The story of Theophilus of Adana served as the template for an early modern folk legend about a character named Faust. Based on a notorious German alchemist and magician named Johann Faust (ca. 1480–ca. 1541), this cautionary tale about the dangers of intellectual ambition became a popular theme in stage plays and popular literature throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, inspiring both Christopher Marlowe’s play The Tragical History of the Life and Death of Doctor Faustus (1604) and Johann Wolfgang von Goethe’s closet drama Faust (1808). Having reached the limit of his learning, Faust entered into a contract with a demon named Mephistopheles to obtain the knowledge he craved. In return, he agreed to relinquish his soul to the demon upon his death. Like Theophilus before him, Faust composed and signed the contract in his own blood. Unlike the medieval saint, however, the early modern magician did not repent, sought no help from the Virgin Mary, and suffered the consequences for all eternity. The story was so well-known that the phrase “Faustian bargain” is still current as a way to express an agreement that involves abandoning one’s moral principles in order to obtain knowledge or wealth.
You have heard before, that all Faustus’ mind was set to study the arts of necromancy and conjuration, the pursuit of which he followed night and day. And taking for himself the wings of an eagle, he thought to fly over the whole world and to know the secrets of heaven and earth. For his speculation was so wonderful, being expert in using his vocabula, figures, characters, conjurations, and other ceremonial actions, that in all haste he put in practice to bring the Devil before him. And making his way to a thick wood near Wittenberg, called in the German tongue Spisser Waldt, that is, in English the Spissers Wood (as Faustus would often boast of it among his crew when he was happy), he came into the same wood towards evening at a crossroads, where he made with a wand a circle in the dust, and within that many more circles and characters. And thus he passed away the time, until it was nine or ten o’clock at night. Then began Doctor Faustus to call for Mephistopheles the spirit, and to charge him in the name of Beelzebub to appear there personally without any long stay. Then presently the Devil began so great a rumour in the wood, as if heaven and earth would have come together with wind, the trees bowing their tops to the ground, then fell the Devil to blare as if the whole wood had been full of lions, and suddenly about the circle ran the Devil as if a thousand wagons had been running together on paved stones. After this, at the four corners of the wood it thundered horribly, with such lightnings as if the whole world, to his seeming, had been on fire. Faustus all this while half amazed at the Devil’s tarrying so long, and doubting whether it was best for him to abide any more such horrible conjurings, thought to leave his circle and depart, whereupon the Devil made him such music of all sorts, as if the nymphs themselves had been in place. Whereat Faustus was revived and stood stoutly in his circle surveying his plan, and began again to conjure the spirit Mephistopheles in the name of the prince of devils to appear in his likeness. Whereat suddenly over his head hung hovering in the air a mighty dragon. Then Faustus called again after his devilish manner, at which there was a monstrous cry in the wood, as if Hell had been opened, and all the tormented souls crying to God for mercy. Presently not three fathoms above his head fell a flame like lightning, and changed itself into a globe, yet Faustus feared it not, but did persuade himself that the Devil should give him his request before he would leave[2]…Faustus, vexed at the spirit’s tarrying so long, used his charms with full purpose not to depart before he had his intent, and crying on Mephistopheles the spirit, when suddenly the globe opened and sprang up to the height of a man. So burning a time, in the end it converted to the shape of a fiery man. This pleasant beast ran about the circle a great while, and lastly appeared in the manner of a gray friar, asking Faustus what was his request. Faustus commanded that the next morning at twelve o’clock, he should appear to him at his house, but the Devil would in no way grant this request. Faustus began again to conjure him in the name of Beelzebub, that he should fulfill his request, whereupon the spirit agreed, and so they departed each one his way.
Doctor Faustus having commanded the spirit to be with him at his hour appointed came and appeared in his chamber, demanding of Faustus what his desire was. Then began Doctor Faustus anew with him to conjure him that he should be obedient unto him, and to answer him certain articles, and to fulfill them in all points:
That the spirit should serve him and be obedient unto him in all things that he asked of him from that hour until the hour of his death.
Furthermore, anything that he desired of him should be brought to him.
Also, that in all of Faustus’ demands or interrogations, the spirit should tell him nothing but that which is true.
Hereupon the spirit answered and laid his case forth, that he had no such power himself, until he had first given his prince (that was ruler over him) to understand thereof, and to know if he could obtain so much of his lord: “Therefore, speak further that I may do thy whole desire to my prince. For it is not in my power to fulfill without his leave.” “Show me the cause why.” said Faustus. The spirit answered: “Faustus, thou shalt understand that with us it is even as well a kingdom, as with you on earth. Yea, we have our rulers and servants, as I myself am one, and we name our number the Legion. For although that Lucifer is thrust and fallen out of heaven through his pride and high mind, yet he hath notwithstanding a legion of devils at his commandment that we call the Eastern Princes, for his power is great and infinite. Also there is a host in the south, the north, and the west. And because Lucifer hath his kingdom under heaven, we must change and give ourselves unto men to serve them at their pleasure. It is also certain, we have never as yet opened unto any man the truth of our dwelling, neither of our ruling, neither what our power is, neither have we given any man any gift, or learned him anything, unless he promises to be ours.”
Doctor Faustus upon this arose where he sat, and said, “I will have my request, and yet I will not be damned.” The spirit answered, “Then shalt thou want thy desire, and yet art thou mine notwithstanding. If any man would detain thee it is in vain, for thine infidelity hath confounded thee.”
Hereupon spoke Faustus: “Get thee hence from me, and take Saint Valentine’s farewell and Crisam with thee, yet I conjure thee that thou return at evening, and bethink thyself on what I have asked thee, and ask thy prince’s counsel therein.”[3] Mephistopheles the spirit, thus answered, vanished away, leaving Faustus in his study, where he sat pondering with himself how he might obtain his request of the Devil without the loss of his soul. Yet fully he was resolved in himself, rather than to be deprived of his pleasure, to do whatsoever the spirit and his lord should decide upon.
Faustus continuing in his devilish thoughts, never leaving the place where the spirit left him (such was his fervent love to the Devil) as the night approached, this swift flying spirit appeared to Faustus, offering himself with all submission to his service, with full authority from his prince to do whatsoever he would request, if so be Faustus would promise to be his. “This answer I bring thee, and an answer must thou make by me again, yet will I hear what is thy desire, because thou hast sworn me to be here at this time.” Doctor Faustus gave him this answer, though faintly (for his soul’s sake), that his request was none other but to become a devil or at least a limb of him and that the spirit should agree unto these articles as follows:
That he might be a spirit in shape and quality.
That Mephistopheles should be his servant and at his command.
That Mephistopheles should bring him anything and do for him whatsoever.
That at all times he should be in his house, invisible to all men, except only to himself, and at his command to show himself.
Lastly, that Mephistopheles should at all times appear at his command, in what form or shape soever he would.
Upon these points the spirit answered Doctor Faustus that all this should be granted him and fulfilled and more if he would agree unto him upon certain articles as follows:
First, that Doctor Faustus should give himself to his Lord Lucifer, body and soul.
Secondly, for confirmation of the same, he should make a writing, written in his own blood.
Thirdly, that he would be an enemy to all Christian people.
Fourthly, that he would deny his Christian belief.
Fifthly, that he let not any man change his opinion, if so be any man should go about to dissuade or withdraw him from it.
Further, the spirit promised Faustus to give him certain years to live in health and pleasure, and when such years were expired, that then Faustus should be fetched away, and if he should hold these articles and conditions, that then he should have all whatsoever his heart would wish or desire, and that Faustus should quickly perceive himself to be a spirit in all manner of actions whatsoever. Hereupon Doctor Faustus’ mind was so inflamed that he forgot his soul and promised Mephistopheles to hold all things as he had mentioned them. He thought that the Devil was not so black as they used to paint him nor Hell so hot as the people say.
After Doctor Faustus had made his promise to the Devil, in the morning betimes he called the spirit before him and commanded him that he should always come to him like a friar, after the order of Saint Francis, with a bell in his hand like Saint Anthony, and to ring it once or twice before he appeared, so that he might know of his certain coming. Then Faustus demanded the spirit to tell him his name. The spirit answered: “My name is as thou sayest, Mephistopheles, and I am a prince, but servant to Lucifer, and all the circuit from north to south, I rule under him.” Even at these words was this wicked wretch Faustus inflamed, to hear himself to have gotten so great a power to be his servant. He forgot the Lord his maker and Christ his redeemer and became an enemy unto all mankind, yea, worse than the giants whom the poets feign to climb the hills to make war with the gods. Not unlike that enemy of God and his Christ, who for his pride was cast into Hell, so likewise Faustus forgot that the high climbers catch the greatest falls, and that the sweetest meat requires the sourest sauce.
After a while, Faustus promised Mephistopheles to write and make his obligation with full assurance of the articles in the chapter before rehearsed. A pitiful case, Christian reader, for certainly this letter or obligation was found in his house after his most lamentable end with all the rest of his damnable practices used in his whole life. Therefore, I wish all Christians to take an example by this wicked Faustus, and to be comforted in Christ, contenting themselves with that vocation that it hath pleased God to call them, and not to esteem the vain delights of this life, as did this unhappy Faustus, in giving his soul to the Devil. And to confirm it more assuredly, he took a small penknife and pricked a vein in his left hand and for certainty thereupon was seen in his handwriting these words written, as if they had been written with blood: “O HOMO FUGE,” whereat the spirit vanished, but Faustus continued in his damnable mind, and made his writing as followeth.[4]
I, Johannes Faustus, Doctor, do openly acknowledge with mine own hand, to the greater force and strengthening of this letter, that since I began to study and speculate the course and order of the elements, I have not found through the gift that is given to me from above any such learning or wisdom that can bring me to my desires. And because I find that men are unable to instruct me any further in the matter, now have I, Doctor John Faustus, unto the hellish prince of the east and his messenger Mephistopheles given both body and soul, upon such condition that they shall learn me and fulfill my desire in all things as they have promised and vowed unto me, with due obedience unto me, according unto the articles mentioned between us.
Further, I agree and grant to them by these presents that at the end of twenty-four years next ensuing the date of this present letter, they being expired, and I in the meantime, during the said years be served of them at my will, they accomplishing my desires to the full in all points as we are agreed, that then I give them full power to do with me at their pleasure, to rule, to send, fetch, or carry me or mine, be it either body, soul, flesh, blood, or goods, into their habitation, wherever it is. And I defy God and his Christ, all the host of heaven, and all living creatures that bear the shape of God, yea all that lives; and again I say it, and it shall be so. And to the more strengthening of this writing, I have written it with mine own hand and blood, being in perfect memory, and upon it I subscribe to it with my name and title, calling all the infernal, middle, and supreme powers to witness of this my letter and subscription.
John Faustus, approved in the elements, and the spiritual doctor
Doctor Faustus sitting pensive, having but only one boy with him, suddenly there appeared his spirit Mephistopheles in the likeness of a fiery man, from whom issued most horrible fiery flames, in so much that the boy was afraid, but being hardened by his master, he bade him stand still and he should have no harm. The spirit began to blare as in a singing manner. This pretty sport pleased Doctor Faustus well, but he would not call his spirit into his counting house until he had seen more. Anon was heard a rushing of armed men and trampling of horses. This ceasing, came a kennel of hounds and they chased a great deer in the hall, and there the deer was slain. Faustus took heart, came forth, and looked upon the deer, but presently before him there was a lion and a dragon fighting together, so fiercely that Faustus thought they would have brought down the house, but the dragon overcame the lion, and so they vanished.
After this came in a peacock with a peahen, the cock bristling his tail and turning to the female beat her and so vanished. Afterward followed a furious bull that with a full fierceness ran upon Faustus, but coming near him vanished away. Afterward followed a great old ape. This ape offered Faustus the hand, but he refused, so the ape ran out of the hall again. Then a mist fell upon the hall so that Faustus saw no light, but it lasted not, and so soon as it was gone, there lay before Faustus two great sacks, one full of gold, the other full of silver.
Lastly was heard by Faustus all manner of instruments of music…which so ravished his mind that he thought he had been in another world, forgot both body and soul, in so much that he was minded never to change his opinion concerning that which he had done. Then came Mephistopheles into the hall to Faustus, in apparel like a friar, to whom Faustus said: “Thou hast done me a wonderful pleasure in showing me this pastime. If thou continue as thou hast begun, thou shalt win my heart and soul, yea and have it.” Mephistopheles answered: “This is nothing. I will please thee better, yet that thou mayest know my power and all, ask what thou wilt request of me, that shalt thou have, conditionally hold thy promise and give me thy handwriting.” At which words, the wretch thrust forth his hand, saying: “Hold thee, there hast thou my promise.” Mephistopheles took the writing and willing Faustus to make a copy of it, with that the perverse Faustus being resolute in his damnation, wrote a copy thereof, and gave the Devil the one, and kept in store the other. Thus the spirit and Faustus were agreed and dwelt together.