Annotations for Isaiah

1:1 For the identity of the prophet, see Introduction: Author; chart, Women in the Minor Prophets.

1:2–3 God’s people lacked the sense that even domestic animals possess. The ox and donkey know their masters, but God’s people did not recognize him as their Creator. “Know” indicates intimate, personal relationship. God’s children had rebelled against the One who created and sustained them. “Israel” probably designated Judah, the southern kingdom (v. 3; see chart, The Terminology for the Divided Kingdom). At the conclusion of Solomon’s reign in 931 BC, the kingdom split between the northern ten tribes designated “Israel” and two southern tribes called “Judah.” “Rebelled” suggests deliberate revolt (v. 2).

1:4–9 Isaiah pictured God’s people as weighted down with their sin or “guilt” (lit. “moral crookedness” or “perversion,” v. 4). Again deliberate action is indicated. God’s children had forsaken him instead of turning toward him in repentance. “The Holy One of Israel” was one of Isaiah’s favorite designations for God (v. 4; see chart, The Names of God). This title appears repeatedly throughout the book of Isaiah (Isa 5:19,24; 10:20; 12:6; 30:12; 41:14,20; 43:3; 45:11; 47:4; 49:7; 55:5). As the Great Physician, the Lord diagnosed the nation’s illness (Isa 1:5–8). Yet the people refused to turn to him for healing. The few remaining survivors demonstrated God’s grace (v. 9). For Sodom and Gomorrah, see verses 10–17, note.

1:10–17 True religion has both an inward and an outward dimension. “Rulers of Sodom” and “people of Gomorrah” are figurative designations for the leaders and inhabitants of Judah, indicating that the nation’s sin was as great as that of Sodom and Gomorrah, two cities on which the Lord rained brimstone and fire in Abraham’s time (v. 10; see Ge 19:24). The Lord had rejected the sacrifices and the religious observances of his people (Isa 1:11–15). The sacrifices are described as “meaningless” or “worthless” because the people were not living by the moral and ethical demands of their covenant relationship with the Lord (v. 13). The essence of real religion would be to live in moral and ethical purity and to meet the needs of the helpless in society (vv. 16–17).

1:18–20 Let us settle the matter is a legal term. A play on the verb “to eat” is clearly evident in the Hebrew text (vv. 19–20). If the people obeyed, they would “eat the good things of the land” (v. 19). But if they rebelled, they would be eaten or “devoured” by the sword (v. 20).

1:21–26 This lament over Jerusalem appears in the Qinahmeter, a Hebrew poetic device used to express lamentation (v. 21). The prophet pictured the funeral of Jerusalem (vv. 21–23). The faithful city of God had become an unfaithful harlot. Righteousness and justice had been replaced with murder, impurity and bribery. The inhabitants had failed in moral, ethical and social dimensions. The defenseless members of society, the fatherless and the widows, suffered because of the city’s wickedness (see also Jas 1:27). Because of Jerusalem’s wickedness, God would bring a purifying judgment on her inhabitants (Isa 1:24–26). Then Jerusalem would again be a faithful city (v. 26).

2:1–4 Future peace was envisioned “in the last days” (v. 2). In the messianic age all nations are pictured as supernaturally streaming uphill to Zion, and the law or teaching of the Lord will be the focus in this time of peace (v. 4). Instruments of war (swords, spears) will become instruments of peace (plowshares, pruning hooks). Compare Micah 4:1–3 for a similar prophecy, and note Joel 3:10 for a reversal of part of this prophecy.

2:5–22 The day of the Lord would hold terror for the disobedient. As a general rule, God’s people viewed the day of the Lord as a day of victory for themselves and a day of defeat and judgment for their enemies. The 8th century BC prophet Amos, who probably delivered his message prior to Isaiah’s ministry, reversed that concept, teaching that the day of the Lord would also be a day of judgment for God’s people since they had rebelled against him (see Am 5:18–20). Isaiah called the house of Jacob (Israel) to walk in the light of the Lord because the day of the Lord would hold terror for those who rebelled against him (Isa 2:5).

3:16–4:1 The arrogant women of Jerusalem were judged by Isaiah. Amos had condemned the women of Samaria in the northern kingdom for their greed and oppression of the poor (“cows of Bashan,” Am 4:1–3, note). These prophets realized the importance of the character of women for the well-being of society. The aristocratic women of Jerusalem played a role in the ethical and moral collapse of Judah. They were condemned as vain, immodest, self-indulgent and full of false pride. They engaged in vulgar and shameful behavior. The judgment on these women matched their sin. They were stripped of their fine garments, beauty and jewels (Isa. 18–24). Instead of holding their heads high in pride, they bowed them in shame. Part of their judgment included the fact that much of the male population of Jerusalem would die in battle (Isa 3:25–26). The number “seven” is not literal but represents a large number of women (Isa 4:1; see chart, The Significance of Numbers in Scripture). Childlessness was viewed as a disgrace or “reproach” (Isa 54:4). The women are so desperate for husbands that they are willing to support themselves rather than looking to their husbands for support. Moral decay that reaches the women of society can gain a strong foothold in the home, where the most formative influence on the younger generation is found. When moral corruption reaches the home, the nation is headed for disaster.

4:2–6 Isaiah painted a picture of hope on the backdrop of a situation of gloom and despair. “In that day” points toward a time beyond the coming judgment (v. 2). “Branch” may refer to the Messiah or to the righteous remnant who survive the judgment (v. 2). It may also indicate new growth or the fertility of the land and thus parallel the phrase “the fruit of the land.” This holy (lit. “set apart”) remnant would experience not only God’s forgiveness but also his care and protection (vv. 5–6). The cloud by day and the fire by night are reminders of how the Lord guided and protected his people as they journeyed through the wilderness (v. 5; see Ex 13:21–22; Nu 9:15–23). Genuine security does not depend on national leaders but is God’s gift of his presence to his people (Isa 4:6).

5:1–2 Isaiah’s parable of the vineyard, utilizing the form of a love song, may have been sung by the prophet during one of the harvest festivals. A message that might be rejected if delivered in a sermon might be received in a song. “Loved one” is a reference to the owner of the vineyard (v. 1).

5:3–7 The Lord is the vineyard owner. The vineyard represents God’s people. God had lavished loving care on his people and expected positive results. He was sorely disappointed. A play on words is evident (v. 7). The words for “justice” (Heb. mishpat) and “distress” (Heb. mispak) are similar. The words for “righteousness” (Heb. tsedaqah) and “cries” (Heb. tse’aqah) are also similar. The technical term for such a wordplay is paronomasia. God still looks for justice and righteousness that are exhibited in moral and ethical living from his people.

5:8–25 Woe can carry the idea of a curse, a reproach, or a funeral lament (vv. 8,11,18,20–22). Here the word is used to announce judgment.

5:8–10 This first woe is a condemnation of those greedy for land and wealth. Despite their increased land holdings, production would decrease significantly (vv. 9–10). God’s judgment would strike the object of their greed.

5:11–17 The second woe is upon Judah’s drunken inhabitants, who pursue intoxicating drink from dawn to dark. This intoxication even occurred at religious festivals (v. 12). In their drunken stupor, the inhabitants of Judah were not aware that God was at work in their midst, probably a reference to God’s work of judgment (v. 12). The wise men of Israel condemned excessive drinking (see Pr 20, Alcoholism; 21:17; 23:29–35; 31:4–5). The coming exile of God’s people is predicted. “Death” (Heb. She’ol) refers to the place of the dead (Isa 5:14).

5:18–19 The third woe is directed toward those who mocked God by continuing in their sin while challenging God to prove himself to them. They implied that the Lord no longer had power to act. For “The Holy One of Israel,” see Isaiah 1:4–9, note.

5:20 The fourth woe encompassed those living in such confusion that they had lost the power of moral discernment. They were no longer able to distinguish between good and evil.

5:21 The fifth woe is aimed at the proud and arrogant who have cut themselves off from God, the source of true wisdom (see Jas 1:5; 3:17). Claiming to be wise and totally self-sufficient, they were, in reality, fools (see Ro 1:22).

5:22–25 The sixth woe, like the second, condemned those who became intoxicated through drink and those who perverted justice by accepting bribes (see vv. 11–17). The guilty went free, while the innocent were condemned.

5:24–25 Because Judah had rejected the Lord, he had rejected them. These verses may belong only with the sixth woe or may apply to all six woes. Judgment was inevitable. The “law of the LORD” refers to his revelation of his will (v. 24).

5:26–30 The sovereign Lord would command a foreign power to come against Judah. Assyria, though not identified by name in this passage, was that power (see Isa 10:5–6). The Lord is in control of history and will accomplish his purposes.

6:1–4 The seraphim, who guarded God’s holiness, were fiery creatures with six wings (v. 2). With two wings the seraphim covered their faces, indicating reverence, and with two wings they covered their feet, depicting modesty or humility. With the other two wings the creatures flew, demonstrating their readiness for service. The seraphim focused on the holiness of God (v. 3).

6:5 Humility, not pride, should result from any genuine experience with the Lord. Isaiah viewed sin as uncleanness (v. 5), one of his key teachings about sin. Sin is also rebellion (Isa 1:2). A focus on the tools for speech occurred in this encounter with God, pointing to the nature of Isaiah’s ministry as a spokesman for God.

6:6–7 The fiery seraph (singular form of seraphim) touched the live coal directly to Isaiah’s mouth in a symbolic act of forgiveness. This action suggests that no painless cure exists for sin. Nevertheless, forgiveness came from God, not from the burning coal. Only God can forgive sin.

6:8 Isaiah responded out of gratitude for what the Lord had done for him. Moses made several excuses when God called him because he did not really want to do the task God was calling him to do (see Ex 3–4). Jeremiah claimed that he was only a youth and could not speak well when he heard God call (Jer 1:6). In contrast, Isaiah willingly volunteered to meet the need that the Lord had revealed to him.

6:11–13 Isaiah questioned how long he would be required to continue this difficult ministry. The Lord’s answer indicated that Isaiah was to preach until the destruction came and the northern kingdom of Israel fell under Assyrian domination in 722 BC (vv. 11–12). Although the destruction would be extensive, a remnant would survive (v. 13). Early in Isaiah’s ministry, the teaching about the remnant singularly emphasized judgment. After the judgment, Isaiah’s teaching about the remnant became a message of hope. The Lord’s people would not be destroyed totally. A remnant would be spared.

7:1–9 The Syro-Ephraimitic Crisis occurred around 735 or 734 BC. Syro refers to Syria (Aram), while Ephraimitic refers to the northern kingdom or Israel, sometimes designated Ephraim (see chart, The Terminology for the Divided Kingdom). Ahaz was king of Judah at this time. Rezin, king of Aram, and Pekah, king of Israel, formed a coalition against Assyria. They wanted Judah to join with them and she refused. Rezin and Pekah planned to force Judah to join with them by waging war against Judah. Through his prophet Isaiah, the Lord told Ahaz not to be afraid of Rezin or Pekah (vv. 3–8). In this instance (as was true in every crisis the nation faced), Isaiah counseled the people and leaders to have faith in the Lord. God was in control. A play on words appears in the latter part of verse 9. The Hebrew words translated “stand firm in your faith” and “stand at all” come from the same root word transliterated “amen.” God’s people must place their faith in him, not in political alliances. Although Judah did not join the alliance, Ahaz appealed to Assyria for help, looking to men instead of to the Lord for assistance. Judah suffered as a result of Ahaz’s foolish decision. Damascus, the capital of Aram, fell in 732 BC. Samaria, the capital of the northern kingdom or Israel, fell in 722 BC (see 2Ki 16).

7:10–17 The Lord told Ahaz to request a sign, but he piously refused, implying that asking for a sign would be putting God to a test wrongly. The offer of a sign was linked with a word from God, and Ahaz did not want to hear God’s message. His refusal to ask for a sign indicated his lack of faith in the Lord. The Lord gave Ahaz a sign anyway (vv. 14–16). This sign had a double significance—a special meaning for Isaiah’s time but also a looking toward the future birth of the Messiah.

7:14 Two Hebrew words can be translated virgin. ’Almah (Heb.) is the more general term, designating a young woman of marriageable age. Bethulah (Heb.) is a very specific word for “virgin,” though not used exclusively in this way. However, in all its OT usages, the word can be, though does not have to be, translated in this way. Isaiah’s use of ‘almah indicates a double fulfillment of this prophecy. Isaiah’s son Shear-Jashub was a sign to Ahaz (vv. 3–4) and the child Immanuel (Heb., lit. “God with us”) was a sign to the whole world (vv. 14–16). The emphasis fell on the promise of God’s presence in times of crisis. This promise ultimately was fulfilled in Christ (Mt 1:22–23).

7:18–25 Because of their lack of faith, judgment was coming on Judah. Isaiah described the devastation of the land that would result from Ahaz’s unwise policy. Four times in this brief passage reference is made to “that day” as the Day of Judgment (vv. 18,20,21,23). The enemies of Judah are pictured metaphorically as swarming flies, stinging bees and a hired razor. Disgrace, devastation and despair would accompany Judah’s defeat. The sovereign Lord would be in control of this judgment on his people (vv. 18–20).

8:1–4 Isaiah’s wife is identified as the prophetess (v. 3), though no reason for this designation is specifically given in the text. She may have been thus identified because she was the wife of a prophet or because she, as the mother of children bearing prophetic names, was involved in delivering God’s message. The latter seems less likely since there is no additional textual evidence to affirm that. Isaiah’s son Maher-Shalal-Hash-Baz (lit. “speeding to the spoil” or “hastening to the prey”) functioned as a walking sermon to indicate that judgment was coming. The name sounds a note of judgment. Prophecy was fulfilled in 732 BC when Damascus, the capital of Aram, fell to the Assyrians and in 722 BC when Samaria, the capital of Israel, was conquered by Assyria (v. 4).

8:11–15 God is described as either a holy place or a stone that causes people to stumble (v. 14). To those who reverently feared him, he would be a sanctuary. To those who feared men and rejected the Lord, he would be a stumbling stone, a trap and a snare. Every woman has a choice regarding how she will respond to God’s revelation, but each is responsible for the consequences of her choice. Without faith, no victory is possible.

9:1–5 The lands of Zebulun and Naphtali in northern Galilee had suffered greatly at the hands of the Assyrians who had annexed these two areas around 732 BC. The joy of deliverance is portrayed in imagery of harvest and of military victory in this song of thanksgiving to celebrate God’s action on behalf of his people (vv. 3–5). The “day of Midian” recalled the story of Gideon’s defeat of the Midianites through only a small army of men (v. 4; see Jdg 6–8). In the same way, God would bring a mighty victory to his people despite their weakness and helplessness. Clearly no king of Judah ever fulfilled these hopes.

9:6–7 The messianic King would usher in the ideal age of peace (v. 5). Four titles describe the Messiah (v. 6): “Wonderful, Counselor” (one with great wisdom and leadership) is actually a single designation; “Mighty God” indicates his deity; “Everlasting Father” describes his unceasingly tender, loving relationship with his people; and “Prince of Peace” refers to a rich, harmonious life. Most glorious of all, his reign will never end (v. 7).

9:8–10:4 The stretching out of the Lord’s hand, a refrain repeated throughout this passage, signifies judgment, not compassion (Isa 9:12,7,21; 10:4). Alternate designations for the northern kingdom are suggested: Jacob, Israel, Ephraim, and Samaria (Isa 9:8–9; see chart, The Terminology of the Divided Kingdom). Even though calamity had come upon the northern kingdom, the inhabitants still maintained their stubborn pride and self-sufficiency (Isa 9:9–10). As a result, God would impose even harsher discipline upon his people Israel (Isa 9:12; see Ex 6:6; Jer 21:5). Isaiah sang a funeral hymn over the dying nation (Isa 10:1–4). God’s judgment on Israel had failed to produce a reform movement in Judah.

10:5–19 God used Assyria to judge his people (v. 5). But the prophet clearly revealed that God would judge Assyria also (vv. 12–19). Nineveh, the capital of Assyria, fell in 612 BC. Discipline is an expression of the Lord’s love for his people.

11:1–9 The messianic King is described as a “root” or shoot from the “stem” or stump of Jesse, the father of David from whom the Messiah would come. The coming Messiah is pictured as a messianic King with the Spirit of the Lord resting upon him, possessing wisdom and leadership, and having intimacy with God. “Knowledge” signifies an intimate, personal relationship (v. 2). “Fear of the LORD” describes reverent obedience, not cringing fear (v. 2). The messianic King would delight in doing the Lord’s will (v. 3). He would rule with equity. The social and ethical aspects of his reign were emphasized. The Messiah would bring a time of peace with harmony, even among natural enemies (vv. 6–7).

11:10–16 In that day, a phrase used by the prophets to describe future times, is eschatological language. The “Root of Jesse” is another designation for the Messiah (v. 10). The imagery of the exodus from Egypt is employed to describe the Lord’s future deliverance of his people (vv. 15–16).

12:1–6 The joyful response of the Lord’s people is anticipated in that future day when God would deliver them. After the disciplining judgment of the Lord was past, his people would look to him in praise and trust him as their salvation (v. 2). Yah is the abbreviated form of Yahweh, the Lord’s personal name (v. 2; compare Isa 12:2 with Ex 15:2). The Lord’s praise would be proclaimed joyously among the nations. The Lord’s name represents his character (Isa 12:4). The Lord was praised for his great acts and also for his presence with his people. For “the Holy One of Israel,” see Isaiah 1:4–9, note. Compare the words of this song of praise with Psalm 66:2; 67:2; and 148:13.

13:1–22 God proclaimed judgment on Babylon, a significant foe of God’s people in ancient times (Isa 13–14). The southern kingdom of Judah fell to the Babylonians in 586 BC. In the NT, the term Babylon symbolizes the oppression of Rome (see 1Pe 5:13; Rev 14:8). While Isaiah 1–12 is concerned primarily with judgment on Judah and Jerusalem, chapters 13–23 concern prophecies against various nations. “The day of the LORD” would be a day of destruction (Isa 13:6,9). According to this prophecy, Babylon would become like Sodom and Gomorrah (v. 19), cities on which the Lord rained fire and brimstone in the time of Abraham (Ge 19:24–25). Babylon’s defeat by the Medes was prophesied (Isa 13:17), and it occurred in 539 BC.

14:3–23 Babylon, the capital of the ancient nation of Babylonia, was located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. The fall, or death, of the king of Babylon was celebrated in the form of a mocking song. The reference to “the realm of the dead below” is literally a reference to She’ol (Heb.), the shadowy place of the dead (v. 9). The Lord himself would bring about the fall of Babylon because of the pride of the king of Babylon, who tried to ascend into heaven and be like the Most High (vv. 13,15; see chart, A Portrait of the Adversary). Both in Genesis 11 at the Tower of Babel and in Isaiah 14, pride resulted in the downfall of a people. Isaiah 14:12–21 has been interpreted typologically as a description of the fall of Satan, but the fall of Babylon because of its pride is the primary event in view in the context of this passage. The Lord of Hosts, the God of the armies, guaranteed the defeat of Babylon (vv. 22–23), and the Babylonian Empire fell to the Medes and Persians in 539 BC.

14:24–27 The Lord of Hosts would bring about the fall of Assyria. The northern kingdom completely fell to Assyrian domination in 722 BC. The Assyrians dominated Palestine during the years 745–650 BC. The Lord would also bring his judgment finally on the Assyrians (see Isa 10:5–19, note).

14:28–32 The Philistines, a major threat to Israel from soon after the time of Israel’s initial settlement in the land, inhabited the southwestern coast of Canaan. The five major Philistine cities were Ashdod, Ashkelon, Gaza, Ekron and Gath. Isaiah announced the certain doom of the Philistine revolt against Assyria and bitterly opposed Judah’s participation in this rebellion (see Isa 20:1–6). In each crisis that Judah encountered, Isaiah counseled faith in the Lord rather than dependence on military alliances (see Introduction: Date).

15:1–16:14 This lengthy proclamation against Moab announced the doom of that nation. Moab, whose inhabitants descended from Lot (Ge 19:30–38), was located east of the Salt Sea. Moab opposed the Israelites when they prepared to enter Canaan (Nu 22–24) and was later overrun by Sargon, king of Assyria. Pride and arrogance are associated with Moab’s fall (Isa 16:6–7).

17:1–6 Damascus, the capital of Aram, was located northeast of Israel. Ephraim and Jacob in this passage are alternate designations for Israel, the northern kingdom (see chart, The Terminology for the Divided Kingdom). The message of this passage is associated with the Syro-Ephraimitic Crisis in 734 BC (see Introduction: Date). Just as Aram and Ephraim united themselves and tried to force Judah into coalition with them against Assyria, they were united in receiving condemnation. Aram fell in 732 BC. Ephraim or Israel ultimately fell to the Assyrians in 722 BC.

18:1–7 The designations Egypt and Ethiopia are used almost synonymously in the book of Isaiah. Egypt was ruled by an Ethiopian dynasty during the latter part of the 8th century and the first half of the 7th century BC. Egyptians experienced new hope for the supremacy of their nation under Ethiopian leadership, but that hope ended when the Assyrians conquered Thebes, the capital city of Egypt, in the 7th century BC.

19:1–17 Egypt, the ancient enemy of God’s people, would once again face God’s judgment, just as the armies of Pharaoh met devastation by the power of the Lord at the sea (Ex 14–15). The drying up of the Nile River, the source of Egypt’s life, would seal the destruction of the nation (Isa 19:5–10). The city of Zoan is also known as Tanis or Raamses. Both Zoan and Memphis had served as Egypt’s capital.

19:18–25 The day would come when the Lord would bless Egypt, Assyria and Israel. The inhabitants of Egypt and Assyria would become worshipers of the Lord, the God of Israel, who would be recognized as the God of the whole earth. A tremendous missionary emphasis appears in this passage. The future would bring the fulfillment of the promise made to Abram (Ge 12:1–3). Egypt and Assyria, two of the worst enemies of God’s people, would be partners with Israel in serving as a blessing to the world.

20:1–6 Isaiah employed a symbolic act to emphasize vividly God’s judgment on Egypt and Ethiopia. Isaiah’s action of walking naked and barefoot symbolized a captive being taken into exile. The setting of this passage is the Ashdod Rebellion (714–711 BC). The ruler of Ashdod led the Philistines to revolt against Assyria. Isaiah bitterly opposed any participation on the part of Judah in this rebellion, for in every crisis he counseled Judah to have faith in the Lord instead of trusting in political alliances. Evidently Judah did not become involved in this rebellion (see Isa 14:28–32, note).

21:1–10 Babylon, who led forces against Assyrian power, fell to Cyrus of Persia in 539 BC (see Isa 14:3–23, note). The message to Judah was clear: God’s people should trust in the Lord, not in political or military alliances.

21:11–17 Dumah is probably a reference to Edom as indicated by the further reference to Seir, an alternate designation for Edom (v. 11). The Edomites were descendants of Esau. The oracle or prophecy of an uncertain future is indicated for Edom (vv. 11–12). The Dedanites, the inhabitants of Tema, and the people of Kedar are all apparently associated with the area of Arabia (vv. 13–17).

22:1–25 In the Sennacherib Crisis of 701 BC, the third major crisis in Judah’s history, King Sennacherib of Assyria laid siege to Jerusalem (2Ki 18–19). God’s message through his prophet Isaiah was that the king of Assyria would not enter the city of Jerusalem (2Ki 19:32–34). God did deliver the city (2Ki 19:35). The inhabitants of Jerusalem engaged in boisterous celebration (Isa 22:1–2), to which Isaiah responded with disappointment because God’s people had not learned the lesson God intended for them to learn. They did not repent and change their lifestyles but came to view Jerusalem as indestructible. In this oracle God assured them that they would not escape judgment because of their sin (v. 14).

23:1–18 This prophetic oracle pronounced God’s judgment on Tyre and Sidon, Phoenician seacoast cities located north of Israel. In contrast with the oracles on the nations pronounced by Amos (see Am 1–2), the message of judgment in Isaiah continued even after God announced judgment on his own people (Isa 22). Israel had depended on the Phoenicians, sailors engaging in overseas trade, for international trade.

24:1–27:13 The little apocalypse holds prophecies of both judgment and redemption (Isa 24–27). Disaster would come upon the entire earth, for the everlasting covenant with the Lord had been broken (Isa 24:5; see Ge 9:16). The 8th century BC prophet Hosea also observed that the land mourned because of the broken covenant with the Lord (compare Isa with Hos 4:1–3). The Lord would be praised because of his victory over all his enemies and because of his care for his people (Isa 25–26). The Lord’s people looked forward to restoration after the judgment was past, though such restoration would not be automatic but dependent upon their response in obedience to him (Isa 27).

28:1–13 The drunken leaders of the Lord’s people were condemned. Ephraim is an alternate designation for Israel or the northern kingdom (v. 1). “That wreath” usually is interpreted as the city of Samaria, located on a hill (v. 1). The city of Samaria did fall to the Assyrians in 722 BC. The genuine crown of God’s people is the Lord himself (v. 5). “In that day” is eschatological language looking toward a glorious future time when the Lord of Hosts would be an everlasting crown of glory to the remnant of his people (v. 5). The sinful priests and prophets were no longer capable of guiding the Lord’s people (vv. 7–13). Because the leaders of God’s people had refused to hear the Lord’s message in their own language, the Lord would speak to them in Assyrian (v. 11).

28:14–22 Isaiah addressed the political leaders of Jerusalem, who sought security in foreign alliances, believing their alliances would afford them protection from calamity (v. 15). But judgment did come on the nation. Faith is a key element in Isaiah’s preaching. God’s judgment on his people was predicted (v. 20).

28:23–29 Isaiah employed a parable regarding the farmer who practiced wisdom as he went about his work. The farmer knew when to till the soil and when and where to plant the seed. His cultivating, planting and harvesting were in tune with the seasons or cycle of nature. Surely then God knew the needs of his people at each particular time in their existence. He knew when they needed chastening and when that discipline had accomplished his ultimate purpose—the salvation of his people.

29:1–8 Ariel probably refers to Jerusalem as the “altar of God.” Isaiah described a day of judgment on Jerusalem, the city David captured from the Jebusites and established as his capital (vv. 1–4; see 2Sa 5:6–9). The Lord brought both judgment and deliverance to his people. Zion originally referred to the fortified hill of the city. The temple was built on Mount Zion. Eventually Zion came to be a designation for the city of Jerusalem itself (see chart, The Terminology for the Divided Kingdom).

29:9–16 This prophecy probably was delivered shortly before the Sennacherib Crisis in 701 BC (see Introduction: Date). The people went through all the motions of religion (v. 13); yet their hearts were far from the Lord. Blindness was not the result intended by God but the inevitable result of continuing in the way of disobedience to the Lord. Personal experience with God was missing from the lives of God’s people, a condition compared to a deep sleep (v. 10). Disobedience had made God’s people incapable of understanding his message. God would awaken his people by performing a marvelous work in their midst (v. 14). Judah’s leaders were condemned for their spiritual lethargy and disobedience to the Lord (vv. 10,15–16).

30:1–7 God’s people would experience humiliation and shame because they trusted in Egypt instead of the Lord. Isaiah referred to Egypt as “Rahab-Hem-Shebeth,” or as “Rahab who sits still” or “the Do-Nothing” (v. 7). Rahab refers to a primeval monster or dragon. Egypt’s help was useless.

30:8–17 The rebellious and unfaithful nature of God’s people was to be written down as a testimony for future generations. Isaiah announced the coming judgment using two familiar images. Disaster would come like a crack in a wall, causing a sudden collapse, or like a worthless vessel that a potter smashes into tiny pieces. Bits of broken pottery or shards were used in Isaiah’s time for such purposes as dipping water or writing messages. Isaiah described a vessel so shattered that no fragments could be salvaged, emphasizing that judgment would be both sudden and complete. Trust in God, not dependence on foreign alliances, was the desperate need of God’s people (vv. 15–16). “Horses” may refer to dependence on military cavalry (v. 16). Egypt and Assyria had horses (Isa 31:3). The folly of dependence on foreign alliances and military might was again indicated (Isa 30:15–17).

30:18–26 God’s people were assured of his love for them in the midst of his discipline. Nevertheless, as the all-wise Parent, the Lord knows that his discipline is essential for his children’s spiritual health. The verb “to be gracious” carries the idea of unmerited favor and denotes the attitude of a superior toward those under him (v. 18). “Compassion” is related closely to the Hebrew word for “womb,” denoting the tender compassion that a mother shows to the child of her womb or the brotherly feeling of those born from the same womb (v. 18; see chart, Female Metaphors for God). “In that day” when the disciplining judgment would be past, the Lord would bountifully provide for his people (v. 23, see Isa 11:10–16, note). Agricultural imagery is used to picture the restoration of Zion (Isa 30:19) as a time of abundant provision (vv. 23–24) and as a time of healing (v. 26). The Lord’s judgment or discipline was intended to draw his people closer to himself.

30:27–33 The Lord’s judgment on Assyria takes the form of a theophany (an appearance of God in bodily form). “The Name of the LORD” is another way of expressing the concept of God’s presence and power (v. 27). God’s name represents his character. God’s tender compassion toward his people was emphasized (vv. 18–20), and God’s wrath toward Assyria was revealed (vv. 27–33). The response of the Lord’s people to him, obedience or disobedience, determined which aspect of the Lord’s character—mercy or wrath—would apply in any given situation. The description of the coming of the Lord in these verses is reminiscent of the description of his theophany on Mount Sinai when Israel received the law (see Ex 19:16–18). The reference to the tambourines and harps may indicate the rejoicing of God’s people as the Lord brings judgment on their enemies (Isa 30:32; see chart, Musical Instruments of the Old Testament). Assyria previously had served as the instrument of God’s discipline on his people, and the time had come for Assyria to experience God’s judgment (see Isa 10:5–19, note). “Tophet,” literally a “hearth” or “burning place,” refers to the place where human sacrifices were made to the pagan god Molek (Isa 30:33). In this case, the king of Assyria would be the sacrificial victim.

31:4–9 The imagery of the lion may express the Lord’s commitment to hold Jerusalem in his control regardless of how hard the shepherds (perhaps a reference to foreign kings) tried to snatch Jerusalem away. The Lord’s commitment to the defense of his city may be pictured in the imagery of a mother bird protecting her young (v. 5; see chart, Female Metaphors for God). The Hebrew word translated “pass over” comes from the same root as the noun “Passover” (v. 5; see Ex 12:1–30). Repentance was encouraged on the basis of God’s love and grace, not on the basis of fear and punishment. Returning to the Lord involved casting away false gods (Isa 31:7; see 2:20). Isaiah 31:8–9 acknowledges that God, not men, would defeat the Assyrians. This promise of deliverance found fulfillment when the Lord delivered Jerusalem from the armies of Sennacherib in 701 BC (see Introduction: Date).

32:1–8 The ideal of kingship is set forth. This prophecy was fulfilled in Christ but may also be interpreted as a description of good government, indicating what the nation would be like if its leaders were righteous men. Good leaders practice justice and righteousness and render right judgments. “Righteousness” carries the idea of meeting the demands of a relationship. Righteous leaders wisely fulfill the duties and obligations of their offices. Good leaders protect their people (vv. 1–5). Under the guidance of such leaders, truth can be distinguished from falsehood. The foolish person can be distinguished from the wise and noble individual. The “noble” person is one who operates with no ulterior motive (v. 8), making decisions objectively on the basis of what is best for the whole nation rather than on the basis of personal interests. This quality of nobility or generosity is associated closely with the qualities of justice and righteousness.

32:9–14 A challenge is issued to complacent women. The prophet challenged the women of his day to take heed of the current political situation. God’s women must not be complacent and at ease in familiar surroundings. They must not look to externals as sources of security and trust. The Lord is the only true source of security for his people. Isaiah predicted trouble ahead for God’s people! He foresaw a time of lamentation and mourning. Distress would come upon the happy homes of Jerusalem. This prophecy ultimately reached fulfillment in the destruction of Jerusalem by the Babylonians in 586 BC. The women of Jerusalem had an important role to play in helping their nation find true security in the Lord.

32:15–20 The scene shifts from that of judgment to that of salvation (vv. 9–14). Justice, righteousness and peace are the effects of God’s reign in the lives of his people. No longer would God’s people feel a frantic need to seek a false security in military alliances. Genuine security results from a right relationship with the Lord (v. 18). Normal activities of daily living would be resumed in this time of peace (v. 20). God’s gracious blessing of salvation reversed the destruction resulting from judgment.

33:1–9 The unnamed enemy on whom woe had been pronounced was identified as the Assyrians. The destroyer would now experience destruction. “Be gracious” carries the idea of unmerited favor and denotes the attitude of a superior toward those under him (v. 2). The exalted Lord established Zion (Jerusalem) as the city of justice and righteousness (see Isa 32:1–8, note). “The fear of the LORD” refers not to cringing fear, but to reverent obedience (Isa 33:6).

33:17–24 This eschatological passage looks toward a future time when God’s people will celebrate his majestic reign and enjoy the glories of the new Jerusalem. The terror of foreign domination would be past (vv. 18–19). Jerusalem would become the immovable and secure dwelling place of the righteous (v. 20). The Lord would be recognized as the great Judge, Lawgiver and King (v. 22). In that future day, happiness would abound as sickness is healed and sin is forgiven, reflecting the close association between sin and sickness in Hebrew thought (v. 24).

34:1–4 The entire earth was called to witness the fury of the Lord. The slain bodies of God’s enemies would not receive burial, a sign of great tragedy or disrespect from the Hebrew perspective. This judgment is described as apocalyptic in nature because it is connected with the end of world history (v. 4; see Zec, Introduction: Literary Characteristics). The sovereignty of the Lord is emphasized.

34:5–17 Edom is singled out for judgment because of that nation’s intense hatred of God’s people. Edom, located southeast of Judah, is associated with Esau (see Ge 36:1). Constant hostility existed between God’s people and Edom during the time of the kings. The Edomites assisted the Babylonians in their destruction of Jerusalem in 586 BC. Amos condemned the Edomites for their hostility toward God’s people (Am 1:11–12), and the theme of Obadiah is the destruction of Edom.

35:1–10 This proclamation of new life from the Lord provides the background for the commission given to the prophet (vv. 3–4). This new message of hope would strengthen the weak and fearful. God would defeat his people’s enemies and bring his people salvation (v. 4). The desert symbolizes life without God. God’s highway would provide a safe and joyful way for his people to journey to Zion (vv. 8–10), signifying the everlasting joy and security he would bring to the lives of his people. This chapter shares themes common to Isaiah 40–66 such as the joy of God’s redeemed people, the transformation of the desert, the preparation of the highway, and the message of comfort and hope.

36:1–37:38 Sennacherib ascended the throne in 705 BC after the death of his father Sargon II, king of Assyria. A rebellion involving the entire Assyrian Empire occurred early in Sennacherib’s reign. Hezekiah, king of Judah, joined the revolt. Sennacherib and his army marched westward to put down the rebellion. Isaiah prophesied that the Assyrian king would return to his own land and die by the sword, and he did (Isa 37:37–38). Jerusalem was spared for the sake of the Lord’s name or reputation and also for the sake of the Lord’s servant David.

36:1–39:8 A historical interlude functions as a bridge between Isaiah 35 and 40 (see 2Ki 18:13–20:19; 2Ch 32). Chapters 36–39 of Isaiah deal with events surrounding the illness of Hezekiah and the Sennacherib Crisis in 701 BC (see Introduction: Date).

38:1–22 King Hezekiah went to the Lord in prayer after Isaiah delivered the news of his impending death. As a wise king, Hezekiah took both personal and national crises to the Lord (see Isa 37:14–20). The Lord, who alone has power over life and death, added 15 years to Hezekiah’s life. Hezekiah offered a prayer of thanksgiving for healing (Isa 38:10–20). Hezekiah not only prayed in the difficult times of life, but he also offered praise for the Lord’s deliverance and salvation. Insight into the Hebrew concept of death is provided (v. 18). Those in She’ol lived a shadowy kind of existence, lacking hope and no longer praising God.

39:1–8 After Hezekiah’s recovery, he trusted in human resources instead of putting his faith in the Lord. Isaiah prophesied the coming exile in Babylon. Hezekiah’s response reflects his selfish attitude. He did not seem too concerned about the coming judgment as long as it did not affect him personally (v. 8). The reference to Babylon in this chapter provides a link with the remainder of the book of Isaiah.

40:1–11 The Lord had heard the cries of his people in exile (cf. Ex 2:23–25). Through his prophet, he delivered a message of comfort to them regarding their return from captivity. Captivity and exile had resulted from the sins of God’s people (Isa 40:2). “Speak tenderly to Jerusalem” (lit. “speak upon the heart of Jerusalem”) carries the picture of bringing encouragement, reassurance and tender compassion to the people of Jerusalem (v. 2). “All people” indicates that through his act of deliverance, God would reveal himself to all peoples, not just to his own (v. 5). For “glory” (lit. “to be heavy” or “to be weighty”), see Psalm 19:1, note. Isaiah 40:8 underlines the necessity of focusing on the dependability of God’s Word, not on the unreliability of mankind. The Lord is revealed as One who is both strong and tender (vv. 10–11). The essence of comfort for the Lord’s people would be God’s presence in their midst (v. 9).

40:12–26 The prophet proclaimed the majesty of the Lord over the idols worshiped by other nations. The great Creator God, the Lord, intimately knows the universe he has created (v. 12). No one instructs the Lord; he is the all-knowing God (vv. 13–14). Satire is evident in the suggestion that one could even think of comparing the great Creator God to an image made out of a tree, itself part of God’s creative handiwork (vv. 18–20). The great Creator is separate from his creation (v. 22). “Created” (Heb. bara’), appearing a number of times in Isaiah 40–66, suggests the idea of creation out of nothing because it is always used with God as subject. Bara’ refers to something only God can do.

40:27–31 The Lord’s people, referred to as Jacob and as Israel, felt that he had forgotten them. They were discouraged and afraid because their concept of God was too small. The prophet reminded them of the greatness of the Lord. The greatest human strength is insufficient to meet the challenges of life. The powerful Creator God gives power (v. 29). “Renew” actually means “to exchange.” Those who wait or depend on the Lord will exchange their weakness for God’s strength. Neither soaring with wings as eagles nor running is pictured as the climax; rather the sought-after prize of walking is presented as the mainstay of Christian experience. Serving God in the mountaintop experiences of life when his people can soar with him is not so difficult. The most difficult times of service can be in the monotonous, everyday grind of life when God’s people feel like they are spinning their wheels and going nowhere. The Lord’s children can exchange their weaknesses for God’s strength in the daily walk of life.

41:1–7 A court scene is envisioned, and legal arguments are employed to demonstrate the incomparable nature of the Lord over the gods of the other nations. The “one from the east” is Cyrus, king of Persia, who began to rule over Babylon in 539 BC (v. 2). The edict or decree of Cyrus allowed captives to return to their homelands (see Ezr 1:1–4). The Lord in his sovereignty permitted Cyrus to rule. The Lord has always been in control of history. Fear fell on the nations when they heard of the success of Cyrus (Isa 41:5–7). A satire on the folly of idol worship appears in these verses as, in panic, the nations try to make more powerful gods.

41:8–20 Israel is identified as the Lord’s servant (v. 8), providing reassurance to the Lord’s people that he has not given up on them or abandoned them. The Lord’s election of his people still stands (Ex 19:1–6). To be God’s servant means to belong to the Lord and to give allegiance only to him. The Lord’s servant has no reason to fear, for the Lord provides security and protection for his own (Isa 41:10,13–14). Jacob is an alternate designation for the nation Israel (see chart, Terminology for the People of God). The patriarch Jacob received the name Israel after he wrestled with the Man of God at Peniel (see Ge 32:22–32). For “the Holy One of Israel,” see Isaiah 1:4–9, note.

41:21–29 Again in a courtroom scene the Lord challenged the false gods of the nations to prove whether they could control history. The silence of the idols indicated their worthlessness and lack of power. In contrast, the Lord had raised up Cyrus as ruler and had directed world history.

42:1–4 A series of servant songs or poems have been identified in Isaiah 40–66 (Isa 42:1–4 or 42:1–9; 49:1–6; 50:4–9; 52:13–53:12). Who is the servant of these passages? The Lord put his Spirit upon his servant to equip him for ministry (Isa 42:1–4). His servant had the mission of bringing justice to the Gentiles, to all the earth. The servant was to accomplish the Lord’s purpose in a gentle and patient manner (vv. 2–3). In context, some identify the servant described in this passage as the Lord’s people Israel (see Isa 41:8), who were intended to be a light to the nations (Isa 42:6). The Lord called Abram or Abraham in order that he might bless all the families of the earth through him (Ge 12:1–3). The Lord’s purpose from the beginning was for his people to function as instruments of his salvation (see Ex 19:1–6). Others see the servant as an individual who would bring salvation to Israel. The NT seems to apply the messianic “servant” passages to Jesus (see Mt 12:17–20). In any case, the servant mission given to Israel was perfectly fulfilled in Jesus. The identification of the servant with Israel would certainly point to ultimate fulfillment in Jesus Christ.

42:14–17 God’s intervention on behalf of his people will have a negative effect on idol worshipers (vv. 14–17). God presented himself using the metaphor of a pregnant woman in labor. The Hebrew text suggests a breathless and convulsive condition (v. 14; see chart, Female Metaphors for God). The “blind” are the Lord’s people (v. 16). They are designated as blind because they felt that their future was hopeless. Though they were blind, the Lord would lead them along the right paths.

42:18–25 The Lord’s people had not been sensitive to his mission for them. They had forsaken his law. They believed the Lord had chosen them for privilege and were blind to the responsibility that accompanied the Lord’s choice of the nation. The people blamed the Lord for their defeat and captivity, though the prophet clearly indicated that defeat occurred because of the people’s sin. The Lord was neither blind nor deaf to his servant; rather the Lord’s servant was blind and deaf to him.

43:1–7 Jacob is an alternate designation for Israel (v. 1; see chart, The Terminology for the People of God). Comforting and encouraging words are provided for the Lord’s people. Israel belonged to God by right of creation, redemption and naming (v. 1). Just as the Lord brought the Hebrew slaves safely through the waters of the sea (Ex 14:1–31), so he would continue to bring his people “through” when they encountered troubled times (Isa 43:2). The Lord named his people and they are his (v. 1). The Hebrew concept of naming implies having power or control over that which is named (see Isa 45, Naming of Children). For “the Holy One of Israel,” see Isaiah 1:4–9, note.

43:8–13 The prophet turned to the courtroom scene again to demonstrate the greatness of the Lord. The Lord’s people are called as witnesses to the fact that there is no other like the Lord.

43:22–28 The Lord condemned his people for their unfaithfulness. The designation “Jacob” may be a reminder that they were imitating the character of their deceitful ancestor Jacob, whose name was later changed to Israel (v. 22). The Lord’s requirements for his people were not overly demanding; yet the people failed to meet those basic requirements. Instead they burdened the Lord with their sins (v. 24). The people had come to view the Lord as their servant rather than as their Lord. The Lord had not failed in the covenant relationship with Israel; his people had failed him. The Lord repeatedly had forgiven their sins (v. 25). “Transgressions” also can be translated “rebellion” (v. 25). The Lord’s people had deliberately rebelled against him.

44:1–5 God’s people had sinned from the beginning of their existence (see Isa 43:27), yet the people of Israel had also remained the Lord’s chosen instrument from the beginning of their existence (Isa 44:2). Jeshurun (Heb., lit. “upright”) is a positive title the Lord gave his people, indicating his ideal for his own (v. 2). Note the contrast in verse 2 between the designations “Jacob” (lit. “trickster”) and “Jeshurun” (lit. “upright one”). As water brings life to dry ground, so the Lord’s Spirit will bring new life to his people. Verse 5 may be a reference to the increase of the Lord’s people through proselytizing among the nations.

44:9–20 The folly of worshiping idols is described with sarcasm. The Hebrew word “nothing” is the same word used to describe the emptiness or formlessness of the world in the beginning (v. 9; see Ge 1:2). The prophet indicated that those who practice idol worship are empty-headed. The satire reaches its height when the craftsman cuts down a tree and uses part of it to build a fire to cook his meal and warm himself (Isa 44:15–17). With the rest of the wood the craftsman makes an idol before which he bows and cries for deliverance! Such a person is deluded and deceived, and he “feeds on ashes” (v. 20).

45:1–13 The Lord chose Cyrus, king of Persia, to be his instrument in accomplishing his purposes, even though Cyrus did not acknowledge the Lord (vv. 4–5). The Hebrew practice was to anoint with oil those who assumed positions of leadership (v. 1). The right hand is the hand of strength or power (v. 1).

46:1–13 The prophet drew a startling contrast between the Lord and idols. Bel and Nebo were Babylonian gods (v. 1). When the Persians conquered Babylon, the fleeing people loaded their idols on their already overburdened beasts. The idols could not deliver their worshipers; instead they provided an additional burden for those trying to escape their captors. What a mighty contrast to the Lord of Israel! His people do not carry him; rather, he carries them (vv. 3–4). He had carried the people of Israel since their birth as a nation (see Ex 19:4). He would continue to carry them to old age.

47:1–15 The prophet predicted the downfall of Babylon. God used Babylon to discipline his people. But Persia would conquer wicked Babylon, and the Lord would rescue his people. Babylon, in its arrogance, made a claim for itself that belonged only to the Lord (see vv. 8,10; see Isa 45:14,18). Babylon became the symbol of evil in Scripture (see Rev 17–18). For “the Holy One of Israel,” see Isaiah 1:4–9, note.

48:1–8 The Lord’s people, alternately referred to as Jacob, Israel and Judah, are described as obstinate, with neck muscles of iron, or stubborn, idol worshipers, deaf, treacherous and rebellious (vv. 1,4–5,8). “Rebel from birth” refers to one who transgresses against the Lord (v. 8). The Lord’s people gave the appearance of being religious (vv. 1–2), but they did not obey the Lord’s commands. They closed their ears to the words of the Lord (v. 8). Genuine faith in the Lord, as the 8th century BC prophets repeatedly emphasized, makes a difference in the way a person lives every day.

49:1–6 In the second servant passage, a tension exists regarding the identity of the servant (see Isa 42:1–4, note). The servant himself speaks, testifying how the Lord had called him and prepared him for his task (Isa 49:1–2). The Lord hid his servant (v. 2), indicating the Lord’s care and protection. In verse 3 the servant is called “Israel.” The Lord did indeed choose Israel to be his instrument in making himself known to the entire world. Verse 4 may reflect the complaint of the servant (or the people of Israel) that their mission was too great and they were too weak. Ultimately, this Servant is the Lord himself, and certainly his earthly ministry in many ways was disappointing to him since the fruit borne was small in light of the sacrifice made. Yet he willingly left the results in the Father’s hand. Verses 5 and 6 increase the tension in this passage regarding the identity of the servant. If the servant is identified as Israel (v. 3), the servant here is said to have a mission to bring Jacob or Israel back to the Lord (vv. 5–6). The servant could be a remnant or a part of Israel. Verse 6 further extends the mission of this servant as overwhelming and far beyond any human agent. The servant is to bring Israel back to the Lord and bring the Lord’s salvation to the Gentiles, not only as the bearer of that salvation but as the Savior (v. 6). For this reason, it seems more prudent to identify the Servant as none other than Jesus Christ (see Jn 8:12).

49:7–26 The prophet encouraged the Lord’s people. For “the Holy One of Israel,” see Isaiah 1:4–9, note. In the allusion to a mother and the child of her womb, the Lord’s loving concern for his people goes even beyond that of the most devoted mother (Isa 49:15; see chart, Female Metaphors for God).

50:1–3 That the Lord’s people suffered defeat was not a sign that he had forgotten them. The people had brought calamity upon themselves by their sins. He had not divorced them; he had not sold them into slavery.

50:4–9 In the third servant passage, the servant had an encouraging word from the Lord for those around him (v. 4; see Isa 42:1–4; 49:1–6, notes). The servant suffered persecution willingly and without complaint (Isa 50:6). The servant expressed faith that the Lord would help him and vindicate him (vv. 7–9). The servant’s fellowship with the Lord brought him confidence in the most difficult situations. Again Jesus in his perfect obedience to the Father fit the description of this servant.

52:1–12 A recollection of the oppression the Lord’s people had experienced in Egypt and at the hands of the Assyrians is presented (v. 4). The northern kingdom fell completely to Assyrian domination in 722 BC and ceased to exist as a nation. The Lord would act on behalf of his people out of concern for his name (character or reputation, vv. 5–6). A watchman’s song describes the joy of Jerusalem in the Lord’s redemption and deliverance of his people (vv. 7–10). Paul quoted verse 7 in describing those who preach the gospel of Christ (Ro 10:15). As he led his people out of captivity, the Lord would go before them and also be their rear guard.

52:13–53:12 The final servant song or poem consists of five stanzas (Isa 52:13–15; 53:1–3,4–6,7–9,10–12; see also Isa 42:1–4, note). A vivid picture of the nature and work of the servant is presented. Clearly the picture portrayed reached fulfillment in the life and work of Jesus, the Messiah.

52:13–15 The servant’s changed status from humiliation to exaltation is noted in the first stanza (see chart, Jesus’ Pilgrimage). The people were astonished at the servant because his suffering had left him disfigured. “Sprinkle” is associated with the priestly function of cleansing from sin. An alternate reading for “sprinkle” is “startle.” In this case, the meaning may be that the servant would startle the nations by his sudden rise from humiliation to exaltation.

53:1–3 The servant’s humble beginning made his exaltation difficult to believe. He had no outward splendor to attract others to himself.

53:4–6 The servant was described as carrying the griefs and sorrows of those who looked on him as rejected by God in this third stanza of the poem. The Hebrew or Jewish people observed a close, sometimes extreme, relationship between sin and suffering. Any suffering individual was viewed as having committed a specific sin that resulted in his sickness or suffering (see Jn 9:1–3; Job, Introduction: Purpose). This servant of Isaiah 53 suffered not for any wrong that he had done, but vicariously for the sake of others. “Iniquity” (lit. “twistedness” or “moral crookedness”) is a reference to sin as the universal condition of the human race.

53:10–12 The servant’s death did not result in defeat but victory. The one who died would live again. The servant successfully completed his mission (v. 11). He would possess the spoils of victory after the battle had been won (v. 12). Truly none other than Jesus of Nazareth perfectly fulfilled these stanzas of this servant song.

54:1–17 The Lord’s redemption of his people was celebrated. Verses 1–3 focus on how the multiplication of the Lord’s people had been like a widow without children, but the Lord would again multiply his people as he promised Abraham (vv. 1–3; Ge 15:5). Redeemed Israel is compared to an unfaithful wife who will be restored to her husband, the Lord. The imagery in this passage is similar to that found in the book of Hosea. The Lord will show everlasting kindness and mercy on his people (Isa 54:8). “Kindness” refers to covenant love or loyalty (see Ps 5:7–12, note). “I will have compassion” is related closely to the Hebrew word for “womb” (see chart, Female Metaphors for God). The Lord’s mercy is like the tender compassion a mother shows toward the child of her womb. God is making a new beginning with his people so startling that it can only be compared to the new beginning and the new covenant he made with Noah (Isa 54:9–10).

55:1–5 The invitation in this passage is extended to everyone. “Come,” “buy” and “eat” are imperatives which express the specific invitation. The language employed is that of the marketplace or street vendor. Due to the scarcity of water, its vendors were common in the Near East. In these verses, the call is issued by the Lord himself. Not only does he offer water, the basic necessity of life, but he also offers all that brings overwhelming satisfaction or abundance to life. Best of all, the invitation is extended to those who have no money. The Lord freely offers everything necessary to give his people an abundant life (cf. Jn 10:10). The vendors required money, but their products did not satisfy. “Listen” carries the idea of obedience. If the people would respond to him in obedience, they would enjoy the good life.

55:10–13 God’s word never fails to accomplish his purpose. The Hebrews viewed the spoken word as having a power of its own once it left the mouth of the speaker. Like the arrow shot from the bow, the spoken word could not be recalled. God remains faithful to his word. His word restores life to his people as surely as the rain coming down from the heavens brings new life to the earth.

56:1–8 The Lord’s salvation is available to all, including those with physical disabilities (as a eunuch) and those from various racial or ethnic backgrounds (as the son of the foreigner). The Lord gathers to himself all who respond to him in faith and obedience. His people likewise are to demonstrate attitudes of inclusiveness rather than exclusiveness. The Lord’s house is to be a house of prayer for all peoples (v. 7). Jesus quoted this verse when he cleansed the temple (see Mt 21:13; Lk 19:46).

56:9–12 The prophet harshly condemned the leaders of God’s people. These irresponsible leaders are portrayed as beasts preying on the people, as blind watchmen, and as lazy, greedy and drunken. The Lord’s people needed protection from their own leaders! Irresponsible leaders are accountable to the Lord for their failure to render service.

57:14–21 The Lord tempered his judgment with mercy. Those who respond to the Lord with a contrite heart and humble spirit would experience the blessing of his presence (v. 15; see Mt 5:3–5). Paul quoted Isaiah 57:19 in his reference to the work of Christ (Eph 2:17). The repetition of the word “peace,” the Lord’s gift to those who respond to him in faith, indicated complete peace or perfect peace (Isa 57:19). The wicked, in contrast, cannot experience peace (vv. 20–21).

58:1–12 Fasting in Biblical times was a spontaneous expression of grief at the time of death or great trouble (see Mt 6:16–18, note). Evidence indicates that fasting also accompanied repentance (see Jnh 3:6–9). In the time of the NT, the Pharisees observed fasting as a ritual. The Lord told the prophet to declare to his people their transgressions or rebellion against the Lord (Isa 58:1). The people practiced religious observances faithfully (v. 2). They had fasted, but the Lord did not seem to notice. The prophet announced several reasons why the Lord had not responded to their fasting:

1) They sought their own pleasure in fasting (v. 3).

2) They oppressed their slaves in fasting (v. 3).

3) They quarreled and fought in their fasting (v. 4).

Their fasting did not draw them closer to the Lord. The Lord wanted the kind of fast that seeks to do good to others (vv. 6–7). He wanted his people to relieve the oppressed, to share their food with the hungry, and to provide housing for the poor and clothing for the naked. Genuine faith is focused outward in ministry and service.

58:13–14 Obedience brought blessing. After the destruction of the temple, Sabbath observance became an identifying mark of the Lord’s people (see chart, The Principle of the Sabbath).

59:1–8 God’s people were doubting his goodness and power in their experience of distress. The prophet put the situation in its proper perspective. The Lord had not changed. He remained the all-powerful God. Instead the iniquities and sins of the people had separated them from God. “Iniquities” indicated moral crookedness or perversion (v. 2). “Sins” referred to missing the mark (v. 2). The people were walking in crooked ways and were missing the Lord’s target or mark for their lives.

59:9–15 The people’s disobedience brought misery and disillusionment. “Offenses” indicates rebellion (v. 12). For “sins” and “iniquities,” see verses 1–8, note. The threefold reference to sin signifies completeness. Complete confession is essential in order to experience forgiveness.

59:16–21 The Lord responded to the prayer of confession. He forgives sin, bringing his salvation. Human failure cannot defeat the purposes of God. God faithfully maintained his covenant with his people (v. 21).

60:1–22 The Lord’s people are commanded to reflect the light that the Lord has shone upon them. They are to be his witnesses to all nations. The initial command is not to go, but rather first to reflect clearly the light of God’s glory. The Lord is the everlasting light of his people (v. 19). Compare this chapter with Revelation 21. For “the Holy One of Israel,” see Isaiah 1:4–9, note.

61:1–3 Some have identified these verses as a fifth servant song or poem (see Isa 42:1–4, note). Jesus read part of this passage in the synagogue at Nazareth and interpreted it as a reference to himself (Lk 4:16–21). The Lord’s salvation will bring a reversal in the fortunes of his people. Joy will replace mourning. Liberty will take the place of bondage. This passage also reveals the positive nature of the ministry the Lord wants his people to perform.

61:4–11 The ruined cities will be rebuilt in the time of salvation (v. 4). The Lord’s people will serve as priests to all nations (v. 6). The reference to a double portion in verse 7 is reminiscent of Isaiah 40:2 where comfort is announced to the Lord’s people because they have received double for all their sins. The concept of the double portion also suggests Israel’s role as the firstborn among the nations. The firstborn son received a double portion of the inheritance (see Dt 21:17). The Lord will make an everlasting covenant with his people. Their descendants will be recognized among the nations as the people whom the Lord has blessed. A hymn of rejoicing describes their joy as being like the joy at a wedding feast (Isa 61:10–11).

62:1–12 The Lord would rejoice over his people as a bridegroom rejoices over his bride. The Lord would change their name, signifying that his people belong to him. A play on words in the Hebrew illustrates a change of character through the change of a name (v. 4). They would no longer be called “Deserted” (Heb. Azubah, the name of Jehoshaphat’s mother, 1Ki 22:42) or their land “Desolate” (Heb. shemamah), but they would be called Hephzibah (Heb., lit. “My Delight Is in Her,” the name of Manasseh’s mother, 2Ki 21:1) and their land Beulah (Heb., lit. “Married”). The negative is rejected for the positive. Though it is not possible to be married to a land, marriage is a strong figure to portray loyalty between the people and land. Imagery of the husband-wife relationship between the Lord and his people also appears in the book of Hosea (Hos 1:2; 2:2). See also Revelation 21:2,9 where the Lord’s people are pictured as his bride. The Lord had established watchmen to protect his people (Isa 62:6–7). Foreigners would no longer confiscate his people’s harvest (vv. 8–9). The people were encouraged to prepare a highway for the Lord who would bring salvation to his people (vv. 10–12; see Isa 40:3).

62:5 The analogy of love between a young man and a virgin illustrates the relationship between the Lord and Israel. Ba’al (Heb.) can be translated “marry” or “take possession of.” Sons do not marry mothers. However, the secondary meaning “possess” does fit the context with the understanding that the young man would marry in the sense of possessing the virgin. Israel would then no longer be desolate or abandoned but possessed and filled by her spiritual sons. The Lord would rejoice in Zion just as a bridegroom would rejoice in his bride.

63:1–6 The prophet observed a lone figure with red-stained garments coming from Edom, which represented the enemies of God’s people. That figure was the Lord, who alone and in his own strength defeated the enemy of his people. He is able to fulfill all his promises.

63:7–14 This prayer reviewed the Lord’s goodness to his people in history, although they rebelled against him, and provided the basis for the prophet’s intercession for the people. The prophet focused upon the great goodness, compassion and kindnesses of the Lord (v. 7). The term “kindnesses” (Heb. chesed) refers to the Lord’s covenant loyalty or steadfast love to his people. “Compassion” comes from the same Hebrew root as the word “womb” (v. 7; see chart, Female Metaphors of God). Thus “compassion” may indicate the compassion a mother shows to the child of her womb or the brotherly feeling of those born from the same womb. The Lord shared the suffering of his people in Egypt and sent his angel to rescue them (vv. 8–9; see Ex 3:7–10; 14:19). Like a parent the Lord cared for his people and carried them in their helplessness. Yet his people responded in rebellion, and the Lord became his people’s enemy (Isa 63:10).

63:15–64:12 The people cried out to him for help. They longed for him to reveal himself to them. They acknowledged him as their compassionate Father and their everlasting Redeemer. According to the Hebrew concept of the Lord’s sovereignty, no secondary causes existed, and thus everything that happened was due to God’s will. The Lord had let his people suffer the consequences of their sin, which had separated them from the presence of the Lord (Isa 64:7). The Lord is identified as both Father and potter, indicating his role as both Father and Creator (Isa 63:8; see Jer 18:6).

65:1–16 The Lord is the righteous Judge. He responded to the prayer of his people. He would not destroy all his people (vv. 8–16). The faithful servants would receive the Lord’s blessing, while the unfaithful would experience his judgment. The blessings on the righteous are contrasted with the curses on the wicked (vv. 13–15; see Lk 6:20–26). The promises the Lord made to the patriarch Abraham would be fulfilled in the lives of the faithful remnant (Isa 65:16; see Ge 12:1–3).

65:17–25 The faithful remnant will enjoy the Lord’s new creation. “Create” (Heb. bara’) refers to activity only God can perform. Joy, not sorrow, will characterize the lives of the Lord’s people (vv. 18–19). The righteous will live to a full old age (v. 20). Their work will not be in vain (contrast vv. 21–23 with Zep 1:13). The Lord will answer the prayers of his people (Isa 65:24). Finally, peace among enemies in the natural order will occur in the glorious future of the Lord’s people (v. 25; see Isa 11:6–9).

66:1–4 The internal dimension of faith is what matters. The Lord hears those who cry to him with a humble and contrite heart. Without the proper inner attitude, sacrifices and other ritual observances are worthless (see Ps 51:16–17). Those whom the Lord blesses are those who respond in obedience to him. Those who choose against the Lord reap the evil consequences of their choices (Isa 66:3–4).

66:5–6 The Lord will bring judgment on his enemies. These verses assume a split among the Lord’s people. The faithful believers were being cast out. The terminology “exclude” later came to mean excommunication from the synagogue (see Jn 9:34–35). The Lord will judge the unfaithful among his people.

66:17–24 All nations would see and experience the glory of the Lord. All nations would worship him. Even foreigners would serve the Lord (v. 21). This passage begins and ends with a pronouncement of judgment (vv. 17,24). In between these verses lies a glorious picture of salvation. The new creation of God is revealed (vv. 22–23). These verses challenge the Lord’s children in every age to reach out into all the world with the Good News of the gospel (Mt 28:18–20).