouse,” Journal of British Studies, 52 (October 2013): 593.

73. William Booth, In Darkest England (London: Salvation Army, 1890), chap.1; The Times (13 March 1850).

74. Lloyd’s Weekly Newspaper [London] (9 August 1863); The Times (6 January 1869); Northern Echo [Darlington] (15 March 1880).

75. Tristram Stuart, Bloodless Revolution (New York: W.W. Norton, 2007), 182–86.

76. Joseph Ritson, Essay on Abstinence (London, 1802), 124–25.

77. Dane Kennedy, Highly Civilized Man (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2005), 168–70; Mary S. Lovell, Rage to Live (New York: W.W. Norton, 1998), 413.

78. Morley Roberts, “True Function,” The Humanitarian, 4 (April 1894): 284–88.

79. William Makepeace Thackeray, Works of . . . Thackery, 22 vols. (London, 1869), 18: 228–29; Cowdell, “Cannibal Ballads,” 723–25.

80. A.W.B. Simpson, Cannibalism and the Common Law (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1984); “The Apologists for Cannibalism,” The Spectator (13 September 1884), 1198–99; “Civilized Cannibals,” Nautical Magazine, 44 (March 1875): 177–78.

81. Simpson, Cannibalism, 96–101.

82. Malchow, Gothic Images, 55; Michael Alexander, Mrs. Fraser (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1971), 17–18, 114–15, 149, 159–62; Reay Tannahill, Flesh and Blood (New York: Stein & Day, 1975), 145–46; Kay Schaffer, In the Wake of First Contact (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 3–14, 18, 110–15.

83. “Skulls of the Crew,” Missionary Magazine (May 1837), 181–83.

84. [James Oliver] Wreck of the Glide (New York and London, 1848), 52–53; Obeyesekere, Cannibal Talk, 163–67.

85. Sydney Morning Herald (27 January 1859); South Australian Register [Adelaide] (5 February 1859); The Times (30 March 1859); Lloyd’s Weekly Newspaper (3 April 1859); The Observer [London] (4 April 1859); M.V. De Rochas, “Naufrage et scènes d’anthropologie a l’ile Rossell,” Le Tour Du Monde (deuxième semester, 1861), 81–94.

86. J.P. Thomson, British New Guinea (London, 1892), 12, 14–17; C.G. Seligmann, Melanesians of British New Guinea (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1910), 548, n.1; Basil Thomson, “Rossel Island,” Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society, 6 (October 1890): 8–11; Hubert Murray, Papua or British New Guinea (London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1912), 132–34; diary entry for 2 April 1908, Murray Papers, Mitchell Library, A 3139, vol. 2.

87. Beatrice Grimshaw, “World’s Worst Cannibal Island,” Asia, 34 (June 1934): 348–51.

88. Cǎtǎlin Avramescu, Intellectual History of Cannibalism (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2009), 1–2, 9; Lestringant, Cannibals, 100, 147.

89. Stevenson, “In the South Seas,” 129; Malchow, Gothic Images, 52; Garry Hogg, Cannibalism and Human Sacrifice (New York: Citadel Press, 1966), 22–23.

90. Crawfurd, “On Cannibalism,” 106–08.

91. H.L. Roth, Aborigines of Tasmania, facsimile of 2nd ed. [1899] (Hobart, Tasmania, Australia: Fullers Bookshop, 1968), 97.

92. Hume Nisbet, Colonial Tramp, 2 vols. (London, 1891), 2: 133–34.

93. Booth, In Darkest England, 10.

94. H.M. Stanley, Great Forest of Central Africa (London, 1890), 17–20.

95. Paul B. Du Chaillu, Explorations & Adventures (London, 1861), iii–iv, 67, 88–89.

96. R.F. Burton, “A Day Amongst the Fans,” Anthropological Review, 1 (May 1863): 48–49; James Greenwood, Curiosities of Savage Life (London, 1863), 294; W.W. Reade, Savage Africa [1864], reprint ed. (New York: Johnson Reprint, 1967), 136–39.

97. The Times (12 April 1895); A.B. Lloyd, In Dwarf Land [1899] (London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1907), 295–97; The Times (14 December 1898); “Excursions and Cannibalism,” Daily Chronicle [London] (16 September 1895); “African Cannibals,” Saturday Review, 81 (30 May 1896): 544; “Cannibalism,” Vegetarian Messenger (October 1895), 309–10.

98. James R. Ryan, Picturing Empire (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997), 222–23; Adam Hochschild, King Leopold’s Ghost (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1998), 165–66.

99. Reade, Savage Africa, preface.

100. Rev. D. Lang, “On the Origin and Migration,” Nautical Magazine and Naval Chronicle, for 1870, 4, 6–7.

101. John Coulter, Adventures in the Pacific (Dublin, 1845), 178–79, 223–25, 229, 231; “Day Among the Cannibals,” Nautical Magazine and Naval Chronicle (July 1864), 344–47; “Cannibalism in the Marquesas,” The Times (24 September 1873). Greg Dening has observed that the combined impact of imported alcohol and epidemic disease transformed Marquesan cannibalism from a practice suffused with ceremonial meaning into meaningless violence: drunken enata (Marquesans) now “sat amongst their carcases . . . like actors in some mad dream.” See Dening, Islands and Beaches (Honolulu: University Press of Hawai‘i, 1980), 259–61.

102. “South Seas—Mission at Raratonga,” Missionary Magazine (September 1840), 131–32.

103. “Manua,” Samoan Reporter (March 1845), 4; T.H. Hood, Notes of a Cruise (Edinburgh: Edmonston & Douglas, 1863), 139–40; William Mariner, Account of the Natives, 2 vols. (London, 1817), 1: 115–17.

104. Schaffer, In the Wake of First Contact, 118–19.

105. Angas, Savage Life, 1: vii, and 2: 210–11, 231; J.G. Frazer, Totemism (Edinburgh: Adam & Charles Black, 1887), 80–81.

106. Roslyn Poignant, Professional Savages (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2004), 10–11; “Among Cannibals,” The Spectator, 63 (21 December 1889): 884–85; [William Houghton], “Among Cannibals,” Edinburgh Review, 172 (October 1890): 521, 531–33.

107. W.G. Lawes, “Notes on New Guinea,” Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, n.s. 2 (October 1880): 613–14, 616; James Chalmers, Pioneering in New Guinea (London: Religious Tract Society [1902]), 48–51.

108. George Brown, “Life History of a Savage,” Proceedings of the Australian Association for the Advancement of Science (Sydney, 1898), 785–86; Brown, Melanesians and Polynesians (London: Macmillan, 1910), 152–54; Hydrographic Office, British Admiralty, Pacific Islands, Sailing Directions, 2nd ed. (London, 1890), 427–28, 447–48.

109. For Solomon Islands headhunting, see Chapter 4.

110. “Cannibalism in the South Seas,” The Observer (25 July 1847).

111. Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th ed. (New York, 1910), s.v. “Melanesia.”

112. Bronwen Douglas, “Art as Ethnohistorical Text,” in Nicholas Thomas and Diane Losche, eds., Double Vision (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 79–80; Andrew Cheyne, Description of Islands (London, 1852), 6–8; Alice Bullard, Exile to Paradise (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2000), 46–48, 206, 272–77.

113. Rev. M. Russell, Polynesia, 281–82; Robert Steel, New Hebrides and Christian Missions (London, 1880), 192–93; A.K. Langridge, Conquest of Cannibal Tanna (London: Hodder & Stoughton [1934]), 11–12.

114. George F. Angas, Polynesia (London [1866]), 352–53; Oscar Michelsen, Cannibals Won for Christ (London [1893]), 112–13; George Turner, Nineteen Years (London, 1861), 82–83; George Patterson, Missionary Life (Toronto, 1882), 160–61; Julius Brenchley, Jottings (London, 1873), 226–27.

115. A.B. Brewster, King of the Cannibal Isles (London: Robert Hale, 1937), 19; Banivanua-Mar, “Cannibalism in Fiji,” 206; E.W. Said, Orientalism (New York: Vintage Books, 1979), 6.

116. Thomas Williams and James Calvert, Fiji and the Fijians (New York, 1859), 80–81, 166–167.

117. John Erskine, Journal of a Cruise (London, 1853), 274–75; Caledonian Mercury [Edinburgh] (17 January 1825); Alexander Pearce, “Confessions of Murder and Cannibalism, 1822,” microfilm copy, Mitchell Library, ML A 1326.

118. Bertholdt Seemann, “Feejee Islanders,” Nautical Magazine and Naval Chronicle (1861), 258; Angas, Polynesia, 219–20.

119. A.B. Brewster, Hill Tribes of Fiji [1922], reprint ed. (New York: Johnson Reprint, 1967), 72–73.

120. John Lubbock, Pre-Historic Times [1865], 2nd ed. (New York, 1872), 459–60; James Greenwood, Wild Man at Home (London [1879]), 280–81; Walter Lawry, Friendly and Feejee Islands (London, 1850), 89.

121. Williams and Calvert, Fiji and the Fijians, 123; Juvenile Missionary Herald (April 1871), 56–57; Richard Siddons, Experiences in Fiji, in The Journal of William Lockerby, ed. Everard Im Thurn (London: Hakluyt Society, 1925), 174–75; G. Wright, “Fiji in the Early Seventies,” Transactions of the Fijian Society (1916–1917), 27; Nicholas Thomas, Entangled Objects (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1991), 67, 110–11.

122. Juvenile Missionary Herald (August 1871), 120–21; Thomas, Entangled Objects, 165–67.

123. David Cargill, Memoirs of Mrs. Margaret Cargill (London, 1841), 10–11.

124. Brantlinger, Taming Cannibals, 32–33; Seth Koven, Slumming (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2004), 94–95.

125. Joyce, Shaping of American Ethnography, 103–09, 114–17; “Special Instructions for the Captains, 1 January 1845,” B.L., Martin Papers, Add. Ms. 41463, ff. 121–24.

126. Cook, Journals of Captain James Cook . . . 1772–1775, ed. J.C. Beaglehole, 2 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1961): 452–53.

127. Beaglehole, Life of Cook, 349; Journals of Cook . . . 1776–1780, 3, part 1: 163–64.

128. William Bligh, Bligh Notebook, 28 April to 14 June 1789, facsimile ed. (Canberra: National Library of Australia, 1986), entry for 7 May 1789.

129. Walter Lawry, Second Visit to the Friendly and Feejee Islands (London, 1851), iv.

130. W.T. Pritchard, Polynesian Reminiscences [1866], reprint ed. (London: Dawsons of Pall Mall, 1968), 370–72; [Herman Merivale], “Christianity in Melanesia,” Quarterly Review, 95 (June 1854): 175.

131. [Merivale], “Christianity,” 170–71; Herbert Spencer, Principles of Sociology, 1, part 2 [1874–1875] (New York, 1896), 524.

132. Sahlins, “Raw Women,” 81–82. Henry Fowler, a crewmember from the Salem bêche-de-mer trader Glide, probably wrote the detailed account of Fijian butchery techniques that appeared in a letter to the Danvers Courier on 16 August 1845. Sahlins finds no compelling reason to dismiss this account; Obeyesekere terms it “surreal,” just another nautical “yarn.” Papers of Henry Fowler, Phillips Library, Peabody Essex Museum, MH-102, folders 1–3; Obeyesekere, Cannibal Talk, 167–69.

133. Williams and Calvert, Fiji and the Fijians, 40–41.

134. David Cargill, The Diaries . . . of David Cargill, 1832–1843, ed. Albert Schütz (Canberra: Australian National University Press, 1977), 159–60; Fergus Clunie, Fijian Weapons and Warfare (Suva: Fiji Museum, 1977), 6–7; Angas, Polynesia, 236; “Proceedings of H.M.S. Calliope,” Nautical Magazine and Naval Chronicle (September 1853), 457–59.

135. Williams and Calvert, Fiji and the Fijians, 2–3.

136. Joseph Waterhouse, King and the People of Fiji [1866] (New York: AMS Press, 1978), 26–28; Peter France, Charter of the Land (Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1969), 21; I.C. Campbell, “Historiography of Charles Savage,” Journal of the Polynesian Society, 89 (June 1980): 143–46; David Routledge, Matanitu (Suva, Fiji: Institute of Pacific Studies, 1985), 43–47.

137. Dictionary of Australasian Biography, Supplement, s.v. “Thakombau”; [C.W. Hope], “Sketches in Polynesia,” Blackwood’s Edinburgh Magazine, 106 (July 1869): 35–36; Mary Davis Wallis [“A Lady”], Life in Feejee (Boston, 1851), 30–31; Lawry, Friendly and Feejee Islands, 104–05.

138. The Times (27 June 1862 and 1 July 1872); Thomson, The Fijians, 51–55.

139. Deryck Scarr, Fiji: A Short History (Laie, HI: Institute for Polynesian Studies, 1984), 40–51.

140. T.R. St. Johnston, South Sea Reminiscences (London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1922), 180–81; R.A. Derrick, History of Fiji, 3rd ed. (Suva, Fiji: Government Press, 1957), 235–44; The Times (13 February 1875).

141. See, for example, G.K. Roth, Fijian Way of Life (London: Oxford University Press, 1953), chap. 2.

142. France, Charter of the Land, 108.

143. Brewster, Hill Tribes, 25–26.

144. Scarr, Fiji: A Short History, 75.

145. Banivanua-Mar, “Cannibalism and Colonialism,” 278.

146. Fiji Times [Levuka] (18 February 1871); “Fejee Cannibals,” Every Saturday [Boston], 3 (29 July 1871): 110.

147. Interview with Ratu Isikia Rogoyawa (1978?), in Kim Gravelle, Fiji’s Times, 8th reprint (Suva, 1992), 111–114; Derrick, History of Fiji, 200–01; W.C. Gardenhire, Fiji and the Fijians (San Francisco, 1871), 21.

148. On the hapless Rev. Baker, see Chapter 2.

149. G. Wright, “Fiji in the Early Seventies,” 17–18; Brewster, Hill Tribes, 32.

150. Fiji Times (6 August 1873).

151. Ibid. (15 February 1871); Derrick, History of Fiji, 211.

152. J.K. Chapman, Career of Arthur Hamilton Gordon (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1964), 155–56; Victoria Goodenough, Life of Love and Duty (London [1891]), 86.

153. Fiji Times (20 February 1875); A.H. Gordon to Wood, 14 July–14 August 1876, Stanmore Papers, B.L., Add. MS. 49237.

154. For a provocative account of colonial medicine as social surveillance, see David Arnold, Colonizing the Body (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993).

155. http://www.cdc.gov/measles

156. Andrew Cliff and Peter Haggett, Spread of Measles in Fiji (Canberra: Australian National University, 1985), 31–33; Robert Nicole, Disturbing History (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2011), 24–26.

157. S. Soulter Harwood, “Measles in the Fiji Islands,” Pacific Medical and Surgical Journal, 18 (January 1876): 352–53; Alan Macfarlane, The Savage Wars of Peace (Oxford: Blackwell, 1997), 291–92. Certain northeastern Pacific communities may have suffered just as grievously from another epidemic virus, smallpox, during the late 1770s. Perhaps a third of the coastal Haida, Tlingit, and Salish peoples succumbed to this deadly pathogen. David Igler, “Diseased Goods,” American Historical Review, 109 (June 2004): 701–02. For the impact of smallpox on the Makah people, see Joshua Reid, The Sea Is My Country (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2015), 119–123.

158. Constance Gordon-Cumming, At Home in Fiji, 2nd ed., 2 vols. (Edinburgh, 1881), 1: 56–59; The Times (18 June, 1 July, and 29 September 1875).

159. Fiji Times (27 February, 3 March, and 24 February 1875).

160. The Lancet [London] (3 July 1875), 33; Bolton Corney, “Behaviour of Certain Epidemic Diseases,” Transactions of the Epidemiological Society of London, n.s. 3 (1883–1884): 81–82; Brewster, Hill Tribes, 67–68.

161. H. Stonehewer Cooper, Islands of the Pacific, 2nd ed. (London, 1888), 34.

162. Arthur H. Gordon, Fiji; Records of Private and of Public Life, 4 vols. (Edinburgh: R. & R. Clark, 1897–1912), 1: 198–99, 209–11.

163. “The Abolition of Cannibalism in Fiji,” The Graphic (17 July 1875), 62–63.

164. “Cannibal Outbreak in Fiji,” Manchester Guardian (24 August 1876).

165. Wright, “Fiji in the Early Seventies,” 34–35; J.H. DeRicci, Fiji (London, 1875), 15–16.

166. Banivanua-Mar, “Cannibalism and Colonialism,” 258.

167. Chapman, Career of Gordon, 185–87; A.H. Gordon, Letters and Notes Written During the Disturbances in the Highlands, 2 vols. (Edinburgh: privately printed, 1879), 1: 421–23.

168. James Edge Partington, Random Rot (Altrincham, Manchester, UK, 1883), 67.

169. Elizabeth Bisland, “Confessions,” Outing; the Gentleman’s Magazine [Boston], 12 (April–September 1888): 546–51.

170. Melville, Moby-Dick, chap. 3, 24.

171. Morning Courier and Enquirer (3 September 1831).

172. Benjamin Morrell, Narrative of Four Voyages (New York, 1832), 466; Thomas Jefferson Jacobs, Scenes, Incidents (New York, 1844), 13–15. For a detailed reconstruction of the fates that befell “Sunday” and “Monday,” see James Fairhead, The Captain and “The Cannibal” (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2015).

173. Antony Adler, “Capture and Curation,” Journal of Pacific History, 49 (July 2014): 255–82; Poignant, Professional Savages, 83.

174. Fiji Times (10 May 1871).

175. P.T. Barnum, Struggles and Triumphs (Buffalo, NY, 1875), 760–61; Gardenhire, Fiji and the Fijians, 13–17; Jeff Bergland, Cannibal Fictions (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2006), 35–36, 39–40, 43; John MacKenzie, “Empire and Metropolitan Cultures,” in Andrew Porter, ed., Oxford History of the British Empire, 3 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999): 284.

176. Pamela Scully and Clifton Crais, “Race and Erasure,” Journal of British Studies, 47 (April 2008): 303, 306, 320–21.

177. Poignant, Professional Savages, 28, 1.

178. R.A. Cunningham, “Exhibition of Natives,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, 17 (1888): 83–84; Poignant, Professional Savages, 16.

179. Catherine Hall, Civilising Subjects (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002), 279–80; Robert Moffat, Missionary Labours and Scenes in South Africa (London, 1842).

180. Nadja Durbach, Spectacle of Deformity (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2010), 148–50; Bernth Lindfors, “Ethnological Show Business,” in Rosemarie Garland Thomson, ed., Freakery (New York: New York University Press, 1996), 216–17.

181. Partington, Random Rot, 67; Hulme, “Introduction: The Cannibal Scene,” 24; George S. Rowe, Life of John Hunt (London: Hamilton, Adams, 1859), 104–06.

182. [Merivale], “Christianity,” 174; Fiji Times (11 September 1869).

183. William T. Wawn, South Sea Islanders and the Queensland Labour Trade [1893], ed. Peter Corris (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 183, 1973), 283–84.

184. “Another Samoan,” P.I.M. (15 September 1939), 18; Nicholas Thomas, Colonialism’s Culture (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994), 33–35.

185. Reeves, Brown Men and Women, 3, 10–11.

186. The spelling of Frazer’s surname varies widely. Contemporary newspapers, magazines, and reference works call him “Frazer,” “Fraser,” “Gordon-Frazer,” and “Gordon-Fraser.” I thank Wayne Heuple for familiarizing me with this painting.

187. Alan McCulloch, Encyclopedia of Australian Art, 2 vols. (Hawthorn, Victoria, Australia: Hutchinson, 1984), 1: 512–13; Algernon Graves, Dictionary of Artists, 3rd ed. [1901], reprint (New York: Lenox Hill, 1970), s.v. “Frazer, Charles E.”; Illustrated Catalogue of the National Gallery [of Victoria] (Melbourne, 1911), 163, 167.

188. Table Talk [Melbourne] (20 November 1891), 6.

189. Melbourne Herald (10, 12, 21, 23, and 24 November 1891).

190. Frazer, “Tanna,” Table Talk (27 November 1891), 6; Melbourne Herald (29 December 1891).

191. The Sun [Melbourne] (28 April 1893); Melbourne Punch (4 May 1893).

192. Amy Woodson-Boulton, Transformative Beauty (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2012), 151.

193. Liverpool Mercury (23 November 1895); C.E.G. Frazer, “Paper Read at the Soiree” [22 November 1895], Walker Art Gallery Archives, typescript copy, n.p. I thank Alex Kidson, Curator of British Art at the Walker Gallery, for unearthing this long-misfiled document.

194. Frazer, “Paper Read at the Soiree.”

195. “Cannibal Feast on Tanna,” P.I.M. (March 1989), 41–42.

196. Thomas Beale, Natural History of the Sperm Whale (London, 1839), 186–87; Melville, Moby-Dick, chap. 96, 418–19; Seemann, Viti [1862], reprint (Folkestone, Kent, UK: Dawsons of Pall Mall, 1973), 183–84.

197. Arnold F. Hills, Essays on Vegetarianism (London, [1894]), 148; Oxford Dictionary of Quotations, 6th ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), 834.

198. Freud’s formulation declared, “Where id was, there ego shall be.” New Introductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis [1933], trans. and ed. James Strachey (New York: W.W. Norton, 1965), lecture 31, 71.

199. Ewan Johnston, “Reinventing Fiji,” Journal of Pacific History, 40 (June 2005): 23, 29.

200. James Mooney, “Our Last Cannibal Tribe,” Harper’s Monthly Magazine, 103 (September 1901): 554–55; “Confessions of a Cannibal,” P.I.M. (22 May 1936), 17–19.

201. Shirley Lindenbaum, Kuru Sorcery (Palo Alto, CA: Mayfield, 1979), 9–10, 19–22; Robert Klitzman, Trembling Mountain (New York: Plenum Press, 1998), 5–6, 22; Arens, Man-Eating Myth, 104, 107–09.

202. Peter M. Burns and Yana Figurova, “Tribal Tourism,” in Marina Novelli, ed., Niche Tourism (Oxford: Elsevier, 2005), 101–10; Dennis O’Rourke, in association with the Institute of Papua New Guinea Studies, Cannibal Tours (1987); Paul Raffaele, “Sleeping with Cannibals,” Smithsonian, 37 (September 2006): 48–59.

CHAPTER 2

1. [Sydney Smith], “Indian Missions,” Edinburgh Review, 12 (April 1808): 179–180.

2. Lady Holland, Memoir of the Reverend Sydney Smith, 2 vols. (New York, 1855), 2: 337.

3. Richard Le Gallienne, Romantic ’90s (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, Page, 1926), 251.

4. Jeffrey Cox, Imperial Fault Lines (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2002), 8. This historiographical “blind spot” has been the subject of several shrewd critiques. See especially A.G. Hopkins, “Back to the Future,” Past and Present, 164 (August 1999): 198–243; D.W. Bebbington, “Atonement, Sin, and Empire,” in Andrew Porter, ed., Imperial Horizons (Grand Rapids, MI: W.B. Eerdmans, 2003), 14–31; and Tony Ballantyne, “Religion, Difference,” Victorian Studies, 47 (Spring 2005): 427–455.

5. Bernard Porter, Lion’s Share, 3rd ed. (London: Longman, 1996); Bernard Porter, “‘Empire, What Empire?’” Victorian Studies, 46 (Winter 2004): 256–57. Porter’s controversial stance is fully delineated in his Absent-Minded Imperialists (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004).

6. Ballantyne, “Religion, Difference,” 449. For a dispassionate critique of Porter’s case, see Richard Price, “One Big Thing,” Journal of British Studies, 45 (July 2006): 602–27.

7. John L. Comaroff, “Images of Empire,” in Frederick Cooper and Ann Laura Stoler, eds., Tensions of Empire (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), 166.

8. Greg Dening, “The Comaroffs Out of Africa,” American Historical Review, 108 (April 2003): 474.

9. Jeffrey Cox, “Were Victorian Nonconformists the Worst Imperialists of All?,” Victorian Studies, 46 (Winter 2004): 253–54; Andrew Porter, “Religion and Empire,” Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 20 (September 1992): 375, 386; Susan Thorne, Congregational Missions (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1999), 49–50. For the argument against depicting British missionaries as agents of cultural imperialism, see Brian Stanley, Bible and the Flag (Leicester, UK: Apollos, 1990).

10. Bebbington, “Atonement,” 16–17, 19–20. On the centrality of the doctrine of atonement in nineteenth-century thought, see Boyd Hilton, Age of Atonement (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988).

11. John M. MacKenzie, “Empire and Metropolitan Cultures,” in Andrew Porter, ed., Oxford History of the British Empire, 3 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999): 281–82.

12. Cox, “Were Victorian Nonconformists,” 253–54; Catherine Hall, Civilising Subjects (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002), 84–86, 112–15, 172–73.

13. Program of Worship, “Bishop John Patteson Day,” 17 September 2006, Holy Trinity Anglican Cathedral, Suva, Fiji.

14. Vaccination Inquirer (September 1879), 79; Nadia Durbach, Bodily Matters (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2005), 99–103.

15. Pamela J. Walker, Pulling the Devil’s Kingdom Down (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001), 221–23.

16. William Moister, Missionary Martyrs (London, 1885), 9–10.

17. Encyclopaedia Britannica, 7th ed. (1842), s.v. “martyr.”

18. Ibid., 8th ed. (1857), s.v. “martyr.”

19. Ibid., 11th ed. (1910–1911), s.v. “martyr.”

20. A.G. Dickens, English Reformation (New York: Schocken Books, 1969), 264–65.

21. G.R. Elton, England Under the Tudors (London: Methuen, 1965), 220; Brad S. Gregory, Salvation at Stake (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999), 137.

22. David Loades, “Introduction,” in Loades, ed., John Foxe and the English Reformation (Aldershot, Hampshire, UK: Scolar Press, 1997), 3–4; Linda Colley, Britons (London: Yale University Press, 1992), 25–28.

23. Andrew Penny, “John Foxe,” in David Loades, ed., John Foxe, 183.

24. “Buried Alive for Christ,” Quarterly Token for Juvenile Subscribers (October 1868), 4–6.

25. Preface, Autobiography of Samuel Smiles, ed. Thomas Mackay (New York: E.P. Dutton, 1905), vii.

26. Samuel Smiles, Duty [1880] (Chicago, 1884), 114, 94–95, 118, 122.

27. Tim Jeal, Livingstone (London: Heinmann, 1973), 158–59; B. Stanley, Bible and the Flag, 70–72.

28. [Elizabeth R. Charles], Three Martyrs (London, 1886), 160–61; Kathryn Castle, Britannia’s Children (Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1996), 88.

29. David Livingstone and Charles Livingstone, Narrative of an Expedition (New York, 1866), 595, 599–600. Dane Kennedy has observed that although nineteenth-century British explorers rarely set out to die, “they certainly expected to suffer, and suffer they did.” Kennedy, Last Blank Spaces (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2013), 88–89.

30. Samuel Smiles, Self-Help [1859] (London, 1864), 2, 4.

31. A.W. Murray, Martyrs of Polynesia (London, 1885), 3–4; S.F. Harris, Century of Missionary Martyrs (London, 1897), ix–xi.

32. Jeffrey Cox, British Missionary Enterprise (New York: Routledge, 2008), 105–06.

33. Charlotte Brontë, Jane Eyre [1847] (New York, 2001), 299, 304, 355–56.

34. Oxford English Dictionary Online (2008), s.v. “romance.”

35. Robert Young, Martyr Islands (Edinburgh, 1889), 19–21; [Herman Merivale], “Christianity in Melanesia,” Quarterly Review, 95 (June 1854): 180; Norman Etherington, “Missions and Empire,” in Robin W. Winks, ed., Oxford History of the British Empire, 5 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999): 312.

36. Vanessa Smith, Literary Culture and the Pacific (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 83; Nicholas Thomas, “Force of Ethnology,” Current Anthropology, 30 (February 1989): 31.

37. J.F. Pullen, “Some Notes Made During Two Seasons in New Guinea” [1885–1886], 3: Royal Geographical Society Archives, London, J.MSS. 13/233.

38. Rev. Samuel McFarlane, Among the Cannibals (London, 1888), 36–37; Peggy Brock, “New Christians as Evangelists,” in Norman Etherington, ed., Missions and Empire (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), 141; Norman Goodall, History of the London Missionary Society (London: Oxford University Press, 1954), 421.

39. W.P. Livingston, Mary Slessor (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1915), 1–17, 57–67; A.J. Streeter, Mill-Girl Who Conquered Cannibals (London: London Missionary Society, 1925[?]), 4, 6–7; Clare Midgley, “Can Women Be Missionaries?,” Journal of British Studies, 45 (April 2006): 335–58.

40. The Times [London] (18 September 1861).

41. David Cargill, Diaries and Correspondence, ed. Albert J. Schütz (Canberra: Australian National University Press, 1977), 16–17; Gavin Daws, Dream of Islands (New York: W.W. Norton, 1980), 52.

42. K.R. Howe, Where the Waves Fall (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press 1984), 94.

43. John D. Mahoney, “Blood of Martyrs,” in Frank Hoare, ed., Mission and Ministry (Samabula, Fiji: Columban Fathers, 1994), 40–41.

44. Louis M. Raucaz, Savage South Solomons (Dublin: M.H. Gill, 1928), 32–36; Sydney Morning Herald (24 April 1846).

45. Livingstone and Livingstone, Narrative of an Expedition, 436–38.

46. Sione Lātūkefu, “Impact of South Sea Island Missionaries,” in James A. Boutilier et al., eds., Mission, Church, and Sect (Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 1978), 92–95; Peter J. Hempenstall, Pacific Islanders Under German Rule (Canberra: Australian National University Press, 1978), 122–23; Weekly Advocate [Sydney] (28 September 1878), 205–06.

47. Helen B. Gardner, Gathering for God (Dunedin, NZ: Otago University Press, 2006), 67–74; Sydney Mail (15 February 1879).

48. Edith M.E. Baring-Gould, Missionary Alphabet (London, 1894), 35; Edward Reeves, Brown Men and Women (London, 1898), 281–83; The Age [Melbourne] (27 September 1878); George Brown, George Brown, D.D. (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1908), 97; Wilfred Powell, Wanderings (London, 1884), 117–58; Rev. G. Brown to Sir A. Gordon, 5 July 1878: Special Collections, University of Auckland, WPHC 2/VI/12 (a); “Report of Enquiry into Action Taken by the Revd Geo. Brown Against Natives in New Britain,” 21 September 1879, WPHC 4/IV/88/1879.

49. Susan Thorne has made this point convincingly. See her Congregational Missions, especially 4–5, 43, 55–56, and 156–57.

50. [Harriet Martineau], “Christian Missions,” Westminster Review, n.s. 10 (July 1856): 35–36.

51. K. Theodore Hoppen, Mid-Victorian Generation (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), 453–55; Bernard Porter, “‘Empire, What Empire’?,” 259–60; Jonathan Rose, Intellectual Life (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2001), 347.

52. Richard D. Altick, English Common Reader (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1957), 102–05; Henry Mayhew, London Labour [1861–62], reprint ed. (New York: Dover Publications, 1968), 1: 24–39; Hugh McLeod, Class and Religion (Hamden, CT: Archon Books, 1974), 55–57.

53. Martha Loane, a district nurse whose work brought her into daily contact with the “respectable” poor, argued that church attendance was a misleading measure of religiosity: “Many of the poor rarely attend church, not because they are irreligious, but because they have long since received and absorbed the truths by which they live.” Loane, Queen’s Poor [1905], ed. Susan Cohen and Clive Fleay (London: Middlesex University Press, 1998), 27–30.

54. Catalogue of the Missionary Museum, Austin Friars (London, 1826), 1–3, 17–22; Mansell’s Guide to the Amusements of London for 1847 (London, 1847), n.p. The LMS’s Missionary Museum, which opened in 1814 as a display of “curiosities” for supporters of the foreign field, grew over the next half century into an important repository of ethnographic treasures. Its Tahitian collection was especially praised. On such collections as sites that helped to produce “tacit consent for . . . the imperial project,” see Annie E. Coombes, Reinventing Africa (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1994), 161, 168, 170.

55. Benjamin T. Butcher, We Lived with Headhunters (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1963), 15–16.

56. Children’s Bible and Missionary Box (January 1854), 1–2, 6–7; Gleanings for the Young (January 1878), 2; ibid. (February 1880), 18. On the financial contribution of children to overseas missions, see Prochaska, Women and Philanthropy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1980), 75–77, 81–86.

57. Robert Newton Young, Church and the Children (London, 1860), pp. 3–4, 10, 16; “Juvenile Missionary Meeting at Exeter Hall,” Missionary Magazine and Chronicle [hereafter, Chronicle of the LMS] (May 1842), 246–48.

58. Niel Gunson, Messengers of Grace (Melbourne, Australia: Oxford University Press, 1978), 47–48; Doreen M. Rosman, Evangelicals and Culture (London: Croom Helm, 1984), 20–21.

59. T[homas] H[aweis], “Very Probable Success of a Proper Mission,” Evangelical Magazine, 3 (July 1795): 261–70; John Campbell, Maritime Discovery (London, 1840), 202–04.

60. Greg Dening, Islands and Beaches (Honolulu: University Press of Hawai‘i, 1980), 95, 97–98; Charles Henry Robinson, History of Christian Missions (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1923), 447–48; Cox, British Missionary Enterprise, 82–84.

61. John O. Choules and Thomas Smith, Origin and History of Missions, 2 vols., 6th ed. (Boston, 1842), 1: 394–400; A.W. Murray, Martyrs of Polynesia, 9–15. For the story of one LMS agent who tried to “go native” on Tonga, see Michelle Elleray, “Crossing the Beach,” Victorian Studies, 47 (Winter 2005): 164–73.

62. James Miall, Congregationalism in Yorkshire (London, 1868), 176–78.

63. Richard Lovett, History of the London Missionary Society, 2 vols. (London, 1889), 1: 98.

64. Ibid., 81–83, 213.

65. Anon., “Voyage of His Majesty’s Ship Blonde,” Quarterly Review, 35 (March 1827): 439; Daniel Tyerman and George Bennet, Journal of Voyages and Travels, 2 vols. (London, 1831), 2: 86–88; Otto von Kotzebue, New Voyage Round the World, 2 vols. (London, 1830), 1: 168, 170.

66. Anon., “Narrative of a Voyage to the Pacific,” Edinburgh Review, 53 (March 1831): 217–18; Kotzebue, New Voyage, 1: 172–75; Louis B. Wright and Mary Isabel Fry, Puritans in the South Seas (New York: Henry Holt, 1936), 230–31.

67. W.T. Pritchard, Polynesian Reminiscences [1866], reprint ed. (London: Dawsons of Pall Mall, 1968), 25–31, 47–49; Rev. M. Russell, Polynesia, 3rd ed. (Edinburgh, 1845), 112–13; William Orme, Defence of the Missions (London, 1827), 17–19; William Ellis, Vindication of the South Sea Missions (London, 1831), 76.

68. Charles Darwin, Diary of the Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle, ed. Nora Barlow, Works of Charles Darwin, vol. 1 (London: William Pickering, 1986), entry for 22 November 1835, 323–24; George French Angas, Polynesia (London, 1866), 291.

69. Henry P. Van Dusen, They Found the Church (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1945), 91–93.

70. Lovett, History of the LMS, 1: 239.

71. Dening, Islands and Beaches, 170; Gunson, Messengers of Grace, 46; quotes are from Pierre Bourdieu, Distinction (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1984), 316.

72. Smiles, Duty, 300; Norman J. Davidson, John Williams (New York: George H. Doran, 1925), 9–11; Lovett, History of the LMS, 1: 238–39; Anna Johnston, Missionary Writing (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 119–20.

73. Daws, Dream of Islands, 30–31; William Cowper, “The Task” [1785], in The Poems of William Cowper, vol. 2, ed. John D. Baird and Charles Ryskamp (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995), Book I, 133.

74. Smiles, Duty, 301; Davidson, John Williams, 16; Moister, Missionary Martyrs, 139–40.

75. Williams to LMS headquarters, 30 September 1823, as quoted in Gunson, Messengers of Grace, 145.

76. As quoted in Lovett, History of the LMS, 1: 249.

77. John Williams, Narrative of Missionary Enterprises (London, 1837), 18.

78. Ibid., 143, 148–49.

79. A. Buzzacott, Mission Life (London, 1866), 32–33.

80. Williams, Missionary Enterprises, 144–45.

81. William Ellis, Polynesian Researches, 2 vols. (London, 1829), 1: viii; Williams, Missionary Enterprises, 133–34; Buzzacott, Mission Life, 52–54.

82. Ebenezer Prout, Memoirs of the Life of . . . John Williams (New York, 1843), 299–300.

83. Ibid., 290–91, 276–79, 280–83, 294–95; James Sibree, Fifty Years’ Recollections (Hull, UK, 1884), 67–69; James J. Ellis, John Williams: Martyr Missionary (London: S.W. Partridge, [1900]), 124–25.

84. Newcastle Auxiliary of the LMS, minutes for 13 July 1836, CWM Auxiliary Records/Box 1, S.O.A.S. archives, London; Chronicle of the LMS (June 1836), 5–8.

85. George Cousins, Story of the South Seas (London, 1894), 125–26; S.C. on Aborigines (British Settlements), P.P., 1836, VII: qq. 5708–10.

86. Prout, Memoirs, 319.

87. Typescript letter from Sir Charles Lyell to Dr. John Pye, 2 June 1837: CWM/Home/South Seas Personal/Box 2/ Folder 11, S.O.A.S. archives; Williams, Missionary Enterprises, vii–viii; Christopher Herbert, Culture and Anomie (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991), 162–64; Johnston, Missionary Writing, 139–40. If John Williams was a proto-anthropologist, he was a strange one. Friends invited to dine with the missionary and his wife often watched as Williams “arrayed his own portly person in the native tiputa and mat, fixed a spear by his side, and adorned his head with the towering cap of many colours, worn on high days by the chiefs.” Thus decked out, he “marched up and down his parlor . . . as happy as any one of the guests,” Prout, Memoirs, 323.

88. Manuscript draft of a letter from Williams to the Duchess of Kent, no date: CWM/Home/South Seas Personal/Box 2/Folder 6, S.O.A.S. archives.

89. Williams, Missionary Enterprises, 7, 502.

90. Prout, Memoirs, 324, 333–35; Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (2004), s.v. “Williams, John.”

91. Rev. John Williams, “Missionary’s Return,” in The Pastoral Echo: Nineteen Sermons (London, 1837) 238, 244–45.

92. [Harriet Martineau], “Christian Missions,” 3–4.

93. Missionary’s Farewell (London, 1838), x.

94. Ibid., 104–05.

95. Chronicle of the LMS (May 1838), 67–69; John Williams, The Missionary (London, 1849), 31–32; John S. Moffat, Lives of Robert & Mary Moffat (London, 1885), 225.

96. Chronicle of the LMS (April 1839), 60–61; ibid., (January 1840), 3–5.

97. Moister, Missionary Martyrs, 151–52; Lovett, History of the LMS, 1: 376.

98. Williams, Missionary Enterprises, 291–92.

99. Dorothy Shineberg, They Came for Sandalwood (Carlton, Victoria, Australia: Melbourne University Press, 1967), 205–07.

100. Chronicle of the LMS (June 1840), 81–82; [Rev. George Turner?], “Eromanga”: CWM/Home/South Seas Personal/Box 1/Folder 9, S.O.A.S. archives.

101. Sujit Sivasundaram, “Shedding the Body,” in Rosemary Seton, ed., A Mission for the Future (London: Religious Archives Group, 2000), 21–23; Bernard Smith, European Vision, 2nd ed. (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1985), 318–21.

102. William Clark, “William Clark’s Journal,” entry for 2 December 1839: Phillips Library, M656 1838v, Peabody Essex Museum, Salem, MA.

103. Evangelical Magazine (July 1840), 332–33; Chronicle of the LMS (June 1840), 89; Leeds Mercury (11 April 1840).

104. Constance Gordon-Cumming, A Lady’s Cruise, 2 vols. (Edinburgh, 1882), 1: 237–38; Cousins, Story of the South Seas, 132.

105. Newcastle Auxiliary of the LMS, minutes for 23 July 1840: CWM Auxiliary Records/Box 1, S.O.A.S archives; Chronicle of the LMS (December 1842), 187–89.

106. John Campbell, Martyr of Erromanga, 226–27; Smiles, Self-Help, 176–77; Rod Edmond, Representing the South Pacific, 146–47, 149–50; Robert Steel, The New Hebrides and Christian Missions (London, 1880), 194–203; Reformed Presbyterian Magazine (1 February 1873), 39–41; George Platt to William Ellis, 12 April 1840, as quoted in Gunson, Messengers of Grace, 61.

107. Alfred Lord Tennyson, In Memoriam [1850] (London, 1880), verse xxxvi, 79.

108. Diary of Thomas Baker, 18 February 1859: Fiji Museum Library, Suva, BV3680.F5.B3. This is a typescript copy of the manuscript original, located in Sydney’s Mitchell Library (MOM 222). All subsequent citations refer to the Suva copy.

109. Charles Dickens, Bleak House [1852–53] (London: Macmillan, 1924), chap. 4. Similarly, see W. Winwood Reade, “Efforts of Missionaries Among Savages,” Journal of the Anthropological Society of London, 3 (1865): 163–83. Reade warned, “When you subscribe your guinea to a foreign mission, you defraud some starving Englishman of that money” (168).

110. “Saints of Exeter Hall—Their Cannibal-Civilizing Societies,” Reynolds’ Weekly Newspaper (22 May 1859).

111. Sir Edward Belcher, Narrative of a Voyage Round the World, 2 vols. (London, 1843), 2: 53.

112. James Watkins, “Appeal to the Sympathy of the Christian Public” [1838], as quoted in Laurel May Heath, “Matai-ni-mate,” unpub. Ph.D. thesis, Department of History, Queensland University, 1987, 2; “Extract of a Letter from the Rev. David Cargill,” Wesleyan-Methodist Magazine, 3rd series, 18 (October 1839): 860.

113. Gunson, Messengers of Grace, 334.

114. Diary of Thomas Baker, 4 May 1859.

115. As quoted in G. Elsie Harrison, Methodist Good Companions (London: Epworth Press, 1935), 88. On Bunting’s “surfeit of disciplinary zeal,” see E.P. Thompson, Making of the English Working Class (New York: Vintage Books, 1963), 352–54.

116. William Peirce, Ecclesiastical Principles (London, 1854), 41–42.

117. “Missionary Among the Cannibals,” Monthly Religious Magazine, 25 (March 1861): 154–55; Rev. Thomas Jaggar [?], manuscript diary, 11 September 1844: Mitchell Library, MOM 337.

118. Charles W. Rigg, Digest of the Laws and Regulations (Sydney, Australia, 1863), 191; Berthold Seeman, Viti [1862], reprint ed. (Folkestone, Kent, UK: Dawsons of Pall Mall, 1973), 32–33; W.T. Pritchard, Polynesian Reminiscences, 266–69.

119. Stephen Koss, “Wesleyanism,” Historical Journal, 18 (March 1975): 105, 110–11; Waterhouse to Eggleston, 24 January 1861: Mitchell Library, MOM 98; G.R.C. Herbert and G.H. Kingsley, South Sea Bubbles [1872], 5th ed. (London: Macmillan, 1911), 297–98.

120. David Hempton, Methodism (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2005), 155–56.

121. Stanley, Bible and the Flag, 112; [C.W. Hope], “Sketches in Polynesia,” Blackwood’s Edinburgh Magazine, 106 (July 1869): 40; William Moister, History of Wesleyan Missions, 3rd ed. (London, 1871), 545; A.B. Brewster, Hill Tribes of Fiji [1922], reprint ed. (New York: Johnson Reprint, 1967), 141.

122. Rev. Walter Lawry, Friendly and Feejee Islands (London, 1850), 141–42.

123. Diary of Thomas Baker, prefatory account dated “August 1860.” For the visceral impact of early Methodist teaching, see Phyllis Mack, Heart Religion (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008).

124. Diary of Thomas Baker, entries for 25 October 1857, 28 October 1857, 1 October 1858, and 5 October 1858; Peirce, Ecclesiastical Principles, 102–03.

125. Diary of Thomas Baker, entries for 10 October 1858 and 18 October 1858; Eggleston to the Fijian District Meeting, 11 April 1859: Mitchell Library, MOM 32.

126. Baker to Eggleston, December 1859: Mitchell Library, MOM 165; Diary of Thomas Baker, entries for May 1860 and 25 July 1860.

127. Diary of Thomas Baker, 3 November 1862.

128. Alfred Harold Wood, Overseas Missions of the Australian Methodist Church, vol. 2 (Melbourne: Aldersgate Press, 1978): 159; Diary of Thomas Baker, 20 July 1866.

129. Diary of Thomas Baker, 15 June 1866.

130. Ibid., 31 July 1866; Rigg, Digest of the Laws and Regulations, 187.

131. Rabone to Baker, 12 July 1867: Mitchell Library, MOM 35.

132. Rev. Joseph Waterhouse, King and People of Fiji [1866], reprint ed. (New York: AMS, 1978), 11; J.B. Thurston, diary, “First Expedition Across Fiji (1865)”: Royal Geographical Society Archives, London, LMS (116) T.10.

133. Typescript copy of Baker’s last letter to his wife, 19 July 1867, appended to the Diary of Thomas Baker, 96. For the redacted version of this letter, see Wesleyan Missionary Notices (26 December 1867), 12–13.

134. “Massacre and Cannibalism at Fiji,” Illustrated Australian News (26 October 1867), 7.

135. [Hope], “Sketches in Polynesia,” 45; Herbert and Kingsley, South Sea Bubbles, 299–300; H. Britton, Fiji in 1870, 2nd ed. (Melbourne, 1870), 45.

136. In “The Whale Tooth” (1908), Jack London transforms Thomas Baker into “John Starhurst” and Nawawabalavu into “the Buli of Gatoka.”

137. Fijian Weekly News and Planters’ Journal (3 October 1868), 1; A.J. Small, “Story of the Navosa Tragedy,” Transactions of the Fijian Society (1909), 37; Nicholas Thomas, Islanders (New Haven, CT, 2010), 245–46; Robert Nicole, Disturbing History (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2011), 16.

138. R.A. Derrick, History of Fiji, 3rd ed. (Suva, Fuji: Government Press, 1957), 165, n.25; Brewster, Hill Tribes of Fiji, 30–31; Jane Samson, “Ethnology and Theology,” in Brian Stanley, ed., Christian Missions (Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans, 2001), 120.

139. Rev. Tevita Baleiwaqa, “Baker Luck,” Fiji Times (15 July 1995); George W. Stocking, Victorian Anthropology (New York: Free Press, 1987), 87–88.

140. Illustrated Australian News (26 October 1867), 7; The Times (17 December 1867).

141. L. McHugh, “Memoirs of Rev. A.J. Small, Fiji 1879–1925,” 21: Mitchell Library, ML MSS 3598; the poem is from J.F.H., “Navosah” (1868): Mitchell Library, MOM 520.

142. Britton, Fiji in 1870, 46; the dirge is in Brewster, Hill Tribes of Fiji, 26.

143. Wesleyan Missionary Notices (25 January 1868), 30–31; Rev. J. Horsley to Rev. S. Rabone, 20 April 1868: Mitchell Library, MOM 98; Derrick, History of Fiji, 165.

144. Jane Samson, Imperial Benevolence (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1998), 112–13; Constance F. Gordon-Cumming, At Home in Fiji, 2 vols., 2nd ed. (Edinburgh, 1881), 1: 8.

145. Fiji Times (23 July 1870); Sydney Morning Herald (27 August 1870); A.B. Brewster, King of the Cannibal Isles (London: Robert Hale, 1937), 118–19.

146. Report of the Wesleyan-Methodist Missionary Society, for the Year Ending April, 1873 (Sydney, 1873), 114–15; Journal of Rev. J. Watkins, entry for 28 September 1867: Mitchell Library, ML A 835. Confusingly, the place names associated with Thomas Baker’s death are often treated as interchangeable. “Navosa” should refer to a large province in west-central Viti Levu. “Navatusila” (sometimes just “Vatusila”) is both an interior district of Navosa and, in the nineteenth century, a collective name for the people who lived there. Four main villages today comprise the Navatusila district: Mare, Nabutautau, Nanoko, and Nasauvakarua.

147. McHugh, “Memoirs of Rev. A.J. Small,” 21; [Arthur Gordon], “An Account of Mr. Walter Carew’s Tour of the Island of Viti Levu” (privately printed, n.d. [1876?]), 6; James Edge Partington, Random Rot (Manchester, 1883), 75.

148. Next to the boot fragments and the ordination Bible rests the “Dish in which some of Mr. Baker’s flesh was presented to one of the highland chiefs.” Like much of what could be called “Bakeralia,” the provenance of this object is dubious.

149. Brewster, Hill Tribes, 27. For the “well-worn story” that one highland chief mistook Baker’s boots for his skin, see Basil Thomson, The Fijians (London: William Heinemann, 1908), 107, n.1.

150. Brewster, Hill Tribes, 98; Rev. William Bennett, “Report Read at the Opening of the Baker Memorial, 14th October, 1913,” 3: Fiji National Archives, Suva, Bennett Papers, M/103a.

151. Fiji Sun [Suva] (26 October 2006); Daily Post [Suva] (16 October 2003).

152. Patrick Barkham, “136 Years On, Fiji Says Sorry for Its Cannibal Past,” The Times (15 October 2003); Fiji Sun (14 November 2003); Fiji Times (14 November 2003); Sunday Times [Suva] (16 November 2003).

153. Sunday Post [Suva] (23 November 2003).

154. “John Coleridge Patteson,” The Nation [New York] (8 April 1875), 244–45.

155. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (2004), s.v. “Patteson, Sir John”; and “Coleridge, Sir John Taylor.”

156. C.S.R., “Bishop Patteson-In Memoriam” The Spectator (13 January 1872), 44; Elizabeth Grierson, Bishop Patteson (London: Seeley, Service, 1932), 21; Jesse Page, Bishop Patteson (London, 1891), 29–31.

157. Charlotte M. Yonge, Life of John Coleridge Patteson, 2 vols. (London, 1874), 1: 122–23; Sir John Gutch, Martyr of the Islands (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1971), 20–21.

158. Anon., The Island Mission (London, 1869), 83–85; Yonge, Life of Patteson, 1: 161–62, 180–81; E.S. Armstrong, History of the Melanesian Mission (New York: E.P. Dutton, 1900), 23–24.

159. Andrew Porter, Religion Versus Empire? (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2004), 160–61; [Merivale], “Christianity in Melanesia,” 193–95.

160. G.A. Selwyn to William Selwyn, Epiphany 1848: Selwyn College Archives, Cambridge University, Selwyn Papers, 6.25.C.

161. Selwyn to Edward Coleridge, 21 August 1849, as quoted in Darrell Whiteman, Melanesians and Missionaries (Pasadena, CA: William Carey Library, 1983), 106–07.

162. C.E. Fox, Lord of the Southern Isles (London: A.R. Mowbray, 1958), 9; Yonge, Life of Patteson, 1: 273–74.

163. Armstrong, History of the Melanesian Mission, 14.

164. Yonge, Life of Patteson, 1: 439.

165. Anon., Island Mission, 188–89; John Coleridge Patteson, Abiding Comforter (Auckland, New Zealand, 1871), 8.

166. Report of the Melanesian Mission for 1861–1862, 19.

167. Fox, Lord of the Southern Isles, 16; Rev. Walter G. Ivens, Hints to Missionaries (London: Melanesian Mission, 1907), 21.

168. Yonge, Life of Patteson, 1: 289–91; Armstrong, History of the Melanesian Mission, 48–50.

169. Gutch, Martyr of the Islands, 92–93; Anon., Island Mission, 89–102; Whiteman, Melanesians and Missionaries, 122.

170. David Hilliard, God’s Gentlemen (St. Lucia, Queensland, Australia: University of Queensland Press, 1978), 35–37; Patrick Harries, “Anthropology,” in Etherington, ed., Missions and Empire, 243; Paul Landau, “Language,” in ibid., 201.

171. Patteson to his uncle, March 1866, as quoted in Yonge, Life of Patteson, 2: 167.

172. Hilliard, God’s Gentlemen, 57–58; Patteson’s diary for 1 August 1861, as quoted in Yonge, Life of Patteson, 1: 531–32.

173. Patteson to his sisters Joan and Fanny, 23 September 1869, as quoted in Yonge, Life of Patteson, 2: 272–73.

174. Auckland Church Gazette (March 1873), 8; Southern Cross Log (February 1897), 5.

175. Fox, Lord of the Southern Isles, 124–25; H.H. Montgomery, Light of Melanesia (London, 1896), 44–47. It was primarily through Mota that R.H. Codrington acquired his knowledge of Melanesian societies. Mana, a Mota word, became one of the organizing concepts in Pacific anthropology. On George Sarawia’s role as a teacher of the Mota language, see Jane Samson, “Translation Teams,” in Patricia Grimshaw and Andrew May, eds., Missionaries, Indigenous Peoples and Cultural Exchange (Brighton, UK: Sussex Academic Press, 2010), 96–109.

176. Patteson to his sister Fanny, 27 August 1864, as quoted in Yonge, Life of Patteson, 2: 99–101.

177. Patteson to Selwyn, 27 September 1870, as quoted in Yonge, Life of Patteson, 2: 460–61.

178. Typescript copy of “A Letter from the Right Rev. John Coleridge Patteson, D.D. to ***,” 11 November 1862: Keble Papers, Deposit 8/5, Lambeth Palace Library, London.

179. Patteson to Selwyn, 16 November 1867, as quoted in Yonge, Life of Patteson, 2: 289–90; “Bishop Patteson on the Polynesian Labour Trade,” printed pamphlet marked “Norfolk Island, January 11, 1871”: Tait Papers, 186, ff. 145–47, Lambeth Palace Library.

180. Mission Field (1 February 1872), 35–43; ibid. (1 March 1872), 66–72; Brooke as quoted in A.H. Markham, Cruise of the “Rosario” [1873], reprint ed. (Folkestone, Kent: Dawsons of Pall Mall, 1970), 65–66.

181. Mission Field (1 February 1872), 40–41.

182. Brooke quoted in New Zealand Church News (December 1871), 33–34; Codrington quoted in Mercury [Hobart] (18 November 1871); Fison quoted in Sydney Morning Herald (18 November 1871).

183. Melanesian Mission Report, 1872, 6–7; Codrington to Gerland, 31 December 1874: Codrington Letters, MSS. Pac. s. 4, Rhodes House Library, Oxford University; Melanesian Mission Report, 1884, 3–4. For well-reasoned doubts about blackbirding as the underlying cause of Patteson’s murder, see Thorgeir Kolshus and Even Hovdhaugen, “Reassessing the Death,” Journal of Pacific History, 45 (December 2010): 331–55.

184. Melanesian Mission Report, 1905, 7; Proceedings of the General Conference on Foreign Missions (London, 1879), 268–69; W.C. O’Ferrall, Santa Cruz and the Reef Islands (London: Melanesian Mission, n.d.), unpaginated; Hilliard, God’s Gentlemen, 186.

185. Although Bishop Patteson was murdered on Nukapu, located in the Reef Islands group, several prominent reports misidentified the killing field as “Santa Cruz.” The latter became a synecdoche for savagery in the late-Victorian Pacific. See, for example, The Times (27 November 1871); Annual Register for 1871 (London, 1872), 158–59; The Graphic [London] (6 January 1872), 14; and Illustrated London News (2 December 1871), 519.

186. Clements R. Markham, Commodore J.G. Goodenough (Portsmouth, UK, 1876), 6–8, 11–12, 16–18, 27–28, 55–56.

187. Rev. Algernon Stanley, In Memoriam (London, 1876), 10–14; Victoria Goodenough, Life of Love and Duty (London, 1891), 99–101.

188. Fiji Times (22 November 1871); New Zealand Herald [Auckland] (1 November 1871); Sydney Morning Herald (7 November 1871); Argus [Melbourne] (16 and 25 November 1871).

189. Gladstone to the Bishop of Lichfield, November 1871: B.L., Gladstone Papers, Add. MSS., 44540; [W.E. Gladstone], “Life of John Coleridge Patteson,” Quarterly Review, 137 (October 1874): 492; Gladstone Diaries, ed. H.C.G. Matthew, vol. 9, entry for 14 November 1878 (Oxford, 1986), 362.

190. Queen Victoria’s journal, entry for 30 November 1874: Royal Archives, Windsor Castle, Berkshire.

191. The Times (19 February 1872); Max F. Müller, “Lecture on Missions” [3 December 1873], in Müller, Chips from a German Workshop, 5 vols. (New York, 1890), 4: 253–54.

192. Parliamentary Debates, 3rd series, 209 (6 February 1872): 3.

193. Ibid., 211 (3 May 1872): 185–86.

194. “A Lady,” poem entitled “Bishop Patteson” and dated 25 April 1872: Selwyn College Archives, Cambridge University. See also [Thomas Williamson], “In Memoriam: Bishop Patteson” (Rugby, Warwickshire, UK, 1872); H.A.S., A Martyr-Bishop of Our Own Day (London, 1881[?]); Jackson Mason, In Memoriam: J.C. P[atteson] (London, 1871).

195. Undated letter from Miss Frances Patteson to the Master of Selwyn College: Patteson Papers, Selwyn College Archives, Cambridge University; John M. MacKenzie, Propaganda and Empire (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1984), 230; Charles E. Fox, Kokamora (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1962), 10–11; Julian Thomas, Cannibals and Convicts (London, 1886), 40–41.

196. Nicholas Thomas, Colonialism’s Culture (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1994), 134–36. On the significance of Patteson’s murder for Anglican missions, see David Hilliard, “John Coleridge Patteson,” in J.W. Davidson and Deryck Scarr, eds., Pacific Islands Portraits (Wellington, New Zealand: A.H. & A.W. Reed, 1970), 199–200.

197. The quote “postcolonial disgrace” is from Thorne, Congregational Missions, 24; Rhonda Anne Semple, Missionary Women (Woodbridge, Suffolk, UK: Boydell Press, 2003), 234.

198. Samson, “Ethnology and Theology,” 120–21.

199. Ivens, Hints to Missionaries, 20.

200. James S. Dennis, Centennial Survey (New York: Fleming H. Revell, 1902), 257–60; Andrew Porter, “Religion and Empire,” 372.

201. Charles W. Forman, “Foreign Missions in the Pacific,” in Boutilier et al., eds., Mission, Church, and Sect, 38–39.

202. Richard Price, Making Empire (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 97. On the role of local informants in the accumulation of colonial knowledge, see Richard Drayton, “Knowledge and Empire,” in P.J. Marshall, ed., Oxford History of the British Empire, 2: 231–52.

203. Daniel T. Hughes, “Mutual Biases,” in Boutilier et al., eds., Mission, Church, and Sect, 65–66.

204. Michael W. Young, “Commemorating Missionary Heroes,” in Ton Otto and Nicholas Thomas, eds., Narratives of Nation (Amsterdam: Harwood Academic, 1997), 93, 98; Nicholas Thomas, Colonialism’s Culture, 62–63. In his extended preface to Frantz Fanon’s The Wretched of the Earth (1961), Jean-Paul Sartre treated as self-evident the idea that “colonial aggression” had caused “natives” to turn their fear and fury inwards, further oppressing the oppressed. Selecting an image to capture what he saw as the Islanders’ schizophrenic reality, Sartre invoked the religion of the missionaries: colonized peoples, he believed, felt compelled to “dance all night” honoring their traditional “idols,” and then “at dawn . . . crowd into the churches to hear mass.” Whatever its applicability to the Francophone colonies, Sartre’s image of European religious influence bears little resemblance to what occurred in Britain’s Melanesian territories. Fanon, Wretched of the Earth (New York: Grove Press, 1968), 18–20.

CHAPTER 3

1. Walter G. Ivens, Dictionary and Grammar (Washington, DC: Carnegie Institution, 1918), 198.

2. Jane Samson, Imperial Benevolence (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1998), 40.

3. “An Act to Regulate and Control the Introduction and Treatment of Polynesian Laborers,” Queensland, 31 Vict., no. 47.

4. Sydney Morning Herald (31 May 1869).

5. Ibid. (8 May 1869).

6. Hector Holthouse, Cannibal Cargoes (London: Angus & Robertson, 1969), 33–34; quotation from Sydney Morning Herald (31 May 1869); Thurston to Clarendon, 23 March 1869, Correspondence Respecting the Deportation of South Sea Islanders, P.P., 1868–69, XLIII [4222]: 50–51.

7. George Palmer, Kidnapping (Edinburgh, 1871), 51–53.

8. Sydney Morning Herald (26 May 1869 and 31 May 1869).

9. Ibid. (31 May 1869).

10. Belmore to Thurston, 10 March 1869, enclosure 1 in no. 31, P.P., 1868–69, XLIII [4222]: 52.

11. Sydney Morning Herald (23 June 1869).

12. Ibid. (28 June 1869); O.W. Parnaby, Britain and the Labour Trade (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1964), 20–21.

13. Sydney Morning Herald (8 May 1869 and 29 June 1869).

14. Belmore to Kimberley, 6 October 1871, Correspondence between the Governor of New South Wales and the Earl of Kimberley respecting certain statements made by Captain Palmer, P.P., 1872, XLIII [C. 479]: 7; Wal Bird, Me No Go (Charnwood, Australian Capital Territory: Ginninderra Press, 2005), 19.

15. Regina v. Levinger, Reports of Cases Argued and Determined in the Supreme Court of Victoria, 6 [1871]: 148–49.

16. Belmore to Kimberley, 6 October 1871, P.P., 1872, XLIII [C. 479]: 7.

17. Clarendon to March, 3 August 1869, Further Correspondence Respecting the Deportation of South Sea Islanders, P.P., 1871, XLVIII [C. 399]: 1–2.

18. For critical accounts of the Young Australian case published in major British newspapers during the summer and autumn of 1869, see especially The Times [London] (9 August 1869); Glasgow Herald (11 August 1869); Liverpool Mercury (8 September 1869); Leeds Mercury (8 September 1869 and 16 October 1869); Western Mail [Cardiff] (11 September 1869); and the Daily News [London] (11 September 1869).

19. Doug Munro, “Pacific Islands Labour Trade,” Slavery and Abolition, 14 (August 1993): 88. This rough estimate takes into account not only indentured laborers but also free laborers, slaves, and convicts.

20. David Northrup, Indentured Labor (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 5–6.

21. For “coolies” in Queensland, see James L.A. Hope, In Quest of Coolies (London, 1872); and for Louisiana, see Moon-Ho Jung, Coolies and Cane (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2006).

22. Known as “beech” or “beach le mare” by the Salem-based crews who dominated the trade during the 1820s and 30s, the names for this echinoderm were corruptions of the Portuguese bicho do mar.

23. Andrew Cheyne, Description of Islands (London, 1852), 58–60.

24. Berthold Seemann, Viti [1862], reprint ed. (Folkestone, Kent, UK: Dawsons of Pall Mall, 1973), 227–28; H.H. Romilly, From My Verandah (London, 1889), 259–60; R.G. Ward, “Pacific Bêche-de-mer Trade,” in Ward, ed., Man in the Pacific Islands (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972), 106–08; Journal of the “Clay,” entry for 16 September 1827, Phillips Library, Peabody Essex Museum, Ms. 656 1827C; Mary Davis Wallis [“A Lady”], Life in Feejee (Boston, 1851), 135.

25. Pacific Pearl Fishery Company (London, 1825), 1–2; Frederick J. Moss, Through Atolls (London, 1889), 66–67; Romilly, From My Verandah, 268–69; W. Saville-Kent, Naturalist in Australia (London, 1897), 205–06; Stanley Wilson, “The Early Days of Pearling,” typescript paper (1924), Mitchell Library Q 639.4/W.

26. John Moresby, Discoveries & Surveys (London, 1876), 24–27; Peter Corris, “‘Blackbirding’ in New Guinea Waters,” Journal of Pacific History, 3 (1968): 86–87; Deryck Scarr, Fragments of Empire (Canberra: Australian National University Press, 1967), 119–20.

27. Albert Hastings Markham, Cruise of the “Rosario” [1873], reprint ed. (Folkestone, Kent: Dawsons of Pall Mall, 1970), 45–46.

28. Dorothy Shineberg, They Came for Sandalwood (Carlton, Victoria, Australia: Melbourne University Press, 1967), 62–63.

29. Nautical Magazine and Naval Chronicle for 1850 (London, 1850), 427–28; George Patterson, Missionary Life Among the Cannibals (Toronto, 1882), 153–54.

30. Shineberg, Sandalwood, passim.

31. A.K. Langridge, Conquest of Cannibal Tanna (London: Hodder & Stoughton, [1934]), 47.

32. K.H. Kennedy, Robert Towns’ Townsville (Townsville, Queensland, Australia: Townsville City Council, 2004), 58–59; W.P. Morrell, Britain in the Pacific Islands (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1960), 93.

33. Bowen to Newcastle, 6 January 1860, Papers Relative to the Affairs of Queensland, P.P., 1861, XL [2890], no. 3.

34. Sven Beckert, “Emancipation and Empire,” American Historical Review, 109 (December 2004): 1405.

35. George Wight, Queensland, 3rd ed. (London, 1863), 83, 85–87.

36. H. Britton, Fiji in 1870, 2nd ed. (Melbourne, Australia, 1870), 9, 11; Fiji Times (12 February 1870).

37. Thurston, “Report on . . . the Fiji Islands for 1866,” P.P., 1871, XLVII [435], Appendix, 62–63.

38. Henry Ling Roth, Report on the Sugar Industry (Brisbane, Australia, 1880), 93–94; Adrian Graves, Cane and Labour (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1993), 11. Roth estimated that in 1878, per capita sugar consumption in Australia was at least twenty-five percent higher than in England and Wales.

39. An Adelaide newspaper imagined the “unique specimen of humanity” that Queenslanders wanted toiling in their cane fields: “He must be lively and intelligent, hardworking and assiduous; but at the same time he must not be so enterprising as to endeavour, as the Chinese do, to slip the leading-strings of employers and immigration agents and go off to employments which are regarded as belonging of right to Europeans. He must, in short, be an industrious drudge.” The Register (3 March 1883).

40. Hope, In Quest of Coolies, 4.

41. Brisbane Courier (12 January 1869); Wight, Queensland, 100–04; Warwick Anderson, “Climates of Opinion,” Victorian Studies, 35 (Winter 1992): 136, 146–47; Dane Kennedy, “Perils of the Midday Sun,” in John M. MacKenzie, ed., Imperialism and the Natural World (Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1990), 119–20.

42. J.H. Galloway, Sugar Cane Industry (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 229, 231–32; Kennedy, “Perils,” 133–34.

43. [Flora Shaw], Letters from Queensland (London, 1893), 10–12; Fiji Times (4 June 1870).

44. R.F. Jeffray, “Queensland Planters,” Fortnightly Review, o.s. 38 (September 1882): 307; Roth, Report on the Sugar Industry, 42–43.

45. Brisbane Courier (22 August 1863).

46. Ibid. (29 August 1863).

47. Governor Grey to Earl Grey, 10 March 1848, Further Papers relative to the affairs of New Zealand, P.P. 1847–48, XLIII [1002], no. 29 and enclosures.

48. Miller to Russell, 29 November 1862, Correspondence Respecting Removal of Inhabitants of Polynesian Islands to Peru, P.P., 1864, LXVI [3307], no. 11; H.E. Maude, Slavers in Paradise (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1981), 146–47, xix; Robert Short, Slave Trade in the Pacific (London, 1870), 8–9.

49. Robert Towns, South Sea Island Immigration (Sydney, Australia, 1863), 2.

50. Ibid., “To any Missionary into whose hands this may come,” 8.

51. [Herman Merivale], “Christianity in Melanesia,” Quarterly Review, 95 (June 1854): 176; W.B. Churchward, “Blackbirding” (London, 1888), 10–11; Samson, Imperial Benevolence, 24–25, 27, 32.

52. Edward W. Docker, The Blackbirders (Sydney: Angus & Robertson, 1970), 42; Maude, Slavers in Paradise, 113; Brisbane Courier (5 January 1869).

53. Reid Mortensen, “Slaving in Australian Courts,” Journal of South Pacific Law, 4 (2000): 3; Brisbane Courier (5 January 1869).

54. Brisbane Courier (13 January 1869 and 16 January 1869); Palmer, Kidnapping, 108.

55. Brisbane Courier (5 January 1869); K.H. Kennedy, Robert Towns’ Townsville, 47.

56. A.B. Brewster, King of the Cannibal Isles (London: Robert Hale, 1937), 227; O.W. Parnaby, “The Labour Trade,” in R. Gerard Ward, ed., Man in the Pacific Islands, 132–33.

57. Markham, Cruise of the “Rosario,” 117.

58. Ibid., 111, 113–15; Australian Town and Country Journal [Sydney] (8 March 1873), 21; G.S. Searl, Mount & Morris Exonerated (Melbourne, 1875), 16, 37.

59. Tracey Banivanua-Mar, Violence and Colonial Dialogue (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2007), 32–33.

60. Frank Clune, Captain Bully Hayes (London: Angus & Robertson, 1971), 6–7; Louis Becke, Bully Hayes [1913], 5th ed. (Sydney: New South Wales Bookstall, 1923), 29–32; “Re William Henry Hayes,” 29 November 1871, enclosure 4 in no. 11, P.P., 1872, XLIII [C. 496]: 37.

61. Sydney Morning Herald (8 December 1875); Parliamentary Debates (Lords), 3rd series, 216 (3 July 1873): 693–94; Fiji Times (1 October 1870); Samoa Times (1 December 1877); Robert Louis Stevenson and Lloyd Osbourne, The Wrecker [1891] (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1912), 10–11; Thomas Dunbabin, Slavers in the South Seas (Sydney: Angus & Robertson, 1935), 223–24.

62. Deryck Scarr, “Recruits and Recruiters,” in J.W. Davidson and Scarr, eds., Pacific Islands Portraits (Wellington, New Zealand: A.H. & A.W. Reed, 1970), 225–26; Jeff Siegel, “Origins of the Pacific Islands Labourers in Fiji,” Journal of Pacific History, 20 (1985): Table 4, 46. Indian migrants were allowed to enter Fiji as agricultural workers starting in 1878. Over the next thirty-eight years, approximately 61,000 Indian “coolies” gradually replaced Melanesians in the sugarcane fields. Brij V. Lal, Girmitiyas (Canberra: Journal of Pacific History, 1983), 13.

63. Dorothy Shineberg, People Trade (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1999), 4–5; Northrup, Indentured Labor, 78.

64. R.A. Derrick, History of Fiji, vol. 1, 3rd ed. (Suva, Fiji: Government Press, 1957), 170–71.

65. Evangelical Magazine (April 1838), 188.

66. Patrick Brantlinger, Dark Vanishings (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2003), 90, 93. The Aborigines’ Protection Society early on rejected both the “monstrous doctrine” that “coloured tribes” were incapable of improvement and the notion that Aboriginal extinction was inevitable. See England and Her Colonies in Relation to the Aborigines (London [1841]), 1–2.

67. Aborigines’ Friend (May 1872), 41; APS Annual Report for 1874 (London, 1875), 121; Charles Swaisland, “The Aborigines Protection Society, 1837–1909,” Slavery and Abolition, 21 (August 2000): 266–67; James Heartfield, The Aborigines’ Protection Society (New York: Columbia University Press, 2011), 39–41.

68. Graves, Cane and Labour, 138–39; Laurence Brown, “‘A Most Irregular Traffic,’” in Emma Christopher et al., eds., Many Middle Passages (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007), 187–88.

69. Aborigines’ Friend (March 1868), 37–40; John Bach, The Australia Station (Kensington, Australia: New South Wales University Press, 1986), 78.

70. Martin Wiener, Empire on Trial (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 78; [Edward Knatchbull-Hugessen], “The Fiji Islands,” Edinburgh Review, 136 (October 1872): 429–30.

71. Hobart Town Mercury (24 October 1881).

72. Patteson to Lady Stephen, 19 June 1869, Stephen Family Correspondence, Mitchell Library, ML Mss. 777/11; Extract of a letter from Patteson to Selwyn, 8 July 1871, B.L., Gladstone Papers, Add. Mss. 44299, ff. 181–82; Fiji Times (10 September 1870).

73. John Gaggin, Among the Man-Eaters (London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1900), 30–31; Deryck Scarr, I, the Very Bayonet (Canberra: Australian National University Press, 1973), 163–64; Palmer, Kidnapping, 76–77.

74. Rev. Oscar Michelsen, Cannibals Won for Christ (London [1893]), 133–34.

75. Reformed Presbyterian Magazine (1 February 1872), 77; Rev. John Kay, ed., The Slave Trade (Edinburgh, 1872), 11.

76. T.P. Lucas, Cries from Fiji (Melbourne [1884]), 65–66.

77. John Stuart Mill, On Liberty [1859] (Arlington Heights, IL: AHM, 1947), 9–10.

78. Short, Slave Trade, 15; quotation (“The horrid trick . . .”) from Argus [Melbourne] (29 January 1884); R.H. Codrington, mss. “Journal of Voyage 1872,” entry for 20 July 1872, S.O.A.S. Archives, Melanesian Mission Papers, Mel. M. 2/4, Box 9.

79. William T. Wawn, The South Sea Islanders [1893], ed. Peter Corris (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1973), 12–13; Britton, Fiji in 1870, 15.

80. Hugh Laracy, review of Passage, Port and Plantation, in Oceania, 46 (December 1975): 165.

81. Peter Corris, Passage (Carlton, Victoria: Melbourne University Press, 1973), 29.

82. Scarr, Fragments, 150.

83. Munro, “Pacific Islands Labour Trade,” 91; L. Brown, “’Most Irregular Traffic,’” 199–200; Ralph Shlomowitz, “Epidemiology,” Journal of Interdisciplinary History, 9 (Spring 1989): 589–90; Scarr, “Recruits and Recruiters,” 228.

84. E.P. Thompson, Making of the English Working Class (New York: Vintage Books, 1963), 9.

85. Corris, Passage, 59.

86. Ivens, Dictionary, 197; Wawn, South Sea Islanders, 10–11.

87. Adrian Graves, “Nature and Origins,” in Shula Marks and Peter Richardson, eds., International Labour Migration (London: Maurice Temple Smith, 1984), 114.

88. Northrup, Indentured Labor, 72; Adrian Graves, “Truck and Gifts,” Past and Present, 101 (November 1983): 88; Bishop John Selwyn to the Guardian (4 May 1892), as quoted in P.P., 1892, LVI [C. 6686]: 6–9.

89. Ivens, Dictionary, 227.

90. Shineberg, People Trade, 80–81.

91. L. Brown, “‘Most Irregular Traffic,’” 185; David Eltis, “Introduction,” in Eltis, Coerced and Free Migration (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2002), 6; P. Corris, “Kwaisulia of Ada Gege,” in Davidson and Scarr, eds., Pacific Islands Portraits, 257–58.

92. Shineberg, People Trade, 83–85; Graves, Cane and Labour, 220; Munro, “Pacific Islands Labour Trade,” 94; Banivanua-Mar, Violence, 45; Tom Brass, “The Return of ‘Merrie Melanesia,’” Journal of Pacific History, 31 (December 1996): 215–16.

93. Mission Field (1 March 1873), 69.

94. Leefe to Gov. Gordon, mss. report on recruiting for Fiji, 28 February 1878, WPHC 4/IV/4/1878; Scarr, “Recruits and Recruiters,” 245–46; Wiener, Empire on Trial, 75; Committee to Promote the Representation of the Colony . . . of Fiji, 1880 (Levuka, Fiji, 1880), 75–78.

95. Wawn, South Sea Islanders, 124; Jeffray, “Queensland Planters,” 299.

96. Parnaby, Britain and the Labor Trade, 201.

97. Corris, “‘Blackbirding,’” 93–94; Scarr, “Recruits and Recruiters,” 230–31; Michael Quinlan, “Australia, 1788–1902,” in Douglas Hay and Paul Craven, eds., Masters, Servants, and Magistrates (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004), 232–33; John Wisker, “Troubles in the Pacific,” Fortnightly Review, 37 (June 1882), 729.

98. Shlomowitz, “Epidemiology,” 610; Scarr, “Recruits and Recruiters,” 230–31.

99. A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles, 7 (Oxford, 1905): s.v. “outrage.”

100. Douglas Rannie, My Adventures (London: Seeley, Service, 1912), 151–53, 159–60.

101. Banivanua-Mar, Violence, 22–23.

102. X. Montrouzier to H. Montrouzier, January/February 1846, Archivo Padri Maristi, Rome. I thank Professor Hugh Laracy for this reference and its translation.

103. Kay Saunders, “The Middle Passage?,” Journal of Australian Studies, 5 (1979): 38–49.

104. Walter Coote, The Western Pacific (London, 1883), 173–77.

105. Pacific Islands, vol. 1, Sailing Directions (London, 1885), 5–6.

106. Report of W. Usborne Moore, 7 November 1883, WPHC 8/II/56; J.B. Thurston, “Memorandum [on] . . . the New Hebrides,” 1892, WPHC 8/II/35.

107. James Boutilier, “Killing the Government,” in Margaret Rodman and Matthew Cooper, eds., Pacification of Melanesia (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1979), 46.

108. “Papers Relating to Murder [aboard] the Borealis,” 2–4 November 1880, WPHC 8/III/1.

109. “Correspondence Respecting Outrages by Natives on British Subjects,” Tryon to the Assistant High Commissioner, Fiji, 3 July 1886, WPHC 8/III/15; Rannie, My Adventures, 195–203; Scarr, “Recruits and Recruiters,” 240–41.

110. Rannie, My Adventures, 195–97; Tryon to the Assistant High Commissioner, Fiji, 3 July 1886, WPHC 8/III/15.

111. Reformed Presbyterian Magazine (1 February 1873), 39.

112. Markham, Cruise of the “Rosario,” 55; Bach, Australia Station, 41.

113. Samson, Imperial Benevolence, 130–31.

114. Brewster, King of the Cannibal Isles, 214–15.

115. Sydney Morning Herald (30 November 1880); Sydney Daily Telegraph (4, 6, and 11 December 1880, 17 January 1881); Sydney Morning Herald (21 August 1880, 30 September 1880, 2 December 1880).

116. Sydney Daily Telegraph (4 December 1880); Bower to Wilson, 24 May 1880, WPHC 4/IV/99/1880; Hampshire Telegraph and Sussex Chronicle (19 January 1881); Liverpool Mercury (27 December 1883); Coote, Western Pacific, 172.

117. Wisker, “Troubles in the Pacific,” 724–25.

118. Scarr, Fragments, 115, 35.

119. G. William Des Voeux, My Colonial Service, 2 vols. (London: John Murray, 1903), 2: 90–91.

120. Wiener, Empire on Trial, 80; Morrell, Britain in the Pacific Islands, 334; High Commissioner’s Court for the Western Pacific Criminal Jurisdiction, Regina v. Kilgour, 29 August 1879, WPHC 2/VIII/3.

121. Regina v. Aratuga, 5 April 1880, WPHC 2/VIII/7.

122. See, for example, the irate letter from “The Vagabond” (Julian Thomas) to the Sydney Daily Telegraph (11 December 1880).

123. W. Usborne Moore, “Report of Proceedings in the New Hebrides” (1883), WPHC 8/II/55.

124. Peter Corris, “Introduction” to Wawn, South Sea Islanders, xix–xx.

125. Palmer, Kidnapping, 162.

126. The Times (24 June 1873).

127. The Australian Courts Act of 1828 (9 George IV, c. 83, s. 4) permitted Australian supreme courts to “hear . . . all Treasons, Piracies, Felonies, Robberies, Murders, Conspiracies, and other Offences of what Nature or Kind soever” originating in uncolonized Indian and Pacific Ocean lands.

128. [Merivale], “Christianity in Melanesia,” 177–78 (including the quotation “embarrass the march of justice”); John E. Erskine, Journal of a Cruise Among the Islands (London, 1853), 478–86.

129. See the Colonial Laws Validity Act of 1865: 28 & 29 Vict., c. 63.

130. Sydney Morning Herald (21 November 1871); Brisbane Courier (28 November 1871).

131. Palmer, Kidnapping, 182.

132. Hope, In Quest of Coolies, 3; Anthony Trollope, Australia [1873], ed. P.D. Edwards and R.B. Joyce (St. Lucia, Australia: University of Queensland Press, 1967), 175.

133. Gary Highland, “Aborigines, Europeans,” Aboriginal History, 14 (1990): 188.

134. Ranajit Guha, “Chandra’s Death,” Subaltern Studies, 5 (1986): 140–41. For indictments of Britain’s vaunted “rule of law” as a colonial smokescreen, see Karuna Mantena, Alibis of Empire (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2010); and Jordanna Bailkin, “The Boot and the Spleen,” Comparative Studies in Society and History, 48 (April 2006): 462–93.

135. Short, Slave Trade, 37–38.

136. Ibid., 39.

137. Sir James Martin, in Regina v. Paddy, Reports of Cases Argued and Determined in the Supreme Court of New South Wales, 14 [1876]: 440–44. As early as 1839, the Aborigines’ Protection Society had denounced the exclusion of evidence from “native witnesses” at trial. Nancy E. Wright, “The Problem of Aboriginal Evidence,” in Diane Kirkby and Catharine Coleborne, eds., Law, History, Colonialism (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2001), 140.

138. By the Oaths Act Amendment Act of 1891: Queensland, 55 Vict., no. 14.

139. On the widespread confusion over Islanders’ length of service, see especially testimony from the “boys” on the Hamleigh Sugar Plantation, Herbert River, 17 January 1885, qq. 201–401, Report . . . [of] the Royal Commission [on] . . . circumstances under which labourers have been introduced into Queensland, Votes and Proceedings of the Queensland Legislative Assembly, 1885, 2.

140. See the anti-kidnapping petition from Brisbane residents to the Queen, 16 January 1868, Further Correspondence [on] the Importation of South Sea Islanders, P.P., 1867–68, XLVIII [391][496]: enclosure 1 in no. 4.

141. Preamble to “An Act to Regulate and Control the Introduction and Treatment of Polynesian Laborers,” as quoted in Charles A. Bernays, Queensland Politics (Brisbane: A.J. Cumming, 1920), 66.

142. Progress Report from the Select Committee on the Operation of “The Polynesian Laborers Act of 1868,” Votes and Proceedings of the Queensland Legislative Assembly, 1869, 2: 5.

143. Short, Slave Trade, 22, 25–26, 60.

144. Mortensen, “Slaving in Australian Courts,” 4.

145. Palmer, Kidnapping, 132. Captain Palmer was proceeding under the Slave Trade Amendment Act of 1824, 5 Geo. IV, c. 113.

146. Sydney Morning Herald (16, 23, 25, and 26 June 1869, 14 July 1869); Daily News [London] (11 September 1869); Western Mail [Cardiff] (11 September 1869); The Times (25 January 1870).

147. Julius Brenchley, Jottings During the Cruise (London, 1873), x.

148. In the Vice Admiralty Court, “The Daphne,” Reports of Cases Argued and Determined in the Supreme Court of New South Wales, 10 [1872]: 37–48.

149. R. and Loggie v. Casaca and Others, Law Times, n.s. 43 (13 November 1880): 290–99.

150. Jesse Page, Bishop Patteson (London [1891]), 145.

151. Parliamentary Debates, 3rd series, 209 (6 February 1872): 3.

152. The Times (29 October 1871); Argus [Melbourne] (20 December 1871).

153. Selwyn to Gladstone, 27 November 1871, B.L., Gladstone Papers, Add. Mss., 44299, f. 175.

154. 35 & 36 Vict., c. 19, s. 9 (1).

155. “Abuses Connected with Polynesian Immigration,” confidential report to the Cabinet, 27 January 1872, TNA, CO 881/3, 1–2.

156. Anon., “Pacific Islanders’ Protection Bill,” Westminster Review, n.s. 48 (July–October 1875): 78; Derrick, History of Fiji, 176; Shineberg, People Trade, 27.

157. Imperial and Colonial Acts Relating to the Recruiting . . . of Pacific Island Labourers (Brisbane, 1892), passim.

158. Bach, Australia Station, 61–62; Jeffray, “Queensland Planters,” 298; Mackey Planters Association Minute Book, 1878–1885, as quoted in Banivanua-Mar, Violence, 27.

159. Queensland Government Gazette (11 February 1871), 202.

160. Deryck Scarr, “Introduction” to W.E. Giles, A Cruize in a Queensland Labour Vessel [c. 1880], reprint ed. (Canberra: Australian National University Press, 1968), 9.

161. Rannie, My Adventures, 23–24, 42–44.

162. John Renton, Adventures of John Renton (Kirkwall, Orkney, Scotland: W.R. Mackintosh, 1935), 61–62.

163. [Julian Thomas], Cannibals and Convicts (London, 1886), 349; Scarr, “Recruits and Recruiters,” 238–39.

164. Pall Mall Gazette (5 August 1882).

165. Diary of schooner Daphne, 3 July 1876 (agent M. Murray); diary of schooner Jessie Henderson, 11 July 1876 (agent T. Andrews); diary of schooner Windward Ho, 4 June 1881 (agent G. L’Estrange); diary of schooner Rotuma, 28 September 1889 (agent F. Otway), Fijian National Archives.

166. J.C. Wilson, “Labour Trade in the Western Pacific,” n.d. [1882], WPHC 8/III/48, 2.

167. Ibid., 3, 5.

168. John Inglis, In the New Hebrides (London, 1887), 212–15.

169. Liverpool Mercury (25 December 1884).

170. Clarke to Des Voeux, 10 August 1884; Des Voeux to Clarke, 18 August 1884, WPHC 8/III/11.

171. Liverpool Mercury (25 December 1884).

172. Sydney Morning Herald (9 April 1884); R. v. Owners of the Forest King, Queensland Law Journal Reports, 2 [1887]: 50–53.

173. Romilly to Des Voeux, 15 September 1883, WPHC 8/III/53, 8; Pall Mall Gazette (16 August 1884).

174. Romilly to Des Voeux, 15 September 1883, WPHC 8/III/11, 46–47; Parnaby, Britain and the Labour Trade, 94.

175. Corris, “‘Blackbirding,’” 90–91.

176. The Times (24 September 1885); Brisbane Courier (2, 4, 5, and 8 December 1884).

177. Corris, “‘Blackbirding,’” 93.

178. Bernays, Queensland Politics, 72–73.

179. Report . . . [of] the Royal Commission [on] . . . circumstances under which labourers have been introduced into Queensland (1885), Votes and Proceedings of the Queensland Legislative Assembly, 1885, xvii–xviii.

180. Bernays, Queensland Politics, 125.

181. Wawn, South Sea Islanders, 440.

182. Sir Samuel Griffith, “To the People of Queensland,” Brisbane Courier (13 February 1892).

183. Brisbane Courier (23 March 1892).

184. Bishop John Selwyn to the Guardian (4 May 1892), as quoted in P.P., 1892, LVI [C. 6686]: 6–9; The Times (21 May 1892 and 5 January 1893); Parliamentary Debates, 4th series, 4 (16 May 1892): 969–72. After 1892, British New Guinea supervised its internal labor trade with notable care.

185. The Times (16 May 1892); Sydney Telegraph (29 December 1891); “Report of Solicitor to the Vice-Admiral, Fiji,” 29 February 1892, WPHC 2/VI/14(a).

186. Commonwealth of Australia, statute no. 22 of 1906, section ix; Parnaby, Britain and the Labour Trade, 198; “Petition Signed by 3,000 Pacific Island Labourers Resident in Queensland,” point eleven, P.P., 1902, LXVI [Cd. 1285]: 4. Enforcing this mass exodus proved more difficult than the champions of a White Australia envisioned. When the Kanaka roundup ended in 1908, between 1,500 and 2,000 Islanders remained behind, some hiding in the Queensland bush. Clive Moore, “Kanakas, Kidnapping and Slavery,” Kabar Seberang, 8–9 (July 1981): 78.

187. Ralph Shlomowitz, “Marx and the Queensland Labour Trade,” Journal de la Société des Océanistes, 96 (1993): 16.

188. Corris, Passage, 147–48. The higher wages and more costly rations of the Indian “coolie” were partly offset by Fijian government subsidies.

189. British Solomon Islands, Report to 30th June 1913, P.P., 1914, LVIII [Cd. 7050–15]: 14–15.

190. Report from Commander Addington, 1902, WPHC 8/II/24, 49; British Resident Commissioner to British High Commissioner, 24 July 1913, NHBS 1/I/145/192.

191. Felix Speiser, Two Years with the Natives (London: Mills & Boon, 1913), 54; Shineberg, People Trade, 45; Glossop to Resident Commissioner, 6 July 1908, NHBS 1/I/11/1907.

192. Jack McLaren, My Odyssey (London: Ernest Benn, 1928), 162.

193. W.H.R. Rivers, “The Psychological Factor,” in Rivers, ed., Essays on the Depopulation of Melanesia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1922), 106.

194. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, 47 (2004), s.v. “Rivers, W.H.R.”; quotation is from Rivers, “Psychological Factor,” 104; Adam Kuper, Invention of Primitive Society (London: Routledge, 1988), 152–53.

195. A.I. Hopkins, In the Isles of King Solomon (London: Seeley, Service, 1928), 93–94. Hopkins’s claim does not square easily with Peter Corris’s observation that, due partly to the high protein content of Queensland farm diets, some indentured Solomon Islanders sailed home in improved physical condition. Corris, Passage, 115.

196. Clayton to Tryon, 13 November 1886, WPHC 8/III/15; Sydney Morning Herald (25 August 1886).

197. Des Voeux, My Colonial Service, 2: 92–93; J.C. Wilson, “Labour Trade in the Western Pacific,” n.d. [1882], WPHC 8/III/48, 5; Charles M. Woodford, Naturalist Among the Headhunters (London, 1890), 15–16; diary of schooner Mavis, 3 September 1882 (agent T. Hoyt), Fijian National Archives.

198. British Solomon Islands, Report for 1903–05, P.P., 1906, LXXV [Cd. 2684–7]: 24–25. In early 1902, the Earl of Onslow, under secretary of state for the colonies, dismissed as “somewhat exaggerated” British fears that repatriated Islanders might become cannibal fare. Parliamentary Debates (Lords), 4th series, 103 (20 February 1902): 552–53. Precisely this fate befell a returning Queensland laborer on the New Hebridean islet of Vao in 1891. See WPHC 4/IV/69/1893, case 61(2).

199. Brewster, King of the Cannibal Isles, 68–69; L.M. D’Albertis, New Guinea, 2nd ed., 2 vols. (London, 1881), 2: 214–16; Bowie to King, 6 March 1909, NHBS 1/I/7/1908; Bowie to Johnson, 5 December 1911 (no. 106), WPHC 8/II/2, 140, 142.

200. Greg Dening, Islands and Beaches (Honolulu: University Press of Hawai‘i, 1980), 127–28.

201. C.M. Woodford, “Exploration of the Solomon Islands,” Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, 10 (June 1888): 354.

202. Fiji Times (26 February 1870).

203. The quotation “a sort of coinage” is from Western Pacific (Punishment of Natives at Api, New Hebrides), P.P., 1881, LX [355]: 2; Scarr, “Recruits and Recruiters,” 249; Walter Ivens, Island Builders of the Pacific (London: Seeley, Service, 1930), 43.

204. CO to FO, 27 November 1884, enclosure 1 in no. 13, Correspondence relating to . . . regulating the supply of arms . . . to natives of the Western Pacific, P.P., 1887, LVIII [C. 5240]: 21.

205. Wawn, South Sea Islanders, 289, 357–58; Hand to Scott, 6 November 1889, WPHC 8/III/18, case no. 38; O’Brien to the Immigration Agent, Brisbane, 14 January 1895, WPHC 4/IV/88/1895; E.S. Armstrong, History of the Melanesian Mission (New York: E.P. Dutton, 1900), 241.

206. FO to CO, 7 May 1885, enclosure in no. 20, P.P., 1887, LVIII [C. 5240]. The United States alone refused to consider an arms embargo. Des Voeux, My Colonial Service, 2: 93–94.

207. British Solomon Islands, Report for 1900–1901, P.P., 1902, LXIV [Cd. 788–17]: 8; Ivens, Dictionary, 225; Alexander J. Duffield, What I Know (Brisbane, 1884), 6–7; McLaren, My Odyssey, 160.

208. Graves, “Truck and Gifts,” 95.

209. Report of Commander Rudolf Bentinck [1907], “Correspondence Respecting Outrages by Natives . . . in the New Hebrides,” 51, WPHC 8/II/29.

210. Brantlinger, Dark Vanishings, 9–10.

211. Anon., “Pacific Islanders’ Protection Bill,” 102–03.

212. H.R.F. Bourne, Claims of Uncivilised Races (London: Aborigines Protection Society, 1900), 12.

213. Benjamin Kidd, Control of the Tropics (New York, 1898), 34–35; Bernard Semmel, Imperialism and Social Reform (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1968), 20–24.

214. H.H. Montgomery, Light of Melanesia (London, 1896), 109.

CHAPTER 4

1. W.T. Pritchard, Polynesian Reminiscences [1866], reprint ed. (London: Dawsons of Pall Mall, 1968), 56–57.

2. “Head Hunting,” Preston Guardian [Preston, Lancashire] (19 May 1872); “Statement by the Rev. Charles Hyde Brook,” 19 October 1871 . . . respecting the deportation of South Sea Islanders, P.P., 1872, XLIII (C. 496); Moresby to Stirling, 12 September 1872, enclosure 2 in no. 39, Extracts of any Communications . . . respecting Outrages committed upon Natives of the South Sea Islands, P.P., 1873, L (244).

3. The quotation “backward and forgotten” is from Lawrence James, Rise and Fall (New York: St. Martin’s Griffin 1994), 249–250; “the most spectacular . . . violence” quote is from C. Hartley Grattan, Southwest Pacific Since 1900 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1963), 394–95.

4. Joanna Bourke, Intimate History of Killing (New York: Basic Books, 1999), 25–31.

5. Janet Hoskins, “Introduction,” in Hoskins, ed., Headhunting and the Social Imagination (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1996), 2–3.

6. Gananath Obeyesekere, “‘British Cannibals,’” Critical Inquiry, 18 (Summer 1992): 636–37; Robert Dixon, “Cannibalising Indigenous Texts,” in Barbara Creed and Jeanette Hoorn, eds., Body Trade (New York: Routledge, 2001), 114–15; Joseph Conrad, Heart of Darkness [1899] (New York, Norton, 1971), 58; Marianna Torgovnick, Gone Primitive (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1990), 147–48.

7. David Cannadine, Ornamentalism (London: Allen Lane, 2001), xix–xx.

8. James Greenwood, Wild Man at Home (London [1879]); William Henry Furness, Home-Life of Borneo Head-Hunters (Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott, 1902); John Foster Fraser, Quaint Subjects (London: Cassell, 1909), chap. 17, “Head-Hunters at Home.”

9. Walter Bagehot, English Constitution [1867] (London: Collins Fontana, 1973), 85.

10. James Greenwood, Adventures of Ruben Davidger (London, 1865), 24.

11. Nadja Durbach, “London, Capital of Exotic Exhibitions,” in Pascal Blanchard et al., eds., Human Zoos (Liverpool, UK: Liverpool University Press, 2008), 81.

12. Patrick Brantlinger, Dark Vanishings (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2003), 4.

13. H.G. Penny, Objects of Culture (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002), 32–34; Renato Rosaldo, Ilongot Headhunting (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1980), 24–25.

14. Mid-Victorian ethnologists were aware that the Jívaro of lowland South America had devised a method for “shrinking” enemy heads despite the stifling jungle heat. See William Bollaert, “On the Idol Human Head of the Jívaro Indians of Equador,” Transactions of the Ethnological Society of London, n.s. 2 (1861–62): 112–13.

15. Herman Melville, Moby-Dick [1851] (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981), 20.

16. John Hawkesworth, ed., Account of the Voyages undertaken, 3 vols. (London, 1773), 2: 391–93; Sir Joseph D. Hooker, ed., Journal of Sir Joseph Banks . . . in 1768–71 (London, 1896), 247–48.

17. John Campbell, Maritime Discovery (London, 1840), 484–85. Campbell was recirculating allegations first made by Mariner about the Tongans in 1817 and subsequently by Ellis about the Raiateans in 1829.

18. William Yate, An Account of New Zealand [1835], facsimile ed. (Dublin: Irish University Press, 1970), 130.

19. Angela Ballara, Taua (Auckland, New Zealand: Penguin Books, 2003), 41–43.

20. Joan Metge, Maoris of New Zealand (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1967), 34–35.

21. D. Wayne Orchiston, “Preserved Human Heads,” Journal of the Polynesian Society, 76 (September 1967): 301–02.

22. H.G. Robley, Moko [1896], reprint ed. (Wellington, New Zealand: A.H. & A.W. Reed, 1969), ix, 151; Marsden as quoted in Christina Thompson, “Smoked Heads,” Salmagundi, 152 (Fall 2006): 56–57; J.S. Polack, New Zealand [1838], reprint ed., 2 vols. (Christchurch, New Zealand: Capper Press, 1974), 1: 232.

23. Claud Field, Heroes of Missionary Enterprise (Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott, 1908), 280–81; Marsden as quoted in John Liddiard Nicholas, Narrative of a Voyage [1817], facsimile ed., 2 vols. (Auckland: Wilson & Horton, 1971), 1: 307–12; Judith Binney, Legacy of Guilt (Christchurch: Oxford University Press, 1968), 48–49.

24. Missionary Register (November 1823), 504–05.

25. Kendall as quoted in Anne Salmond, Between Worlds (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1997), 438; Alexander Strachan, Remarkable Incidents (London, 1853), 154–56; Arthur S. Thomson, Story of New Zealand, 2 vols. (London, 1859), 1: 255, 258. Keith Sinclair estimated that about forty thousand Maori people were slaughtered during the “savage civil wars” of the 1820s and early 1830s. See Sinclair, History of New Zealand, 3rd ed. (London: Allen Lane, 1980), 42; and Amiria Henare, Museums, Anthropology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 102–03.

26. George French Angas, Polynesia (London [1866]), 159–60; Andrew P. Vayda, “Maori Warfare,” in Paul Bohannan, ed., Law and Warfare (Garden City, NY: Natural History Press, 1967), 374; Richard Taylor, Te Ika A Maui (London, 1855), 154–55.

27. Frederick Edward Maning, Old New Zealand [1863], reprint ed. (Auckland: Whitcombe & Tombs, 1963), 54–55; S.C. on Aborigines (British Settlements), P.P., 1836, VII, q. 1695; “a bit of Candle” quote from S.C. on the Present State of New Zealand, P.P., 1837–38, XXI (680), 70. I thank Jane Samson for this last reference.

28. Gananath Obeyesekere, Cannibal Talk (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005), 120; Thompson, “Smoked Heads,” 65; Robley, Moko, 197–205.

29. See, for example, Sydney Gazette (7 January 1828).

30. Darling to Goderich, 13 April 1831, Historical Records of Australia, series 1, 16 (Sydney, Australia, 1923): 241; Paul Moon, Fatal Frontiers (Auckland: Penguin Group, 2006), 87–88; Sydney Gazette (21 April 1831).

31. Sydney Gazette (19 April 1831); Charles Wilkes, Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition, 5 vols. (Philadelphia, 1845), 2: 399–400.

32. J.C. Beaglehole, Life of Captain James Cook (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1974), 444.

33. Alfred C. Haddon, History of Anthropology (London: Watts, 1910), 25, 28–30; Roger Cooter, Cultural Meaning of Popular Science (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), 16–35.

34. Paul Turnbull, “‘Rare Work Amongst the Professors,’” in Creed and Hoorn, eds., Body Trade (New York: Routledge, 2001), 4–6, 16.

35. John Crawfurd, “On the Classification of the Races,” Transactions of the Ethnological Society of London, n.s. 6 (1867): 127–29; A.R. Wallace, Malay Archipelago, 2 vols. (London, 1869), 2: 467–68.

36. Sandra Pannell, “Travelling to Other Worlds,” Oceania, 62 (March 1992): 167; Wallace, Malay Archipelago, 2: 178.

37. “Manual of Ethnological Inquiry,” in Journal of the Ethnological Society of London, 3 (1854): 194–97.

38. Robert A. Stafford, “Scientific Exploration and Empire,” in Andrew Porter, ed., Oxford History of the British Empire, 3 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999): 296–97.

39. Manual of Scientific Enquiry, 2nd ed. [1851], reprint ed. (Folkestone, Kent, UK: Dawsons of Pall Mall, 1974), 448–50, 441.

40. Notes and Queries on Anthropology (London, 1874), 142.

41. Manual of Scientific Enquiry, 5th ed. (London, 1886), 225–26, 238; Notes and Queries on Anthropology, v.

42. Andrew Zimmerman, Anthropology and Antihumanism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001), 86–87; Ricardo Roque, Headhunting and Colonialism (Basingstoke, Hampshire, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010), 8–9.

43. Notes and Queries on Anthropology, 3–6; H.B. Guppy, Solomon Islands and Their Natives (London, 1887), 103; Pannell, “Travelling,” 170.

44. [Harriet Martineau], “The English in the Eastern Seas,” Edinburgh Review, 116 (October 1862): 400; Wallace, Malay Archipelago, 1: 5.

45. [Martineau], “The English,” 414–15.

46. Sarawak Gazette [Kuching] (1 June 1894); Pall Mall Gazette [London] (23 March 1896).

47. The Times [London] (23 June 1897). These Dayaks had previously performed “savage dances” at the colonial tournament.

48. Ibid. (11 June 1897).

49. On Raja Brooke and his bloody suppression of the “Sea Dayaks,” consult Nicholas Tarling, The Burthen (Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: Oxford University Press, 1982), 27–48.

50. The Graphic [London] (19 November 1881); Morning Post [London] (23 October 1905).

51. H. Ian Hogbin, Experiments in Civilization (London: George Routledge & Sons, 1939), 5.

52. Guppy, Solomon Islands, 193; William Amherst and Basil Thomson, eds., Discovery of the Solomon Islands [1901], reprint ed. (Nendeln, Lichtenstein: Kraus, 1967), xxxiv, lxix.

53. Basil Thomson, The Fijians (London: William Heinemann, 1908), v, viii–ix; R.H. Codrington, The Melanesians (Oxford, 1891), 9–10.

54. Between 29 June and 5 July 1768, Bougainville’s ships sighted land in what today would be considered the Solomon archipelago. Fog, racing tides, and unwelcoming “Indians” prevented a landing, however. See Pacific Journal of Louis-Antoine de Bougainville 1767–1768, trans. John Dunmore (London: Hakluyt Society, 2002), 112–18.

55. Guppy, Solomon Islands, 2, 4, 11–12; A.I. Hopkins, In the Isles of King Solomon (London: Seeley, Service, 1928), 20–21.

56. H.H. Romilly, Western Pacific and New Guinea, 2nd ed. (London, 1887), 13–14.

57. A.R. Tippett, Solomon Islands Christianity (London: Lutterworth Press, 1967), 8–9; C.M. Woodford, “Exploration of the Solomon Islands,” Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, 10 (June 1888): 375; John Gaggin, Among the Man-Eaters (London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1900), 161–62; Angas, Polynesia, 366; E.W. Elkington, Savage South Seas (London: A. & C. Black, 1907), 84–86; Alexander G. Findlay, Directory for the Navigation of the South Pacific Ocean, 5th ed. (London, 1884), 839–40, 862.

58. Thurston to Tryon, 17 March 1886, WPHC 8/III/15, case no. 1.

59. C.M. Woodford, A Naturalist Among the Headhunters (London, 1890), 154; Guppy, Solomon Islands, 67–68; Joseph H.C. Dickinson, Trader in the Savage Solomons (London: H.F. & G. Witherby, 1927), 184–92.

60. The names of islands and island settlements around New Georgia remained very imprecise well into the twentieth century. “New Georgia” in the broadest sense referred to a cluster of several large and many small islands located in the west-central part of the Solomon archipelago. But “New Georgia” also signified the largest single island in that cluster. Confusingly, various navigational charts and travelers’ accounts sometimes referred to the latter as “Rubiana,” “Kusage,” or “Marovo” Island. There was no standard indigenous name for New Georgia. Two vast lagoons hug New Georgia island, the Marovo Lagoon on its east coast and the Roviana (Rubiana) Lagoon on its northwest coast. See Edward Hviding, Guardians of Marovo Lagoon (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1996), 106, 395; and C.W. Woodford, “Further Explorations in the Solomon Islands,” Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, 12 (July 1890): 394–95.

61. Woodford, A Naturalist, 155–57.

62. Codrington, The Melanesians, 118, n.1; Codrington, “Religious Beliefs and Practices in Melanesia,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, 10 (1881): 308–09; B. Gina, as quoted in Tippett, Solomon Islands Christianity, 7.

63. Hviding, Guardians, 89, 91, 418.

64. Andrew Cheyne, Description of Islands (London, 1852), 65; Peter Corris, Passage, Port and Plantation (Carlton, Victoria, Australia: Melbourne University Press, 1973), 113; Judith A. Bennett, Wealth of the Solomons (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1987), 87–88.

65. Hannah Chewings, Amongst Tropical Islands (Adelaide, Australia: J.L. Bonython, 1900), 26; Colin Jack-Hinton, Search for the Islands (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1969), 345.

66. Angas, Polynesia, 363–64; “After Tortoise-shell,” Australasian Methodist Missionary Review (4 April 1898), 4–5; J.M. McKinnon, “Tomahawks, Turtles and Traders,” Oceania, 45 (June 1975): 293.

67. McKinnon, “Tomahawks,” 301–02.

68. Early European shipwrecks may have alerted some Solomon Islanders to the virtues of iron. We know that in August 1788, when Lieutenant John Shortland encountered four canoe-loads of “Indians” off Simbo Island, these people expressed a “manifest preference to whatever was made of iron.” Voyage of Governor Philip to Botany Bay (London, 1789), 196. Either they had an intuitive grasp of the metal’s potential or else empirical knowledge gained from flotsam.

69. Bennett, Wealth, 34.

70. Richard F. Salisbury, Stone to Steel (Parkville, Victoria, Australia: Melbourne University Press, 1962), 118–19.

71. McKinnon, “Tomahawks,” 299–300; Martin Zelenietz, “End of Headhunting in New Georgia,” in Margaret Rodman and Matthew Cooper, eds., Pacification of Melanesia (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1979), 94–95.

72. J.M. McKinnon, “Bilua Changes,” unpub. Ph.D. thesis, Department of Geography, Victoria University, Wellington, New Zealand, 1972, 62.

73. Cheyne, Trading Voyages of Andrew Cheyne, ed. Dorothy Shineberg (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1971), editor’s intro., 24–25, 27.

74. Cheyne, Trading Voyages, 303–04.

75. Cheyne, Description of Islands, 65–66.

76. Amherst and Thomson, Discovery, 109.

77. Codrington, The Melanesians, 294–96; Claude Bernays, “The British Solomon Islands,” Queensland Geographical Journal, n.s. 24 (1908–09): 38–39.

78. Pacific Islands (Western Group): Sailing Directions, 2nd ed. (London, 1890), 51–52; “more exquisitely graceful” quote from Walter Coote, Western Pacific (London, 1883), 170; “a most astonishing revelation . . .” quote from Boyle T. Somerville, “Ethnographic Notes in New Georgia,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, 26 (1897): 369.

79. Gaggin, Man-Eaters, 193–94; Guppy, Solomon Islands, 146–47; Bernays, “British Solomon Islands,” 40; Somerville, “Ethnographic Notes,” 371.

80. W.H.R. Rivers, History of Melanesian Society, 2 vols. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1914), 2: 450–51; Woodford, “Canoes of the British Solomon Islands,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, 39 (1909): 50. One other indigenous culture built equally seaworthy canoes, the Haida of Canada’s Queen Charlotte Islands (Haida Gwaii). Up to the mid-nineteenth century, Haida warriors also hunted heads and launched long raids across Hecate Strait to find them. Their canoes were also sumptuously decorated. See especially W.H. Collison, Wake of War Canoes (London: Seeley, Service, 1915), 88–90; and Douglas Cole and Bradley Lockner, eds., The Journals of George M. Dawson, 2 vols. (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1989), 2: 507–08.

81. Hopkins, In the Isles, 174–75; Hviding, Guardians, 172.

82. A.M. Hocart, “Cult of the Dead,” Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, 52 (1922), part 1, 89–90; W.G. Ivens, Island Builders (London: Seeley, Service, 1930), 185–86; Tippett, Solomon Islands Christianity, 154–55; Richard C. Thurnwald, “Price of the White Man’s Peace,” Pacific Affairs, 9 (September 1936): 349.

83. [C.G.S. Foljambe], Three Years on the Australian Station (London, 1868), 215–217; Coote, Western Pacific, 141–45; The Island Voyage, 1879 (London, 1880), 89–95; mss. enclosure, “Story for Children,” Patteson to Lady Stephen, 31 October 1866, Stephen Family Correspondence, Mitchell Library, ML MSS. 777/11.

84. K.B. Jackson, “Head-hunting,” Journal of Pacific History, 10 (1975): 67–68; Diary of Rev. Alfred Penny, 22 September 1879, Mitchell Library, ML MS. B 807–817; George Bogesi, “Santa Isabel, Solomon Islands,” Oceania, 18 (March 1948): 210–11.

85. Codrington, The Melanesians, 135–36, 256–57; Ellen Wilson, Dr. Welchman of Bugotu (London: Society for the Propagation of Christian Knowledge, 1935), 6–8; Frances Awdry, In the Isles of the Sea, 2nd ed. (London: Bemrose & Sons, 1903), 59–61.

86. Jackson, “Head-hunting,” 71–73; The Island Voyage, 1886 (London, 1887), 10–11; David Hilliard, God’s Gentlemen (St. Lucia, Australia: University of Queensland Press, 1978), 173–74; Diaries of Rev. Henry Welchman, 29 July and 23 August 1892, 31 October 1896, Mitchell Library, ML M 728.

87. Bennett, Wealth, 76–77; C.M. Woodford, “Report on the British Solomon Islands,” P.P., 1897, LIX [C. 8457], 11–12.

88. Woodford to Thurston, 17 July 1896, WPHC 4/IV/285/1896; Morning Post [London] (27 July 1895).

89. Woodford, A Naturalist, 176–77; Hviding, Guardians, 107.

90. “General Report on the Progress . . . of British Subjects in the Islands,” Appendix 3, Australian Station, Solomon Islands, 1896: WPHC 8/III/25.

91. Fraser, Quaint Subjects, 248–49.

92. Romilly, Western Pacific, 88–90.

93. Clayton to Tryon, 15 November 1885, WPHC 8/III/14; Sydney Morning Herald (14 December 1885); G.F. Childe to S. Samuel, 22 February 1886, WPHC 8/III/15.

94. Douglas Rannie, My Adventures (London: Seeley, Service, 1912), 188–89.

95. Zelenietz, “End of Headhunting,” 104; Elkington, Savage South Seas, 89–90.

96. Tippett, Solomon Islands Christianity, 148.

97. Minute by F. Fuller, 3 September 1892: “Protectorates in the South Pacific,” CO 225/40/6920, copy in Rhodes House Library, Oxford University.

98. A.S. Meek, A Naturalist in Cannibal Land (London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1913), 106; Somerville, “Ethnographic Notes,” 359–60; Chewings, Amongst Tropical Islands, 24–26.

99. Woodford, “Exploration,” 370; Guppy, Solomon Islands, 169–70; Codrington, “Religious Beliefs,” 265.

100. J.A. Froude, Oceana (London, 1886), 387–88.

101. British Solomon Islands, Report for 1957 and 1958 (London, 1960), 59.

102. Somerville, “Ethnographic Notes,” 411.

103. “Special Report Declaring Protectorate over Solomon Islands,” 10 August 1893, 18–19, WPHC 8/III/22.

104. Ibid., 20; Ripon to Thurston, 20 April 1893, WPHC 8/III/28; Bennett, Wealth, 106–07.

105. Hogbin, Experiments, 14–15; Deryck Scarr, Fragments of Empire (Canberra: Australian National University Press, 1967), 258–59.

106. Corris, Passage, 106–07; Pollard to Bridges, 22 June 1897, in “Selected Documents [on] the Declaration of the Protectorate,” WPHC 8/III/28.

107. Although Lever Brothers’ plantations transformed island life in the Solomons, this firm’s soap and margarine factories abroad served the more profitable local consumer markets. See D.K. Fieldhouse, Unilever Overseas (London: Croom Helm, 1978), 13, 31.

108. Goodrich to Bowden-Smith, 26 May 1894, WPHC 8/III/23.

109. Australian Town and Country Journal [Sydney] (12 October 1895).

110. Sydney Morning Herald (3 August 1896).

111. Ibid. (19 September 1896).

112. The Age [Melbourne] (18 and 28 September 1896); Sydney Morning Herald (18 and 19 September 1896, 25 January 1897).

113. The Spectator (15 March 1890), 374–75. See also All the Year Round (20 September 1890), 279–80; Saturday Review (15 March 1890), 322–23; Athenaeum (29 March 1890), 406–07; Liverpool Courier (29 April 1891); Sydney Morning Herald (19 November 1890).

114. The Times (7 October 1927).

115. Woodford, “Exploration,” 358; Woodford, A Naturalist, 152–53; diary entry for 6–8 October 1886, and draft of letter to Thurston, November 1886, in Papers of Charles M. Woodford, bundle 30, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, Australian National University, Canberra.

116. Woodford, A Naturalist, n.23.

117. Epsom Herald (8 September 1894); Scarr, Fragments, 262.

118. Wm. Roger Lewis, “Introduction,” in Robin W. Winks, ed., Oxford History of the British Empire, 5 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999): 21–22.

119. Arthur Grimble, Pattern of Islands (London: John Murray, 1952), 69–70.

120. Woodford to Thurston, 4 July 1896, TNA, CO 225/500/21654.

121. Sydney Daily Telegraph (30 June 1897).

122. Davis to Scott, 17 October 1891, as quoted in Scarr, Fragments, 174; Somerville, “Ethnographic Notes,” 399–400.

123. “In the matter of a complaint made by Ingava,” 22 October 1894, WPHC 2/VI/1(a).

124. Diary entry for 20 August 1888, Woodford Papers, bundle 29.

125. Zelenietz, “End of Headhunting,” 92, 105–06; McKinnon, “Tomahawks,” 305.

126. In 1897, Lord Salisbury, Britain’s foreign secretary as well as her prime minister, and Joseph Chamberlain, the colonial secretary, agreed to implement Thurston’s recommendation that the outlying islands of Rennell, Bellona, and Sikaiana (Stewart Island) be added to the protectorate. They balked, however, at including the Santa Cruz group lest France’s “Chauvinist” newspapers “get up agitations” over any attempt to absorb this island cluster.

127. Untitled newspaper clipping dated 27 July 1895, Woodford Papers, bundle 30; Woodford to Thurston, 7 September 1896, WPHC 4/IV/415/1896.

128. Woodford, “Report on the British Solomon Islands,” 26–27.

129. Woodford to Berkeley, 8 June 1897, WPHC 4/IV/300/1897; Woodford to O’Brien, 17 April 1898, WPHC 4/IV/8/1898.

130. Sydney Morning Herald (10 July 1897); C.A.W. Monckton, New Guinea Recollections (London: John Lane, 1934), 198–200.

131. O’Brien to Chamberlain, 11 October 1898, WPHC 8/III/32; “Report of the British Solomon Islands for 1899–1900,” P.P., 1901, XLV (Cd. 431–12), 15; Arthur Mahaffy, “The Solomon Islands,” Empire Review, 4 (September 1902): 193–94; Purnima Bose, Organizing Empire (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2003), 29–33; “Extract from Mr. Mahaffy’s Report of Proceedings” [1900], WPHC 4/IV/285/98.

132. Woodford to O’Brien, 24 June 1900, WPHC 4/IV/285/98.

133. “Extract from Mr. Mahaffy’s Report,” WPHC 4/IV/285/98; Woodford to O’Brien, 10 September 1900, WPHC 4/IV/285/98.

134. Woodford, “Canoes,” 511.

135. Scarr, Fragments, 266–67; Frank Burnett, Through Polynesia and Papua (London: G. Bell & Sons, 1911), 111–14. The 1909 pursuit and arrest of another fighting man, “Zito” of Vella Lavella, earned similar criticism. See Woodford to Thurn, 20 December 1909, TNA, CO 225/91; and The Age [Melbourne] (21 and 25 May 1910).

136. Woodford, “Canoes,” 510; Harold W. Scheffler, “Social Consequences of Peace,” Ethnology, 3 (October 1964): 399. David R. Lawrence has recently pointed out that “The process of civilization [in the Solomons] was made imperfect by imperfect agents.” Lawrence, The Naturalist and His “Beautiful Islands” (Canberra: Australian National University Press, 2014), 217. But to characterize Woodford as an “imperfect” agent is to minimize his responsibility for several heinous acts of colonial discipline.

137. Colonial Office minute of 29 April 1902, TNA, CO 225/63.

138. Woodford, “Canoes,” 510.

139. Australian Methodist Missionary Review (4 February 1903), 2; Joseph Bryant, Coral Reefs and Cannibals (London: Epworth Press, 1925), 106–07; Cyril Belshaw, Changing Melanesia (Melbourne, Australia: Oxford University Press, 1954), 55.

140. Nicholas Thomas, “Colonial Conversions,” in Catherine Hall, ed., Cultures of Empire (New York: Routledge, 2000), 318; Tippett, Solomon Islands Christianity, 61.

141. Froude, Oceana, 300. See also “The Dying Races,” The Vegetarian (12 August 1899), 379.

142. “Doomed Islanders,” Sydney Morning Herald (26 January 1913).

143. Woodford, A Naturalist, 188.

144. Elkington, Savage South Seas, 98; T.W. Edge-Partington, “Ingava, Chief of Rubiana, Solomon Islands,” Man, 7 (1907): 22–23.

145. Obituary of W.H.R. Rivers, Man, 22 (July 1922): 97; Anna Grimshaw, Ethnographer’s Eye (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 32–33.

146. Rivers, “Psychological Factor,” in Rivers, ed., Essays in the Depopulation of Melanesia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1922), 93; Nature, 3 (3 February 1923): 145.

147. Rivers, “Psychological Factor,” 101. Echoing Rivers, the German anthropologist Richard Thurnwald observed in 1933 that the suppression of headhunting-by-contract in Buin, on Bougainville Island, had taken the “spice . . . out of native life” there. Thurnwald, “Price,” 353.

148. Rivers, History of Melanesian Society, 2: 259; Rivers, “Psychological Factor,” 102.

149. Woodford, “The Solomon Islands,” in Rivers, ed., Essays in Depopulation, 69; Hogbin, Experiments, 136; H.C. Brookfield, Colonialism, Development and Independence (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1972), 25.

150. George H.L.F. Pitt-Rivers, Clash of Culture (London: George Routledge & Sons, 1927), xii; Dixon, “Cannibalising Indigenous Texts,” 120–21.

151. British Solomon Islands, “Report to 30th June, 1913,” P.P., 1914, LVIII (Cd. 7050–15): 5.

152. Elkington, Savage South Seas, 15–16.

153. Robert W. Williamson, Ways of the South Sea Savage (Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott, 1914), 62–63.

154. Rivers, “Psychological Factor,” 107–09.

155. Bill Holm and George Irving Quimby, Edward S. Curtis in the Land of the War Canoes (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1980), 72.

156. Edward A. Salisbury, “A Napoleon of the Solomons,” Asia, 22 (September 1922): 707–08, 712, 746; Salisbury and Cooper, Sea Gypsy (New York: G.P. Putnam’s Sons, 1924), 160–71.

157. The pacification of Malaita, an island bristling with rifles, is often dated to 1927. On 4 October of that year, District Officer W.R. Bell, his white assistant, and thirteen Islanders from their party were massacred at Sinalagu while collecting taxes. The punitive expedition that followed imposed a draconian peace on the Kwaio people of Malaita’s hilly midsection. See Roger M. Keesing and Peter Corris, Lightning Meets the West Wind (Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1980).

158. Meek, A Naturalist, 53.

159. T.H.H. Richards, “British New Guinea,” Proceedings of the Royal Colonial Institute, 24 (1892–93): 295; Chalmers, Pioneer Life and Work (London, 1895), 61–62; Michael O’Hanlon, “Mostly Harmless,” Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, 5 (September 1999): 390–93.

160. Annual Report on British New Guinea, 1889–1890 (Sydney, 1890), 49–50; Wallace, “New Guinea and Its Inhabitants,” Contemporary Review, 34 (February 1879): 424; Richards, “British New Guinea,” 301.

161. Wallace, “New Guinea,” 440.

162. Octavius C. Stone, A Few Months in New Guinea (London, 1880), 16; J.H.P. Murray, Papua or British New Guinea (London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1912), 72–73.

163. Malcolm to Schubert, 30 October 1875, and Schubert to Carnarvon, 3 November 1875, in Correspondence respecting New Guinea, P.P., 1876, LIV (C.1566); Brisbane Courier (8 March 1883); Bramston to Maciver, 15 November 1883, in Further Correspondence respecting New Guinea, P.P., 1884, LV (C. 3863); Sydney Morning Herald (23 November 1883).

164. MacGregor to Gordon, 18 January 1889, Stanmore Papers, B.L., Add. Mss. 49203, f. 178; A.W. Monckton, Some Experiences (London: John Lane, 1921), 10; Nicholas Thomas, Colonialism’s Culture (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1994), 110–11.

165. G.F. DeBruijn Kops, “Contribution to the Knowledge,” Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia, 6 (1852): 314–15.

166. L.M. D’Albertis, New Guinea, 2nd ed., 2 vols. (London, 1881), 2: 281–83; R.B. Joyce, Sir William MacGregor (Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1971), 129; C.G. Seligmann, “Classification of the Natives,” Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, 39 (1909): 256; Wilfred N. Beaver, Unexplored New Guinea, 2nd ed. (London: Seeley, Service, 1920), 249.

167. William MacGregor, “Journey to the Summit,” Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, 12 (April 1890): 199.

168. MacGregor to Griffith, 9 April 1896, as quoted in Joyce, Sir William MacGregor, 126.

169. MacGregor, “British New Guinea,” Journal of the Royal Commonwealth Society, 26 (1895): 318; MacGregor to Gordon, 6 February 1889, Stanmore Papers, B.L. Add. Mss. 49203, f. 187.

170. Annual Report on British New Guinea, 1893–1894 (Brisbane, Australia, 1895), vi–vii; MacGregor, “British New Guinea,” 321–22; MacGregor, Handbook of Information for Intending Settlers (Brisbane, 1892), 2; Musgrove to Douglas, 7 September 1886, MacGregor Papers, Mitchell Library, ML MSS 2819/3.

171. Brisbane Courier (31 October 1896); Grimble, Pattern, 143–44.

172. Annual Report on British New Guinea, 1892–1893 (n.p., n.d.), xvi–xvii, and Appendix F; Annual Report on British New Guinea, 1895–1896 (n.p., n.d.), xvi–xvii.

173. MacGregor to Gordon, 21 May 1891, Stanmore Papers, B.L. Add. Mss. 49203, ff. 252–53.

174. A.C. Haddon, “Tugeri Head-Hunters,” Internationales Archiv fur Ethnographie, 4 (1891): 177, 180; John Strachan, Explorations and Adventures (London, 1888), 131–33; Murray, Papua, 195–96; Annual Report on British New Guinea, 1895–96, xix; Mollie Lett, “How the Terrible Tugere Were Suppressed,” P.I.M. (24 April 1933), 30–31.

175. Le Hunte to Lord Lamington, 15 November 1900, TNA FO 37/866.

176. Diary entry for 20 November 1913, Murray Papers, Mitchell Library A 3140.

177. The Jaqaj people of the Mappi River, an area slightly west of Tugeri territory, were still collecting heads into the 1950s. J.H.M.C. Boelaars, Head-Hunters (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1981), 1–7.

178. Chewings, Amongst Tropical Islands, 21–25; W. Charles Metcalfe, Undaunted (London [1895]), 108, 112, 170, 184–86; Dixon, “Cannibalising Indigenous Texts,” 113–14, 119–20.

179. Caroline Mytinger, Headhunting in the Solomon Islands (New York: Macmillan, 1942).

180. The Times (25 March 1977).

181. Renato Rosaldo, Culture and Truth (Boston: Beacon Press, 1989), 16, 86–87; Anna L. Tsing, “Telling Violence in the Meratus Mountains,” in Hoskins, ed., Headhunting and the Social Imagination, 189.

CHAPTER 5

1. “The Great Exhibition,” Illustrated London News, 18 (3 May 1851): 343.

2. Stephen Kern, Culture of Time and Space (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1983), 213.

3. Charles Lyell, Geological Evidences (London, 1863), 10; Encyclopaedia Britannica, 9th ed. (New York, 1878), s.v. “Archaeology.”

4. John Lubbock, Pre-Historic Times [1865], 2nd ed. (New York, 1872), 2–3.

5. On the ideological content of prehistoric categories, see Marshall Sahlins, Stone Age Economics (Chicago: Aldine-Atherton, 1972), 1–39.

6. S. Evans, Nature, 3 (9 March 1871): 362–65; [H.B. Tristam], review of The Origin of Civilisation, Contemporary Review, 15 (September 1870): 311–13; Lubbock, The Origin of Civilisation [1870], reprint ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978), 322–23.

7. George Stocking, Victorian Anthropology (New York: Free Press, 1987), 152–54.

8. E.B. Tylor, “Preface” to H. Ling Roth, The Aborigines of Tasmania, facsimile of 2nd ed. [1899] (Hobart, Tasmania, Australia: Fullers Bookshop, 1968), ix; Tylor, “On the Tasmanians as Representatives of Palaeolithic Man,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, 23 (1893): 142–45.

9. “Timbuctoo the Mysterious,” The Spectator, 77 (26 December 1896): 934; Baldwin Spencer and F.J. Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia [1899], reprint ed. (New York: Dover, 1968), passim.

10. Daily News Souvenir Guide to the British Empire Exhibition (London: Daily News, 1924), 70–71, 54; Jonathan Rose, Intellectual Life of the British Working Classes (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2001), 349; Peter H. Hoffenberg, Empire on Display (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001), 276.

11. Paul Fussell, Abroad (New York: Oxford University Press, 1982), 7, 9–10.

12. Clifford W. Collinson, Life and Laughter (London: Hurst & Blackett, 1926), ix.

13. Delos W. Lovelace, King Kong (New York: Grosset & Dunlap, 1932), 42–43, 51–54, 66–67.

14. The Times [London] (12 April 1933).

15. Fatimah Tobing Rony, Third Eye (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1996), 158–59.

16. Robert Young, Martyr Islands of the New Hebrides (Edinburgh, 1889), 34–35.

17. George Palmer, Kidnapping (Edinburgh, 1871), 55–56; Jeffrey Cox, The British Missionary Enterprise (New York: Routledge, 2008), 216; K.R. Howe, Where the Waves Fall (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1984), 299–300; C.H. Irwin, “On a Cannibal Island,” Sunday at Home, 13 (1900): 409–12.

18. Cyril Belshaw, Changing Melanesia (Melbourne, Australia: Oxford University Press, 1954), 21–22; [Alexander Hume Ford], “Among the Cannibals of the New Hebrides,” Mid-Pacific Magazine, 22 (July 1921): 35–37; John Harris, “The New Hebrides Experiment,” Nineteenth Century and After, 75 (April 1914): 932–34; F.H.L. Paton, “Australian Interests in the New Hebrides,” United Empire, 10 (April 1919): 154–55, 158. As of 1910, the New Hebrides supported roughly 1,000 white settlers and an indigenous population estimated to number 65,000. Harris, “New Hebrides Experiment,” 932.

19. [Ford], “Among the Cannibals,” 34.

20. Felix Speiser, “Decadence and Preservation,” in W.H.R. Rivers, ed., Essays on the Depopulation of Melanesia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1922), 38–39.

21. Christian Kaufmann, “Felix Speiser’s Fletched Arrow,” in Michael O’Hanlon and Robert Welsch, eds., Hunting the Gatherers (New York: Berghahn Books, 2000), 207–08; Jean Louis Rallu, “The Demographic Past,” in Joël Bonnemaison et al., eds., Arts of Vanuatu (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1996), 318.

22. Felix Speiser, Two Years (London: Mills & Boon, 1913), 57, 59–61. Speiser informed his readers that the Big Nambas owed their name to “the size of a certain article of dress, the Nambas, which partly replaces our trousers.” (60).

23. Beatrice Grimshaw, From Fiji (London: Eveleigh Nash, 1907), 166–68; Eugénie and Hugh Laracy, “Beatrice Grimshaw: Pride and Prejudice in Papua,” Journal of Pacific History, 12 (1977): 156.

24. B. Grimshaw, “In the Savage South Seas,” National Geographic Magazine, 19 (January 1908): 2; Grimshaw, From Fiji, 270–72.

25. J.R. Forster, Observations Made During a Voyage Round the World (London, 1778), 242–43; William H. Flower, “On a Collection of . . . Artificially Deformed Crania,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, 11 (1882): 75–77; Boyle T. Somerville, “Notes on Some Islands,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, 23 (1894): 6.

26. W.H.R. Rivers, History of Melanesian Society, 2 vols. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1914), 2: 88–89; Jeremy MacClancy, “Unconventional Character,” in George Stocking, ed., Malinowski, Rivers, Benedict (Madison: Wisconsin University Press, 1986), 52–53; John Layard, Stone Men (London: Chatto & Windus, 1942), 619.

27. A.S. Meek, A Naturalist (London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1913), 191.

28. Jack London to Martin Johnson, 17 November 1906, in Earle Labor et al., eds., Letters of Jack London, 2 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1988): 632; Charmian London, “Cruise of the Snark,” Mid-Pacific Magazine, 11 (May 1915): 417–23.

29. Charmian London, Voyaging in Wild Seas (London: Mills & Boon, 1915), 325–26; C. London, “New Hebrides Days,” Mid-Pacific Magazine, 12 (July 1916): 69.

30. Martin Johnson, Cannibal-Land (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1929), 3; M. Johnson, Through the South Seas [1913], reprint ed. (Cedar Springs, MI: Wolf House Books, 1972), 329–31.

31. Jack London to J.A. Johnson, 3 April 1909, in Labor et al., Letters of Jack London, 2: 797–98; Martin Johnson, Through the South Seas, 268.

32. Pascal and Eleanor Imperato, They Married Adventure (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1992), xi–xii; Rony, Third Eye, 88–89.

33. Ian Aitkin, ed., Encyclopedia of Documentary Film, 3 vols. (New York, 2006), 3: 1460.

34. Photographs 250640.2, 250665, 250619, and 108255.1, respectively, in “South Seas I” (1917), Johnson Safari Museum Archives, Chanute, Kansas.

35. Osa Johnson, Bride in the Solomons (Garden City, NY: Garden City Publishing, 1946), 1–3; Martin Johnson, Cannibal-Land, 6.

36. Martin Johnson, Cannibal-Land, 21–22.

37. “South Seas Rough Footage Transfers” (1917), Johnson Safari Museum Archives; Philippa Levine, “Naked Truths,” Journal of British Studies, 52 (January 2013): 18

38. “Rialto and Rivoli,” Motion Picture News, 18 (3 August 1918): 737.

39. Pictures and the Picturegoer (15–27 February 1919), 189; The Times (12 May 1919); Manchester Guardian (14 May 1919); Pictures and the Picturegoer (14 June 1919), 597; Manchester Guardian (20 June 1919).

40. Copy of typescript letter, “C.E.G.” to Martin Johnson, 4 November 1919, Johnson Safari Museum Archives.

41. Imperato, They Married Adventure, 77–80.

42. “South Seas Rough Footage Transfers” (1919), Johnson Safari Museum Archives.

43. Martin Johnson, Cannibal-Land, 76.

44. Rachael Low, History of the British Film, 4 vols. (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1971), 4: 289; Karl G. Heider, Ethnographic Film (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1976), 19–20; Rony, Third Eye, 6–7.

45. Peter Miles and Malcolm Smith, Cinema, Literature and Society (London: Croom Helm, 1987), 166; The Times Supplement (21 February 1922).

46. “Cannibal-Land,” New Statesman, 20 (7 October 1922): 22; Osa Johnson, I Married Adventure (Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott, 1940), 9, 289–93. Punch must have had the Johnsons in mind when it imagined an American film crew shooting scenes for a “palpitating drama” entitled “Baby, I Could Eat You Whole!” “The Film-Director and the Cannibal,” Punch, 180 (13 May 1931): 510–11.

47. Deacon, Malekula: A Vanishing People in the New Hebrides, ed. Camilla Wedgewood (London: George Routledge & Sons, 1934), 227–30.

48. Evelyn Cheesman, Backwaters (London: Jarrolds, 1937), 192, 104, 163–64, 176–77.

49. Ibid., 18–19, 169–71.

50. Tom Harrisson, Living Among Cannibals (London: George G. Harrup, 1943), 7.

51. Harrisson, Savage Civilization (New York: Knopf, 1937), 3; Harrisson, Living Among Cannibals, 10–12; Judith Heimann, Most Offending Soul (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1998), 79–84. Tom would later remark that he had used “all my experience” to extract information from “these difficult people.” Harrisson, “Living with the People of Malekula,” Geographical Journal, 88 (August 1936): 103.

52. Harrisson, Savage Civilization, 116; Heimann, Most Offending, 83.

53. Harrisson, Savage Civilization, 3–4, 403–04; “Unconventional Scientist in the New Hebrides,” P.I.M. (23 March 1937), 22–23; “Civilisation the Destroyer,” Illustrated London News, 190 (23 January 1937): 144; Henrika Kuklick, Savage Within (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 13.

54. Harrisson, Savage Civilization, 269, 342, 270–75.

55. Ibid., 425–27.

56. Heimann, Most Offending, 97. Eager to whet American appetites for his “cannibal film,” Fairbanks returned to Hollywood claiming that he, too, had mingled with the Big Nambas. “Hollywood Stars in the New Hebrides,” Quarterly Jottings from the New Hebrides, 170 (October 1935): 18–20.

57. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), s.v. “Harrisson, Tom Harnett,” 545; David Hall, Worktown (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2015), 14–17.

58. Morning Post [London] (21 December 1935).

59. Osmar White, Parliament of a Thousand Tribes (London: Heinemann, 1965), 2; Gavin Souter, New Guinea (London: Angus & Robertson, 1964), 6; A.E. Pratt and Henry Pratt, Two Years Among New Guinea Cannibals (London: Seeley, 1906), 17. Carstensz must have glimpsed New Guinea’s highest peak, Puncak Jaya, whose main summit, still known as the “Carstensz Pyramid,” towers 16,024 feet above the Arafura Sea.

60. Pamela Swadling, Plumes from Paradise (Boroko, Papua New Guinea: P.N.G. National Museum, 1996), 15–16, 64–65; Clive Moore, New Guinea: Crossing Boundaries (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2003), 113–14.

61. J.H.P. Murray, “Introduction” to Lewis Lett, Knights Errant (Edinburgh: William Blackwood, 1935), ix–x.

62. James Johnston, “World’s Darkest Island,” Chambers’s Journal, 6th series, 5 (December 1901): 25, 23.

63. Kenneth MacKay, Across Papua, (London: Witherby, 1909), viii–ix; Souter, New Guinea, 92.

64. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (Oxford, 2004), s.v. “Murray, Sir (John) Hubert Plunkett”; Sydney Morning Herald (28 February 1940); Australian Dictionary of Biography, 10: 1891–1939 (Carlton, Victoria, Australia, 1986), s.v. “Murray, J.H.P.”

65. One of his first biographers noted the irony that although Murray pined for his family, the Papuan heat eventually rendered him unfit for residence in “cold” climates, such as Sydney’s. Lewis Lett, Sir Hubert Murray of Papua (London: Collins, 1949), 223.

66. Pratt and Pratt, Two Years, 19–20.

67. H.G. Nicholas, “Sir Hubert Murray, KCMG,” Australian Quarterly, 12 (June 1940): 5. For an overview of Murray’s contested legacy, see Roger C. Thompson, “Hubert Murray and the Historians,” Pacific Studies, 10 (November 1986): 79–96.

68. Lewis Lett, The Papuan Achievement, 2nd ed. (Carlton, Victoria: Melbourne University Press, 1944); Lett, Sir Hubert Murray; I.H. Hogbin, “Our Native Policy,” Australian Quarterly, 15 (June 1943): 105.

69. “Miss Beatrice Grimshaw’s South Sea Stories,” Manchester Guardian (6 May 1922); Eugénie and Hugh Laracy, “Beatrice Grimshaw,” 154–55.

70. Hubert Murray to Gilbert Murray, 16 December 1907, in Francis West, ed., Selected Letters of Hubert Murray (Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1970), 47; “An Englishwoman Among Cannibals,” Manchester Guardian (13 May 1922).

71. R.C. Thompson, “Hubert Murray,” 81.

72. Amirah Inglis, White Woman’s Protection Ordinance (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1975), 109–10. The only comparable legislation enacted within a British colony was Southern Rhodesia’s 1903 Criminal Law Amendment Ordinance, which made nonwhite male assaults on white women capital crimes. See Jock McCulloch, Black Peril (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2000).

73. R.C. Thompson, “Hubert Murray,” 91–92. Murray was still the colony’s chief judicial officer when, in 1906, its government passed legislation that forbade Papuans to wear clothing on the upper part of their bodies. Justified as a sanitary reform, this measure ensured that bare-chested (and bare-breasted) “natives” remained instantly recognizable as Other.

74. Norman Goodall, A History of the London Missionary Society (London: Oxford University Press, 1954), 413.

75. M. Standiforth Smith, Handbook of the Territory of Papua (Melbourne: J. Kemp [1907]), 9.

76. [J.H.P. Murray], Review of the Australian Administration in Papua (Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea: Government Printer, 1920), 9.

77. Ibid., ix–x.

78. Ronald Hyam, “The British Empire in the Edwardian Era,” in Wm. Roger Lewis and Judith M. Brown, eds., Oxford History of the British Empire, 4 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999): 50–51; Bernard Porter, “The Edwardians and Their Empire,” in Donald Read, ed., Edwardian England (London: Croom Helm, 1982), 136–37; “From Cannibalism to Civilization,” The Times (19 August 1932).

79. Hubert Murray, Native Administration (Port Moresby: Walter Bock, 1929), 1–3, 5–6; Murray, “Scientific Aspect of the Pacification of Papua,” in Report of the Twenty-First Meeting of the Australian and New Zealand Association for the Advancement of Science (Sydney, Australia: ANZAAS, 1932), 8–9.

80. August Ibrum Kituai, My Gun (Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 1998), 3; J.H.P. Murray, Papua of To-day (London: P.S. King, 1925), 232–33.

81. Murray, Papua, or British New Guinea (London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1912), 23–24.

82. Murray, “Scientific Aspect of Pacification,” 7.

83. Wilfred N. Beaver, Unexplored New Guinea (London: Seeley, Service, 1920), 26–28.

84. Arthur Kent Chignell, Outpost in Papua (London: Smith, Elder, 1911), 2. Cf. Kituai, My Gun, 8–9.

85. P. Biskup, B. Jinks, and H. Nelson, Short History of New Guinea (Sydney, Australia: Angus & Robertson, 1970), 84.

86. [Murray], Review of the Australian Administration, vii, 25–27.

87. Murray, Papua of To-day, viii–ix; [Murray], Review of the Australian Administration, 31.

88. Murray, “Scientific Aspect of Pacification,” 8–9.

89. Ibid.; [Murray], Review of the Australian Administration, 28.

90. Sydney Morning Herald (15 April 1908).

91. [Murray], Review of the Australian Administration, 1–2.

92. Murray, Native Administration in Papua, 16; Diary for 1905 (18 September 1905), Murray Papers, Mitchell Library, ML A 3139, pt. 1; draft of an address on crime and criminals in Papua (c. 1934), Murray Papers, Mitchell Library, ML A 3138, ff. 14, 11–12.

93. The willingness of government patrols to engage much larger groups of hostile “natives” gratified Murray. The refusal of thrice-wounded H.S. Ryan to abandon his sick orderly during an ambush west of the Kikori River in 1913 ranked with the heroics of many Victoria Cross winners, Murray declared. See Territory of Papua, Annual Report for 1913–14 (Melbourne, 1914), 10, 170, 178.

94. Territory of Papua, Annual Report for 1932–33 (Canberra, Australia, 1934), 17.

95. G.H.L. Pitt-Rivers, Clash of Culture (London: George Routledge & Sons, 1927), 60; J.K. McCarthy, Patrol into Yesterday (Canberra: F.W. Cheshire, 1964), 9–10.

96. Bronislaw Malinowski, Crime and Custom (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1926), 92–93; R.F. Fortune, Sorcerers of Dobu (New York: E.P. Dutton 1932), Appendix 3; Murray, “Depopulation in Papua,” Oceania, 3 (December 1932): 210.

97. [Murray], Review of the Australian Administration, 41.

98. I.C. Campbell, “Anthropology and the Professionalization of Colonial Administration,” Journal of Pacific History, 33 (June 1988): 70–71; Territory of Papua, Annual Report for 1922–23 (Melbourne, 1925), 15.

99. W.H.R. Rivers, “Government of Subject Peoples,” in A.C. Seward, ed., Science and the Nation [1917], reprint ed. (Freeport, NY: Books for Libraries Press, 1967), 306–07.

100. Murray, Papua of To-day, 242.

101. I.C. Campbell, “Anthropology,” 89, 69.

102. F.E. Williams, Natives of the Purari Delta [Anthropology Report No. 5] (Port Moresby, 1924), 107–09; Williams, Vailala Madness [Anthropology Report No. 4] (Port Moresby, 1923), 1–2, 55–56.

103. Francis West, Hubert Murray (Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1968), 216–17; Murray, “Introduction” to Williams, Natives of the Purari Delta, iii; “Memorandum from the Lieutenant-Governor to the Government Anthropologist,” in Williams, Vailala Madness, vii.

104. Territory of Papua, Annual Report for 1931–32 (Canberra, 1933), 10; “A London Diary,” New Statesman and Nation, 8 (11 August 1934): 174–75. Hubert Murray to Mary Murray, 31 March 1932, in F. West, Selected Letters, 143.

105. George Westermark, “Anthropology and Administration,” in Naomi McPherson, ed., In Colonial New Guinea (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2001), 46–48; Murray, Native Administration in Papua, 9–10.

106. Official Handbook of the Territory of New Guinea (Canberra, 1937), 59–66.

107. Wm. Roger Louis, Imperialism at Bay 1941–1945 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1977), 92; Official Handbook, 72–73.

108. Manchester Guardian (18 November 1938); J.S. Lyng, Our New Possession (Melbourne: Melbourne Publishing, 1919), 164–65.

109. A.J. Marshall, Men and Birds of Paradise (London: William Heinemann, 1938), 99–100; McCarthy, Patrol into Yesterday, 9–10.

110. Lett, Sir Hubert Murray, 228.

111. A.I. Kituai points out that several Papuan field officers had an association with the colony before joining its service. These local recruits were therefore more likely than their counterparts in the Mandated Territory to forge personal bonds with the chief administrator. Kituai, My Gun, 23.

112. Souter, New Guinea, 157–58.

113. Manchester Guardian (3 March 1924 and 10 March 1924).

114. McCarthy, Patrol into Yesterday, 90–91; J.P. Sinclair, Behind the Ranges (Carlton, Victoria: Melbourne University Press, 1966), 7–8.

115. William C. Groves, “With a Patrol Officer in New Guinea,” Walkabout (1 August 1935), 22, 25; Naomi McPherson, “‘Wanted: Young Man,’” in McPherson, ed., In Colonial New Guinea, 83–84.

116. Report to the . . . League of Nations on . . . New Guinea (Canberra, 1936), 23; Brian Stirling, “In Wild New Guinea,” Walkabout (1 November 1936), 28–29.

117. Report to the . . . League of Nations on . . . New Guinea (Canberra, 1937), 25–26.

118. O. White, Parliament of Tribes, 66.

119. Sydney Morning Herald (28 February 1911); Souter, New Guinea, 103–06; Hubert Murray to Gilbert Murray, 28 April 1911, in F. West, ed., Selected Letters, 42–43; Territory of Papua, Annual Report for 1911–12 (Melbourne, 1912), 9. Recent ethno-historical evidence has confirmed that however inept Smith’s leadership, his patrol was the first to enter what would become known as Papua New Guinea’s southern highlands. See Edward L. Schieffelin and Robert Crittenden, Like People You See in a Dream (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1991), 39.

120. Territory of Papua, Annual Report for 1916–17 (Melbourne, 1918), 5.

121. Territory of Papua, Annual Report for 1921–22 (Melbourne, 1923), 8–9.

122. Michael Taussig, Shamanism, Colonialism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987), 101.

123. W.R. Humphries, Patrolling in Papua (London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1923), 189–90.

124. Jared Diamond, Guns, Germs, and Steel (New York: W.W. Norton, 1999), 306.

125. Walter G. Ivens, Dictionary and Grammar, 158; O. White, Parliament of Tribes, 11; C. Moore, New Guinea, 29.

126. Michael Leahy and Maurice Crain, Land That Time Forgot (New York: Funk & Wagnalls, 1937); McCarthy, Patrol into Yesterday.

127. Ivor H.N. Evans, Among Primitive Peoples in Borneo (London: Seeley, Service, 1922), 17; Odoardo Beccari, Wanderings in the Great Forests of Borneo [1904], reprint ed. (Singapore: Oxford University Press, 1986), 363–64; Charles Hose, Natural Man (London: Macmillan, 1926), 10, vii–viii.

128. Colin Simpson, Adam in Plumes (Sydney: Angus & Robertson, 1955).

129. Aletta Biersack, “Introduction,” in Biersack, ed., Papuan Borderlands (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1995), 8–11.

130. Sjoerd Jaarsma, “Conceiving New Guinea,” in McPherson, ed., In Colonial New Guinea, 36; diary of Michael Leahy for 6 June 1930, quoted in Keith McRae, “Kiaps, Missionaries and Highlanders,” New Guinea and Australia, the Pacific and South-East Asia, 9 (March/April 1974): 17.

131. Diamond, Guns, Germs, and Steel, 20–21.

132. Donald Denoon and Marivic Wyndham, “Australia and the Western Pacific,” in Andrew Porter, ed., Oxford History of the British Empire, 3 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999): 549–50; Bob Connolly and Robin Anderson, First Contact (New York: Viking Penguin, 1987), 9–10; Kate Fortune, ed., Malaguna Road (Canberra: National Library of Australia, 1998), 235.

133. Murray, “Scientific Aspect of Pacification,” 5.

134. Paula Brown, “Colonial New Guinea: The Historical Context,” in McPherson, ed., In Colonial New Guinea, 23–24; J.G. Hides, Savages in Serge (Sydney: Angus & Robertson, 1938), 8–9, 229–31.

135. Kituai, My Gun, 163.

136. John White, The Ancient History of the Maori, 5 (Wellington, New Zealand, 1888): 121–28.

137. J.C. Beaglehole, ed., The Endeavour Journal of Joseph Banks, 1768–1771, 2 vols. (Sydney: Angus & Robertson, 1962) 2: 54; Sydney Parkinson, Journal of a Voyage to the South Seas, in HMS The Endeavour (London, 1773), 134. On the interactions between British passengers arriving with the First Fleet (1788) and their aboriginal neighbors, see Inga Clendinnen, Dancing with Strangers (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005).

138. Anton Ploeg, “First Contact, in the Highlands of Irian Jaya,” Journal of Pacific History, 30 (December 1995): 227–28, 234–35.

139. Michael Leahy, Explorations into Highland New Guinea, 1930–35, ed. Douglas E. Jones (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1991), 45–46.

140. Greg Dening, The Death of William Gooch (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1995), 35–44.

141. “Notes on a Zoological Collecting Trip to Dutch New Guinea,” National Geographic Magazine, 19 (July 1908): 469.

142. “The Stone Age Today,” Sydney Morning Herald (17 July 1912); H.J.T. Bijlmer, Anthropological Results (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 1923), 356–57.

143. Oxford English Dictionary online (2013), s.v. “Stone Age”; J.F.C. Fuller, Memoirs of an Unconventional Soldier (London: Ivor Nicholson & Watson, 1936), 341, 354.

144. P.I.M. (October 1940), 17.

145. Territory of Papua, Annual Report for 1927–28 (Melbourne, 1929), 1–2.

146. Ivan F. Champion, Across New Guinea from the Fly to the Sepik (London: Constable, 1932), 141; Australian Dictionary of Biography, 17: 1981–1990 (Carlton, Victoria: Melbourne University Press, 2007), s.v. “Champion, Ivan Francis.”

147. C.H. Karius, “Report on the Crossing of New Guinea,” Appendix D, Territory of Papua, Annual Report for 1927–28, 97.

148. Ibid., 88; Karius, “Exploration in the Interior of Papua and North-East New Guinea,” Geographical Journal, 74 (October 1929): 306–07; Champion, Across New Guinea, 12, 41–42.

149. Champion, “Report of Sub-Patrol,” Appendix B, Territory of Papua, Annual Report for 1926–27, 108–11.

150. Karius, “Report on the Crossing of New Guinea,” Appendix D, Territory of Papua, Annual Report for 1927–28, passim; Champion, Across New Guinea, 186; Frank Clune, Prowling Through Papua [1942] (Sydney: Angus & Robertson, 1948), 136–38.

151. Champion, Across New Guinea, 244.

152. [Murray], “Expedition of Mr. Karius and Mr. Champion, Across New Guinea,” Territory of Papua, Annual Report for 1927–28, 2; Champion, Across New Guinea, 235.

153. Champion, Across New Guinea, 182.

154. G.H.L. Pitt-Rivers, The Clash of Culture.

155. Champion, Across New Guinea, 87.

156. Ibid., 200–01.

157. Karius, “Exploration in the Interior of Papua,” 322. In 1929, King George V awarded Karius the Patron’s Gold Medal of the R.G.S. Cancer would claim him eleven years later, at the age of 47. Ivan Champion enjoyed a much longer life, serving the united administration of Papua and New Guinea until 1964. Champion received the O.B.E. in 1953. He died in 1989.

158. Leahy and Crain, Land That Time Forgot, 1.

159. Connolly and Anderson, First Contact, 8–9.

160. Leahy and Crain, Land That Time Forgot, 31–32.

161. Leahy, Explorations, 27; Leahy and Crain, Land That Time Forgot, 131–33.

162. Unpublished diary of Michael Leahy for 20 November 1932, as quoted in Connolly and Anderson, First Contact, 69.

163. E.W.P. Chinnery, “The Central Ranges of the Mandated Territory of New Guinea,” Geographical Journal, 84 (November 1934): 405–06; Michael Leahy, “The Central Highlands of New Guinea,” Geographical Journal, 87 (March 1936): 229–30.

164. Despite not knowing for weeks that he and Dwyer had descended into the Purari River watershed, Michael Leahy later “forced” the Royal Geographical Society to certify his status as the discoverer of that river’s source. Leahy, Explorations, editor’s Afterword, 245.

165. Leahy and Crain, Land That Time Forgot, 110.

166. Ibid., 37–38; J.L. Taylor, “Mount Hagen Patrol,” Report to the . . . League of Nations on . . . New Guinea (Canberra, 1935), 115.

167. Simpson, Adam in Plumes, 18–19; J.L. Taylor, “Mount Hagen Patrol,” 115.

168. Leahy and Crain, Land That Time Forgot, 152–53; Leahy, Explorations, 82.

169. J.L. Taylor, “Undiscovered New Guinea,” Walkabout (1 November 1934), 21.

170. Ibid.; J.L. Taylor, “Mount Hagen Patrol,” 115.

171. Leahy and Crain, Land That Time Forgot, 157–58, 177–78; J.L. Taylor, “Undiscovered,” 23; “Discoveries in New Guinea,” P.I.M. (21 December 1933), 11.

172. Leahy and Crain, Land That Time Forgot, 165.

173. Leahy, Explorations, 104. Several years later Leahy would liken the cultural “gap” between Europeans and New Guinea highlanders to “the difference between a bow and arrow and the hydrogen bomb.” (Ibid.)

174. “Get Busy or Get Out!” P.I.M. (22 October 1937), v–vi; “Discoveries in New Guinea,” P.I.M. (21 December 1933), 11.

175. J.L. Taylor, “Undiscovered,” 27–28.

176. Leahy and Crain, Land That Time Forgot, 125–26; J.L. Taylor, “Undiscovered,” 27–28.

177. Leahy, “Tribal Wars in Unexplored New Guinea,” Walkabout (1 November 1935), 11–12.

178. “Clashes with New Guinea Natives,” P.I.M. (16 March 1934), 9–11. For Leahy’s behavior as a source of concern for members of the League’s Mandates Commission, see Susan Pedersen, The Guardians: The League of Nations and the Crisis of Empire (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015), 305–14.

179. Typescript copy of Sir Hubert Murray’s diary for 24 June 1934, Mitchell Library, Murray Papers, ML A 3138; “Gold Prospecting in New Guinea,” Anti-Slavery Reporter and Aborigines’ Friend, series 5, 26 (January 1937): 200–02; “Shootings of Natives in New Guinea,” Anti-Slavery Reporter and Aborigines’ Friend, series 5, 27 (April 1937): 40–41; Australian Dictionary of Biography, 10: 1881–1939 (Carlton, Victoria, 1986), s.v. “Leahy, Michael”; Simpson, Adam in Plumes, 92–93.

180. J.P. Sinclair, Kiap: Australia’s Patrol Officers in Papua New Guinea (Sydney: Pacific Publications, 1981), 68–69; Connolly and Anderson, First Contact, 34–36.

181. “Young Explorers Differ,” P.I.M. (22 August 1935), 14; “Papua, Publicity and Patrols,” P.I.M. (22 August 1933), 24; “Leahy Brothers in London,” P.I.M. (20 December 1935), 9; Hubert Murray to Patrick Murray, 26 August 1935, in F. West, ed., Selected Letters, 184.

182. See Schieffelin and Crittenden, Like People You See in a Dream, passim.

183. J.G. Hides, Savages in Serge (Sydney: Angus & Robertson, 1938), 3–4.

184. Murray, “Introduction” to J.G. Hides, Through Wildest Papua (London: Blackie & Son, 1935), 5; J.P. Sinclair, Outside Man (Melbourne: Landsdowne Press, 1969), 10.

185. J.G. Hides, Papuan Wonderland (London: Blackie & Son, 1936), 123–24; Hides, Through Wildest Papua, 12.

186. P.I.M. (12 May 1934), 4.

187. Sinclair, Outside Man, 61–62.

188. “Midnight Pounce on Village,” P.I.M. (16 March 1934), 5–6; Hides, Through Wildest Papua, 16–71.

189. “Papuan Patrol Officer,” P.I.M. (17 May 1934), 4; Hubert Murray to Patrick Murray, 24 January 1935, in F. West, ed., Selected Letters, 179.

190. Sinclair, Outside Man, 260.

191. Hides, typescript copy of “Forenote” to his diary for 22 July 1935, Mitchell Library, ML A 3638.

192. E.W. Brandes, “Into Primeval Papua by Seaplane,” National Geographic Magazine, 56 (September 1929): 253–332; R.W. Robson, ed., Handbook of New Guinea (Sydney: Pacific Publications, 1933), 18–23.

193. Schieffelin and Crittenden, Like People You See in a Dream, 52.

194. Sinclair, Outside Man, 150; Hubert Murray to Rosalind Toynbee, 26 July 1935, in F. West, ed., Selected Letters, 182.

195. Hides, Papuan Wonderland, 46, 69, 109–10, 201, 81–82.

196. Ibid., 55–56, 53–54.

197. Ibid., 174–75; Lisette Josephides and Marc Schiltz, “Through Kewa Country,” in Schieffelin and Crittenden, eds., Like People You See in a Dream, 211–12.

198. Josephides and Schiltz, “Through Kewa Country,” 213–15.

199. Bill Gammage, Sky Travellers (Carlton, Victoria: Melbourne University Press, 1998), 1–3, 211–12; Leigh Vial, “Exploring in New Guinea,” Walkabout (1 October 1938), 14.

200. Richard Archbold and A.L. Rand, “With Plane and Radio in Stone Age New Guinea,” Natural History, 40 (October 1937): 568; Vial, “Exploring,” 15–16.

201. Manchester Guardian (15 August 1935 and 19 June 1936).

202. P.I.M. (22 August 1935), 7.

203. “Japanese Menace,” P.I.M. (24 January 1936), 9; “Japanese Poachers in Pacific,” P.I.M. (20 October 1936), 3–4; “Japan’s Invasion of Pacific Shell Industry,” P.I.M. (23 March 1937), 8.

204. Then just thirty-two, Hides succumbed to a lethal combination of beriberi and pneumonia in a Sydney hospital. Several months before his death, he and some companions had been found, malnourished and disease-ridden, floating in a raft on the Fly River.

205. Hides, Papuan Wonderland, 201.

206. Marshall, Men and Birds of Paradise, 55–56.

207. Napoleon A. Chagnon, Yanomamö: The Fierce People, 3rd ed. (Fort Worth, TX: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1983), 4–42; Chagnon, Noble Savages (New York, 2013), 7–9, 338, 26–28, 218–20, 437–39.

208. Survival International website: http://survivalinternational.org/info. This organization defines “uncontacted” peoples as those “who have no peaceful contact with anyone in the mainstream or dominant society.” Such people need not be “unknown” to qualify as “uncontacted.”

CONCLUSION

1. Oxford English Dictionary online (2015), s.v. “inversion.” The notion of a “savage inversion” could include Europeans whose conduct, by Western standards, appeared barbaric. Arguably the best illustration of such conduct in modern Melanesian history involved an English missionary-trainee and his unprovoked slaughter of a Malaita boy in November 1955. For the case of Reginald Poole, see especially Sunday Telegraph [Sydney] (5 and 12 February 1956); Daily Mirror [Sydney] (1 and 3 February 1956); and News of the World [London] (5 February 1956).

2. Mitchell, “Foreword” to Martin Clemens, Alone on Guadalcanal (Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 1998), xi; “Islanders’ Loyalty,” The Times [London] (13 May 1943); Mitchell to Colonial Secretary, telegram of 17 May 1943, TNA, CO 875/14/6.

3. Marty Zelenietz, “Invisible Islanders,” Man and Culture in Oceania, 7 (1991): 14–15.

4. A.J. Stockwell, “Imperialism and Nationalism,” in Louis and Brown, eds., Oxford History of the British Empire, 4 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999): 476; “Notes on the Evacuation of the Naga Hills District” [1942], H.J. Mitchell Papers, B.L., Oriental and India Office Library, MSS. Eur. D 858/2; Manchester Guardian (13 May 1942); Christopher Bayle and Tim Harper, Forgotten Armies (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2005), 83–84, 388–90.

5. Judith M. Heimann, The Airmen and the Headhunters (Orlando, FL: Harcourt, 2007), 131–32; Philip Harkins, Blackburn’s Headhunters (New York: W.W. Norton, 1955), 311–12, 321.

6. Asesela Ravuvu, Fijians at War (Suva, Fiji: Institute of Pacific Studies, 1988), 14–16; Brij V. Lal, “For King and Country,” in Geoffrey M. White, ed., Remembering the Pacific War (Honolulu: Center for Pacific Island Studies, 1991), 18–20.

7. While white New Zealand officers helped prepare Fijians for tropical combat, New Zealand’s own “natives,” the Maori, distinguished themselves in such Western theaters as Greece, Crete, North Africa, and Italy.

8. Judith Bennett, Natives and Exotics (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2009), 134–35; Mark Durley, as quoted in Eric Bergerud, Touched with Fire (New York: Viking Penguin, 1996), 113–14.

9. “How the Doughty Fijians Got Their 200th Man,” Fiji Times and Herald [Suva] (21 February 1956).

10. Deborah B. Gewertz, Sepik River Societies (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1983), 137–38.

11. Geoffrey M. White and Lamont Lindstrom, “Introduction” in White and Lindstrom, eds., The Pacific Theater (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1989), 24.

12. Sydney H. Chance, Lau Hereva (Brisbane, Australia: Simpson, Halligan, 1946), 67.

13. Kipling, “Fuzzy-Wuzzy,” in Daniel Karlin, ed., Rudyard Kipling (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), 436–37.

14. Victor Austin, ed., To Kokoda and Beyond (Carlton, Victoria, Australia: Melbourne University Press, 1988), 76–77; John Waiko, “Oral History and the War,” in G. White, Remembering the Pacific War, 8–9.

15. Dudley McCarthy, Australia in the War of 1939–45 (Canberra: Australian War Memorial, 1962), 334–35; Chris Coulthard-Clark, Where Australians Fought (St. Leonards, New South Wales, Australia: Allen & Unwin, 1998), 102–03.

16. Austin, To Kokoda, 170–71; Hank Nelson, “Kokoda,” Journal of Pacific History, 42 (June 2007): 76–77.

17. Papua New Guinea Post-Courier [Port Moresby] (12 June 2010). See also PNG Post-Courier (26 July 2011) and Sydney Morning Herald (26 April 2013).

18. Nelson, “Kokoda,” 87.

19. Chance, Lau Hereva, 12–13; “How and Why the New Guinea Natives Are Being Spoiled,” P.I.M. (August 1960), 57–58.

20. H.C. Brookfield, Colonialism, Development (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1972), 87–88.

21. C.H. Grattan, Southwest Pacific Since 1900 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1963), 517. In 1939, Fiji set up its own coastwatching service on a coconut plantation near the southern tip of Taveuni island. See coastwatching correspondence, F8/120, Fiji National Archives, Suva.

22. A.A. Vandegrift, Once a Marine (New York: W.W. Norton, 1964), 115, 118; Halsey as quoted in D.C. Horton, Fire over the Islands (London: Leo Cooper, 1975), 247; MacArthur in “Foreword” to Eric A. Feldt, The Coast Watchers (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1979), vii–ix.

23. Annual Report . . . on the British Solomon Islands Protectorate, 1938 (London, 1939), 6; Walter Lord, Lonely Vigil (New York: Viking Press 1977), 4.

24. Martin Clemens, “District Officer’s Diary, Guadalcanal,” 10 and 11 April, 1942, typescript draft, MSS. Pac. s. 61, Rhodes House Library, Oxford University; Lord, Lonely Vigil, 17.

25. Robert J. Donovan, PT-109 (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1961), 141–145, 174, 183–89; obituary of Eroni Kumana, Los Angeles Times (16 August 2014).

26. Lord, Lonely Vigil, 108–09, 204–08; Bergerud, Touched with Fire, 116–17.

27. Among Those Present (London: H.M.S.O., 1946), 28. Perversely, the Guadalcanal men who hauled American supplies up slopes too steep for jeeps found themselves stigmatized as the “Cannibal Battalion.” John Miller, Guadalcanal (Washington, DC: Department of the Army, 1949), 237–38.

28. Vandegrift, Once a Marine, 136–37. Most other descriptions of Vouza noted his deep chest and exceptional strength.

29. Clemens’s “Foreword” in Don Richter, Where the Sun Stood Still (Calabasas, CA: Toucan, 1992), 9; Allan Bevilacqua, “Coastwatcher Jacob Vouza,” Leatherneck, 98 (August 2015): 24–28.

30. Richter, Where the Sun, 48–49.

31. Roger M. Keesing and Peter Corris, Lightning Meets the West Wind (Melbourne, Australia: Oxford University Press, 1980), 165–66, 169.

32. Hector Macquarrie, Vouza and the Solomon Islands (New York: Macmillan, 1948), 26–27.

33. Richard B. Frank, Guadalcanal (New York: Random House, 1990), 150–54; Clemens, Alone on Guadalcanal, 111–12, 12–13.

34. Clemens, Alone, 209–10.

35. Richter, Where the Sun, 390, 398–99; Masey to Gardner, 30 July 1968, Jacob Vouza Collection 3328, Box 2, Marine Corps Archives, Quantico, VA.

36. J. Bennett, Wealth of the Solomons (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1987), 291–93.

37. Charles E. Fox, Kakamora (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1962), 143–45. In very similar fashion, the champions of colonial rule in Northern Rhodesia had earlier taken credit for ending “the old fighting days”—when villagers huddled behind stockades and spent much of their time sharpening spears. See Mabel Shaw, “Sanctuary,” Chronicle of the London Missionary Society (January 1920), 5–6. I thank Rebecca Hughes for this reference.

38. David W. Gegeo, “World War II in the Solomons,” in G. White, ed., Remembering the Pacific War, 31–32; Hugh Laracy, ed., Pacific Protest (Suva, Fiji: Institute of Pacific Studies, 1983), 19–20.

39. Laracy, Pacific Protest, 22–23. David Akin has noted that an “overbearing” Vouza was not universally popular among the Malaita headmen who supported Maasina Rule. See Akin, Colonialism, Maasina Rule (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2013), 314–15.

40. W. Roger Louis, “Introduction,” in Louis and J. Brown, eds., Oxford History of the British Empire, 4: 44; typescript interview with Sir Alexander Grantham, 21 August 1968, 38, MSS. Brit. Emp. s. 288, Rhodes House Library, Oxford University.