LIE TO A LIAR, FOR LIES ARE HIS COIN; STEAL FROM A THIEF, FOR THAT IS EASY; LAY A TRAP FOR A TRICKSTER AND CATCH HIM AT FIRST ATTEMPT, BUT BEWARE OF AN HONEST MAN.
—Arab proverb
Some people think it is unfair to characterize the contemporary Muslim world as violent or radical, and to be fair, the majority of Muslims living today are generally peaceful, law-abiding citizens who care for the same things other people do: family, faith, meaningful employment, and the like. So where does this image of a people bent on conquering and converting the world by force come from? The answer is complex, but a major source of this characterization comes from the Arab Empire.
The Arab Empire began in 632 CE, following the death of the Muslim prophet Muhammad. Under the leadership of a series of caliphs, or Muslim religious and civil rulers, Arab armies spread their faith, creating an empire that stretched from the Atlantic Ocean to the Indus River, encompassing Syria, Egypt, Persia, North Africa, Palestine, Iraq, Armenia, Afghanistan, India, and Spain. And although what was once a great and vast empire eventually declined, as others have before and after them, its religion, Islam, continues to exert itself as the second-largest and fastest-growing religion in many parts of the world. (In London, it was recently reported that the number one choice of names for newborn sons is Muhammad.)
The Arab Empire cannot be separated from Islam, any more than the Byzantine Empire can be separated from Orthodox Christianity. Islam was and remains the defining aspect of Arab culture and shapes their worldview. Islam seeks to establish a unity between faith in the next world and power in this one, although within Islam itself there are many sects and divisions. As with Christianity, those divisions were sometimes the cause of devastating warfare between factions. To understand the Arab Empire, you have to understand Islam. So before we proceed with the history of the Arab Empire, allow me to offer you a brief description.
A BASIC INTRODUCTION TO ISLAM
Islam is a strictly monotheistic religion, recognizing only one God: Allah. Allah is one person and one substance, as opposed to the Christian God, who is revealed in Scripture as the Trinity, in which there is one God expressed in three distinct personalities: God the Father, God’s Son Jesus, and God’s Holy Spirit. Many Muslims consider Christianity blasphemy because it worships “more than one god.”
The Koran is believed by Muslims to be the verbatim word of Allah and to have existed unaltered throughout eternity in heaven. It cannot be translated into other languages. The English version of the Koran is not called the Koran; it’s called The Meaning of the Glorious Koran. The duty Allah requires of man is to submit with his entire soul and mind to Allah. Islam is a works-based religion, meaning that humans are born basically good, and as long as we obey Allah’s commandments and sincerely repent of our sin, Allah will be merciful and grant us entry into paradise. However, unlike Christianity, in Islam there is no atonement necessary for the expiation of sin. Islam does not require a Savior to suffer the holy wrath of God for the redemption of humans. Allah does not demand the sanctification of his followers. He simply forgives them.
The life of the Muslim is made up of five pillars.
1. profession of faith—Shahada
2. daily prayers—Salat
3. almsgiving—Zakat
4. fasting during Ramadan—Sawm
5. pilgrimage to Mecca—Hajj
Muslims are expected to follow the first four pillars their entire lives and make at least one pilgrimage to Mecca during their lifetime if possible. While these five pillars might be seen as benign and even admirable, they stand in stark contrast to the requirements of the Christian faith: belief in Jesus as the Son of God and repentance from sins to receive the free gift of salvation.
Here’s where it gets a little dicey. Observant Muslims point to the liberalization within their own faith—women abandoning the burqa and even the hijab, the use of alcohol, infrequent prayer—warning that it compromises their influence. Similarly, they contend that the secularization of Christianity (to the point where its followers are no different from America’s happy pagans) confirms its illegitimacy. While I don’t agree with that perspective, I sometimes wonder if postmodern Christianity has inadvertently turned the faith into a social club, while its more conservative counterparts have morphed it into an ad hoc political movement. I’m not suggesting that Christians either return to the legalism of our past, which turned Christianity into a list of dos and don’ts, or abstain from the political process (see Ed Dobson’s and my 1999 book Blinded by Might: Why the Religious Right Can’t Save America). I’m suggesting only that how we live out our faith matters. If there is any hope for our nation to retain its greatness (and we need to define what greatness means), people who are serious and committed followers of Jesus of Nazareth must lead the way by obeying his commands and practicing his teachings consistently and joyfully.
THE AGES OF PIONEERS AND CONQUESTS
Achieving any goal requires three things: inspiration, followed by motivation, and then perspiration. These qualities can be used to achieve bad goals as well as good ones. The expansion of Arab and Muslim influence into an empire contained all three of these qualities.
Following the death of Muhammad, Muslims were without a leader, since a prophet could have no successor. Instead, as I mentioned, Arab leadership depended on caliphs, men who were Muhammad’s most loyal followers.
From the start, Arabic Islam used earthly power to achieve what adherents believed to be heavenly goals. Muslim tribes raided villages, seeking to impose their faith and will. They lacked a regular army at first, but that was soon to change. Adherents were rapidly added, sometimes by conversion (a lot of it forced) and other times by means of the sword. A newly organized Muslim navy wiped out the Christian fleet in the Battle of the Masts (655 CE). The expanding Muslim army attacked Constantinople during this period but never succeeded in capturing it.
The rapid military successes were partly a result of the weakness of the conquered countries, brought on by decades of external conflicts and internal structures. (Infighting has been a problem for Islam too, as Sunni and Shia Muslims continue to battle each other today. But both hate the Sufis, whom they regard as heretics, and all branches of Islam—to one extent or another, with a few exceptions—hate Jews and Christians, the latter of whom they call cross worshipers, or polytheists for believing in a triune God.)
At the conclusion of the first Muslim campaign into Spain (711–13 CE), the entire Northwest corner of the Iberian Peninsula was placed under Arab rule. It is one reason some Muslims today continue to regard Spain, beginning with Gibraltar, as still belonging to them, because according to their worldview, once a nation becomes Islamic, it remains Islamic, no matter how long it may be under the control of people they regard as infidels.
The expansion of the Arab Empire cannot be discussed without telling the story of the Battle of Tours in 732 CE, one of the most important battles in history, one that precipitated the decline of the empire. Some historians believe we might all be speaking Arabic if Charles Martel, the de facto ruler of the Frankish kingdoms, had lost that war. It was Martel who repelled Muslim invaders from Spain. That was important because Martel’s victory over forces of the emir of Cordoba preserved Western Europe from Muslim conquest and Islamization. But again, note how the Arab Empire relied on force to advance its Muslim faith. It’s one thing to desire that others share your beliefs; it’s quite another to go and make disciples by holding a sword over their heads.1
Why is it important to understand how the Arab Empire used force to gain converts and the territories where these converts lived? It’s because modern jihadis remember this history and are resurrecting it and attempting to replicate it in modern times (with less success, as the scattering of ISIS forces in Syria has shown, though terrorism continues). We see them as barbaric and cruel, but they see themselves as preserving their faith. They never give up, mostly because they are religiously motivated. Infidel diplomats from the hated West are not about to dissuade them from what they believe to be a command from their God to conquer the world by whatever means necessary, including lies, subterfuge, coercion, and force. This is what the increasingly secular West fails or, to be more accurate, refuses to understand. By contrast, followers of Jesus are called to attract the lost to their faith through other means: “love, joy, peace, forbearance, kindness, goodness, faithfulness, gentleness and self-control” (Gal. 5:22–23). We are to be known to others by the way we love one another.
THE AGE OF COMMERCE
If you ever travel to an Arab country—or even the Arab Quarter in Jerusalem’s Old City—you can experience the bargaining theatrics you won’t see in an American or European shopping mall. It is a game Arabs expect you to play. They give you a price of an item you seem interested in, and you counter with a lower price. The merchant feigns offense but after a short time comes back with a price closer to yours. If you shake your head and begin to walk away, he follows you and pleads with you to come back, sometimes asking, “How much do you want to pay?” and the haggling begins again. Finally, you and he agree on a price, and he sells you the item. He smiles. You smile. Each feels satisfied.
This is a scenario in which I have engaged over several years and in many countries. It is fun, and it reveals something about Arab culture and history.
As in other areas, Arabs pioneered development of a vibrant commerce and trade, beginning in the Byzantine and early Islamic Middle East. They established trade networks that were precursors to modern delivery systems, such as the postal service, UPS, FedEx, and Amazon. These trade networks extended over several continents and bodies of water. While the best known of them ran between Europe and Asia, such as the Silk Road, equally important were the overland routes that ran north-south across the Arabian Peninsula to East Africa.
In addition to the obvious commercial benefits, these routes also provided opportunities for cultural exchange that included such diverse peoples as mercenaries, merchants, nomads, and pilgrims.2 What astounds many historians and even casual observers is how magnificent the Arab Empire once was, in contrast to what much of it is now.
THE AGE OF INTELLECT
The empire reached its zenith under the leadership of a caliph known as Jaffar al-Mansour, who founded and then oversaw the building of the then-great city of Baghdad, which he initially called Madinat as-Salaam, or “the City of Peace.” Under his guidance, Baghdad grew into a shining example of the best of Islam. The city attracted scholars from all over the world, largely because of Muslim teaching that “the ink of the scholar is more holy than the blood of the martyr.”3 Because education is so important to Islam, literacy soared in Baghdad, as did the production of books and great poetry and literature. Even the city’s remoteness was intentional, as al-Mansour wanted to avoid the factions that were already dividing Islam. As New Yorker staff writer Ian Frazier observed, “While Europe still moiled in its Dark Ages, Baghdad was a city of booksellers, bathhouses, gardens, game parks, libraries.”4
Those unfamiliar with the history of Arab culture may not be aware of that culture’s contributions to science and other disciplines. Some historians point to the great centers of learning in Baghdad, Damascus, and Cairo as models for the great universities in the Western world. The caliph Harun al-Rashid sought out intellectuals and scholars from other countries to come to Baghdad and learn from each other. His son, al-Mamun, established the House of Wisdom to translate great literature of the Greeks into Arabic. He invited persons from different countries with various backgrounds for dialogue and mutual learning.
Muhammad al-Khwarizmi was one of the first directors of the House of Wisdom in Baghdad. His major contribution was overseeing the translation into Arabic of the astronomy and mathematical works of Greeks and Indians. His original work had a lasting influence as Islam spread throughout the world. European mathematics also benefited from his intellect.
The word algorithm, which has become more familiar in the age of social media because of the way political and consumer ads are promoted, derived from the Latinization of his name. The word algebra came from the Latinization of al-jabr, which is a part of the title of his most famous book. In that book, al-Khwarizmi introduced basic algebraic methods and ways to solve equations. As one who barely got through algebra in high school, I am impressed by his knowledge.
The Middle Ages (also known as the Dark Ages) are thought by most Westerners to be devoid of anything worthy of modern attention. And yet Muslims created a society that was the scientific center of the world. Like Greek and Latin before them, the Arabic language was synonymous with unprecedented learning and science for a period often referred to as a golden age.
Dr. Jamil Ragep, a professor of the history of science at the University of Oklahoma, was quoted in the New York Times as saying, “Nothing in Europe could hold a candle to what was going on in the Islamic world until about 1600.”5
Many historians believe that had it not been for this rise in Arab intellectualism, the Renaissance and the Enlightenment, as well as the Scientific Revolution, might never have occurred. The reason we don’t know more about this era is that most of the scientific works have not been translated from Arabic, and that is a shame. Perhaps these works might inspire modern Arabs and Muslims to return to such pursuits and reject the call to terrorism, the elimination of Israel, and the suppression of women, among other deformities.
The contrast with modern Arab/Muslim nations could not be more stark. Despite trillions of dollars in oil money, provided mostly by Western countries, the Arabs have done little to elevate their people to economic independence and to a faith that once encouraged intellectual pursuits. The Koran commands believers to seek knowledge, so in a way many modern practicing Muslims are in rebellion.
THE DECLINE OF THE ANCIENT ARAB EMPIRE
What went wrong? Why did such intellectual pursuits and successes not inspire future generations of Arabs and Muslims? In part, it is because of the profile of most nations—with the West being a notable exception for the moment—which at some point run out of steam and turn inward. Whereas the Arab world once welcomed interaction and cooperation with others, it began to isolate itself. As historian Hillel Ofek observed, “The civilization that had produced cities, libraries, and observatories and opened itself to the world had now regressed and become closed, resentful, violent, and hostile to discourse and innovation.”6 Ofek also identified a rejection of reason and philosophy as contributing to the fall of the Arab Empire. In essence, both were deemed incompatible with Islamic teaching.
Proof that some things never change when it comes to governments and taxes is what happened to the Umayyad Dynasty and its leaders. This Arab dynasty collapsed over the issue of taxes. In essence, the haves were required to pay lower taxes than the have-nots. Since minority non-Muslims paid higher taxes than both, Muslim powers were forced to halt conversions in order to feed their greed for more money. Resentment led to rebellion, marking the beginning of the end of the empire.
WHAT CAN WE LEARN FROM THE ARABS?
As we consider the rise and fall of the Arab Empire, what can we take from them and apply to our own experience? It’s difficult for many of us to imagine a robust and almost cosmopolitan Arab world, because its current manifestation appears to be isolated, rigid, and secretive.
Contemporary Muslims in strict Islamic states have been told by many of their clerics to pay attention to what those clerics tell them and not to question or doubt, lest they put their souls in danger of damnation. This is not unique to Islam. Prior to the Reformation, the Roman Catholic Church told its members not to read Scripture and that priests would tell them what they needed to know. It wasn’t until Vatican II that this policy was reversed and Catholics were allowed, even encouraged, to read the Scriptures.
The obvious difference is that whereas Catholicism, and Christianity in general, was modernizing, Islam was reverting to its ancient roots. We will soon see whether the initial reforms in Saudi Arabia (such as now allowing women to drive cars) endure. Reforms within Islam can be costly. Some Palestinians who have favored making peace with Israel have paid with their lives. So did Egyptian president Anwar Sadat for his peace treaty with Israel.
America is questioning its own commitment to cooperation with other nations, and in many cases for good reason. Cooperation has not always been reciprocal, especially when it comes to trade policies. The Christian faith, however, has always been at its best when its adherents understand that their true citizenship lies in a kingdom that welcomes anyone regardless of color, ethnicity, or economic status. Perhaps it is from this posture that we can influence our nation to reject the regression and oppression that led to the decline of the Arab Empire.
We don’t have any other choice.