Annotations for Romans

1:1–4 Paul introduced himself as a servant, a slave of his master Jesus Christ. Such a sense of utter devotion springs from the great love Christ had demonstrated. Paul (Gk. paulos, lit. “small” or “little”) was called or set apart by God to be an apostle, one who is sent by authority with a mission.

1:7 Holy people demonstrate their unique relationship to Christ by setting themselves apart from a worldly lifestyle and giving themselves wholly to the Lord. God calls believers to this set apart lifestyle in which they increasingly demonstrate outwardly the inward transformation of the heart (Ro 12:1–2). Paul typically employed this greeting (Ro 1:5; 1Co 1:3; 2Co 1:2; Gal 1:3; Eph 1:2). “Peace” refers to the sense of wholeness and well-being that comes through a right relationship with God. The Hebrews used “peace” (shalom) as a greeting. The Greeks often greeted one another with a word similar to “grace” but meaning “joy.” Paul employed a distinctive combination of these familiar salutations.

1:11 A spiritual gift comes from and is given by the Holy Spirit and has the effect of edifying the body (see chart, The Work of the Holy Spirit). Paul listed seven of the spiritual gifts (Ro 12:6–8; see chart, Spiritual Gifts of Women in the Bible).

1:14 The Greeks were those who accepted Hellenistic culture and spoke the Greek language. The non-Greeks were viewed as uncultured.

1:16–17 The righteousness of God is not simply a moral attribute. God’s righteousness is revealed in his work of salvation. Paul stressed the importance of living by faith, the heart of Paul’s theme in his letter to the Romans (see Hab 2:4; Gal 3:11; Heb 10:38).

1:20 God has revealed himself not only in history but also in the beauty and order of his created world (see Ps 19:1–6) thereby removing any excuse for ignorance of himself. Although sin distorts, it does not remove the possibility of perceiving God in nature (see Ac 14:15).

1:24–25 God’s wrath involves abandoning individuals to the consequences of their wrong choices. God’s mercy is operating even in his wrath as he seeks to draw them back to himself.

1:26–27 Homosexuality was practiced commonly in the pagan world of Paul’s day. Paul condemned this practice as contrary to God’s design (see Lev 18, Homosexuality).

1:28 The individual with a depraved or degenerate mind no longer can perceive God and ultimately will reap spiritual death as the consequence of his sin (v. 32; see Ro 6:23).

2:4 The contemptible attitude of the Jews stood in stark contrast to the goodness of God (v. 5). God had shown abundant kindness and patience despite the nation’s persistent rebellion and rejection of his will. Judgment had only been postponed, not overlooked (Am 3:1–2). God’s kindness gives opportunity for repentance, but the Jews interpreted it as a sign of immunity from judgment (Ac 3:19; 2Pe 3:9).

2:5–10 Without the exercise of wrath against evil, God would be an unrighteous and immoral God (see 2Ch 19, Attributes of God). Those who continually sin make themselves the object of God’s “wrath” (Gk. orgē, meaning “the eternal divine disposition of settled anger”). Paul anticipated a future day when God would righteously judge the world. God’s judgment includes everyone; yet it is individually assigned (Ro 2:6; 2Co 5:10). The judgment described here, based on deeds, is applied to two groups: the righteous (Ro 2:7,10) and the wicked (vv. 8–9). For Paul, as well as for James, faith must issue in deeds (see Ro 1:17; Jas 2:17).

2:12–15 God’s justice demands from both Jew and Gentile absolute righteousness, which can never be obtained through inadequate human efforts to keep the law. Good works do not bring salvation; salvation brings good works. All have received some degree of God’s revelation and thus stand responsible (Ro 1:20–21).

2:17–24 The Jews regarded themselves as better than the Gentiles because they possessed the law; yet they did not keep the law. The hypocrisy and contradiction between Jewish belief and behavior caused the Gentiles to blaspheme God’s name. The Gentiles concluded that the God of a people who behaved in such fashion could not be a worthy God (see Isa 52:5).

2:25–29 Circumcision, regarded as the sign of the covenant, had marked the Jewish male since the time of Abram (see Ge 17, Circumcision). Many Jews in Paul’s time believed the physical circumcision of the body insured membership in God’s family (see Ac 15:1–29).

2:29 The designation Jew is derived from Judah (Heb, lit. “praise”; see Ge 29:35), one of Jacob’s sons and one of the 12 tribes of Israel. Paul utilized a wordplay in this verse to emphasize that the true Jew is one who inwardly depends on God and submits to him, not one who relies on external appearance and the approval of men.

3:1–2 Paul acknowledged the benefits of belonging to the Jewish nation—possession of the oracles of God, through which God revealed himself. This privilege carried with it a heavy responsibility.

3:10–18 Paul linked together a number of OT passages to emphasize that all have sinned (see Ps 5:9–10; 14:1–3; 36:1–4; Isa 59:7–8). The various references to parts of the human body (throat, tongue, lips, mouth, feet, eyes) reveal that sin corrupts throughout. “Fear of God” refers to reverent respect (Ro 3:18).

3:23 Sin (Gk. hamartia, lit. “to miss the mark”) falls short of attaining God’s standard. Sin is often identified as deeds, such as stealing, murder, adultery or lying (Ex 20:1–17; Dt 5:1–21). However, a more fundamental attitude deep within the human heart underlies all “sins” and is expressed as “I know better than God in this matter.” This attitude led Eve to that first, fatal, disobedient act in the Garden of Eden. Adam had told her that God had forbidden the eating of the fruit, but when the fruit was presented to her as good, pleasant and desirable, she allowed her own judgment to take precedence over the word directly from God, and she ate the forbidden fruit (Ge 3:3,6). God has not given us his Word so we can make a reasoned evaluation of his judgment and decide whether or not we want to obey. He has given us his Word because that Word is truth and life, and we are to obey it without question and with unhesitating confidence. To follow our own judgments in disobedience of God’s Word is to put self in the place of God (Pr 3:5,7; 14:12), no matter how innocent or noble the deed may seem (see Lk 24:47, note; Nu 16, Rebellion; Ps 51, Forgiveness; 2Co 7, Guilt; Phm, Obedience).

3:24 Justification is a legal term referring to a right standing before God (see chart, Theological Terms). That standing can never be earned. “Redemption” refers to the act by which a slave is given freedom. Through faith in Christ, sinners are delivered from slavery to sin.

3:25 The sacrifice of atonement (Gk. hilastērion) has the idea of appeasing or satisfying. Thus the sacrifice of atonement refers to the work of Christ on the cross, by which he both satisfied the demands of God’s justice and canceled the sinner’s guilt. In other texts, the same Greek word is translated “mercy seat.” Christ’s death on the cross is interpreted in terms of the Day of Atonement, on which the blood of the sacrificial animals was sprinkled on the mercy seat in the Most Holy Place to atone for the sins of the people (see Lev 16:14–16). In either case, through the death of Christ on the cross, God took the initiative to bring mankind into right relationship with himself.

4:1–4 Paul used the example of Abraham to emphasize the significance of faith. Abraham responded in faith to God’s call (Ge 12:1–3). “Credited to” (Gk. logizomai) is a bookkeeping term. Abraham’s faith resulted in “balanced books” with God (Ro 4:3). Paul had encountered Jews who claimed they did not need to have faith in Christ for salvation because they were descendants of Abraham. Paul countered that argument by showing that Abraham himself was made right with God by faith.

4:5–8 Paul next turned to David, Israel’s celebrated king, as another example of an individual who received God’s free pardon (vv. 7–8; see 2Sa 11:1–12:23; Ps 32:1–2). No sacrifice for such grave offenses as David had committed was prescribed in the law. David could only cast himself on the mercy of God (see Heb 11:6).

4:9–12 Circumcision was a physical sign or seal of the covenant between God and his chosen nation (see Ge 17, Circumcision). But God did not give Abraham this sign of the covenant until Abraham was 99 years old (see Ge 17:1–14). Many years prior to that time Abraham had responded to God in faith and received right standing before God. He was justified before he was circumcised (see Ge 15:6).

4:13–15 Right standing with God comes only through faith. Abraham received God’s promise by faith long before the Law of Moses was given. Salvation does not come by keeping the law. Legalism shifts the focus from the power of God to the ability of individuals to keep the law. With the law came increased awareness of sin and of God’s wrath. With faith came the realization of God’s promise (2Co 4:6).

4:16–25 The true heirs of Abraham are those who receive the promises of God by faith as Abraham did. All who place faith in Jesus Christ are heirs of God’s promise. The genuine descendants of Abraham are not those who have Abraham’s blood but those who possess Abraham’s faith.

4:19 Abraham and Sarah were unable to conceive a child in their old age. Abraham’s body and Sarah’s womb were considered dead, since both were past childbearing age. The word “dead” in this verse provides a link with the assertion that God “gives life to the dead” (v. 17). Abraham’s faith in the promises of God did not waver or falter.

5:1–11 The believer receives: a new relationship with God (vv. 1–2), a new perspective on difficulty (vv. 3–5) and a new assurance of security (vv. 6–11).

5:1 Peace here is much more than the absence of conflict; it is an objective reality that brings harmony to life. Those who have not experienced the new relationship with God are subject to his wrath (Ro 1:18; 8:7–8). The relationship between God and his creation is restored through faith in Christ, dissolving all enmity. The result is peace.

5:2 Every believer has free, abundant and immediate access to God. The term “access” also can refer to a harbor or haven where ships come to anchor, conveying the idea of shelter from the stormy seas of life.

5:3–5 Christian women can enjoy the new perspective of glorying or rejoicing in suffering because of the benefits gained by the proper response to suffering. The Greek word translated “suffering” can mean “pressure” (v. 3). Paul encouraged Christians to rejoice in these pressures because they produce “perseverance” or endurance, the spirit that actively meets and overcomes life’s difficulties. Next, endurance produces character. The Greek term Paul used for “character” can refer to metal purified of dross. Finally, the woman whose character has met the tests of life and emerged victorious possesses “hope” based on the eternal love and power of God.

5:6–11 Jesus’ unique love (Gk. agapē) focuses on the nature of the one loving rather than on the merit of the one being loved. God’s nature is self-giving love, which always acts in the best interest of his creation, even of his enemies (v. 8). “Reconciliation” describes the new relationship with Christ (vv. 10–11).

5:12–14 Death comes to all because all have sinned (see Ro 3:23). Condemned in Adam, we can be redeemed in Christ. We remain profoundly affected by Adam’s sin, having inherited a sinful nature from him.

6:1–2 The proper response to God’s grace is gratitude. Those with a distorted perspective argued that since grace would be more abundant where sin was greater, they should go on sinning in order to experience more of God’s grace (Ro 5:20). Such an attitude trifled with God’s grace and reflected a total lack of understanding of the new birth. When an individual accepts Christ in faith, the sinful desires of the old nature are put to death and the believer receives a new nature through Christ’s resurrected life (Ro 6:2; see also 2Co 5:17). God does not need more sins to reveal his grace; he desires more lives to reflect his righteousness and goodness.

6:3–4 Paul utilized the imagery of baptism to support his argument. Death to sin and resurrection to life eternal are the focus here. The woman who has accepted Christ by faith has committed herself to a new kind of life. Baptism is a sign of this wonderful reality.

6:5–14 The old self and the body ruled by sin refer to sinful human nature (v. 6). The “body ruled by sin” also could designate all of unredeemed humanity in bondage to sin and death in opposition to the “body of Christ” or the church. The believer has died to sin (vv. 5–8). The ethical demands of the Christian life are based on the new relationship Christians have with Christ (vv. 11–13). Failure in Christian living results from failure to appropriate Christ’s power in daily living (v. 14).

6:15–22 Some viewed salvation as a deliverance only from the consequences of sin and its penalty rather than deliverance from its power as well. Paul utilized an analogy from the slave market to deal with this casual attitude toward sin. One is either a slave of sin or a slave of righteousness (vv. 16–18). The Greek word translated “slaves” is the same word Paul used to describe himself as a “servant” of Christ (Ro 1:1). Obedience to God is the measure of devotion to him.

7:1–6 Paul denounced a religion that consists of trying to earn merit with God by keeping the law. He employed the analogy of marriage. A married woman is bound to her husband as long as he lives. When her husband dies, however, she is free to remarry (see 1Co 7:39). Christians, having died to the law, are free to be joined to Christ (see Gal 2:19–20). The Christian woman has been delivered from slavery to the law as her old master and experiences a life of freedom in Christ, her new Lord. The motive for her new life of fruitfulness comes not from the law’s demands but from a desire to respond to God’s love (Ro 7:4). The Holy Spirit provides the power to live in newness of life with Christ (v. 6).

7:14–25 Several interpretations have been suggested for these verses:

• A reflection of life before conversion;

• The experience of the saved or unsaved who seek merely to obey the law;

• A picture of the carnal Christian’s internal struggle between the spiritual nature’s desire to obey God and the fleshly nature’s desire to go one’s own way;

• The process of growing sanctification after conversion.

The latter seems more probable. Though the believing woman would be delivered from the guilt and penalty of sin, she would not be free from the presence of sin until Christ returned. The struggle against sin continues throughout life on earth. The difference for the Christian woman, who has the mind of Christ, is that there is the hope of being rescued from her sins and the power to achieve victory over the sinful nature. Even though the struggle with sin remains while on earth, the Christian is no longer condemned before God but stands righteous before him.

8:1 Paul contrasted being in the flesh with being in Christ Jesus. This passage refers to lifestyle, and being in the flesh is living according to the sinful, selfish dictates of one’s desires (see Gal 5:19–21). Being “in Christ Jesus” describes a life yielded to the control of God’s Spirit (see Gal 5:22–23).

8:9–11 The Spirit of God permanently lives in every believer at the moment that individual believes in Jesus Christ. The presence or absence of the Holy Spirit within determines whether or not one has experienced salvation (Gal 2:20).

8:12–17 As children of God, Christians have obligations (v. 12). They are obligated not to live according to the sinful, selfish desires of the flesh. “The misdeeds of the body” is another designation for fleshly or carnal desires (v. 13). Those who are led by God’s Spirit are indeed God’s children (v. 14). Obedience is the test of personal relationship with the Lord. Believers are God’s children and his heirs by adoption (vv. 15,17; see Est 2, Adoption). The adopted individual was regarded as a new person beginning a new life. Legally, the adopted one gained all the rights of one born into the family as the legitimate heir to the father’s estate. God’s children enjoy security in their relationship with him. They also enjoy intimacy. “Abba” (Aram., lit. “Daddy”) was the familiar expression of intimacy used by Jewish children to address their fathers (Ro 8:15).

8:18–25 Paul contrasted the sufferings of the present with the glorious hope for the future. Paul had suffered greatly for the sake of the gospel (see 2Co 1:8–11; 4:7–12,16–18; 11:23–30). Yet he affirmed that those sufferings were nothing compared to the future glory he anticipated (see 2Co 4:17). God’s children will participate in the glory of Christ; they will experience complete conformity to Christ (see Col 1:27). The Festival of Weeks or Pentecost involved the dedication of the firstfruits of the wheat harvest to the Lord (Lev 23:15–21). Believers have received the firstfruits of the Holy Spirit as God’s down payment or guarantee of ultimate victory (Ro 8:24–25).

8:26–27 The Spirit helps believers know how to pray (v. 26). Paul prayed for the removal of a hindrance in his life, but God did not take away that burden (2Co 12:7–10). The Spirit articulates those prayer burdens that God’s people cannot even express. The Spirit’s intercession can be trusted because he intercedes according to God’s will (Ro 8:27).

8:28 God works for good in all things. This verse does not affirm that all things are good or that all things work together for good for all people. Rather the great promise is that God will overrule and work even through the tragedies caused by sin’s presence in the world to accomplish his purposes in the lives of those who love him and who have responded to his call.

8:29–30 God alone has complete knowledge, for certainly nothing can be hidden from him (Pr 15:11; Isa 29:15–16; Mt 10:29–31; Heb 4:13). Foreknowledge must be understood as a part of God’s relationship to his creation (Jer 1:5). Reconciling God’s foreknowledge with the moral responsibility of mankind is a wonderful mystery in the tension of theology. In any case, God’s salvation is born out of his eternal purposes and is not dependent upon human initiative or the world’s changing circumstances (Ro 8:21–22; 1Pe 1:20).

9:1–5 Paul expressed his grief over the fact that most of the Jews were alienated from God (vv. 1–5). Paul wished himself “cursed” (Gk. anathema) and devoted to destruction in place of his countrymen (Ro 9:3). Although Paul’s mission was primarily to the Gentiles, he never ceased to show deep concern for his brothers, “those of my own race,” that is, his fellow Jews (v. 3). Paul mentioned some advantages enjoyed by the Jews in their relationship with God that made their rejection of Christ even more tragic (vv. 4–5): The glory of God’s presence, the covenants, the law, and the promises. Even Jesus the Messiah was born a Jew.

9:14–18 Israel’s rejection must be understood in light of Israel’s responsibility (see Ro 9–11). God rejected Israel because Israel rejected God. Likewise God raised up Pharaoh and hardened his heart (Ro 9:17–18) even as Pharaoh first decided to reject God (Ex 4:21; 5:2; see Ex 14, Justice; chart, The Ten Plagues on Egypt). God raised up Pharaoh to demonstrate his power; yet Pharaoh rejected God in his own heart (Ex 8:15). God let Pharaoh have his own way, hardening Pharaoh’s heart in his disbelief (Ex 7:3–4, note).

9:19–26 God is not required to answer to humanity. Just as the clay lacks power and authority to question the work of the potter, so no one has authority to question the ways of God. In all things, God, as the potter, prepared objects both for destruction in order to reveal his wrath and power and for mercy to reveal his glory and love. God acts consistently with his character as he has revealed himself in Christ. Gentiles as well as Jews were included in God’s redemptive plan (vv. 25–26; see Hos 1:10; 2:23). “My people” is covenant language indicating the restoration of the covenant relationship (Ro 9:25–26; see Jer 32:38). The designation “objects of his wrath” refers to the unbelieving to whom God has unceasingly extended pleading hands (Ro 9:22; see 10:21).

9:27–29 Paul emphasized that only a remnant of Israel or the Jews would experience salvation (Isa 1:9; 10:22–23). The title “Lord Almighty” is a reminder of God’s sovereignty (Ro 9:29).

9:30–33 Paul contrasted Jews and Gentiles. The apostle’s greater concern was the failure of Israel. For the Jews, Christ was a “stone that causes people to stumble” because they persisted in trying to attain righteousness by keeping the law (vv. 32–33). The Gentiles, in contrast, accepted by faith the righteousness of God. This does not imply that all Gentiles will be saved. Only those who avoid the mistake of Israel—that is, dependence upon the law for salvation—will experience redemption (v. 24). Nowhere is it any clearer that works are futile as a means of justification. Those who place their faith in God need never fear that he might prove unreliable (v. 33; see Isa 8:14; 28:16).

10:1–13 All people, both Jew and Gentile, experience right standing with God in the same way (v. 12). The Jews failed in their search to obtain a right relationship with God by keeping the law (vv. 1–3). Paul declared that Christ is the culmination or goal of the law (v. 4). The law was fulfilled in Christ. Both Jews and Gentiles receive right standing with God by faith in Christ (vv. 8–13; compare v. 13 with Joel 2:32). God in Christ has done everything necessary for salvation (Ro 10:6–7). No human effort or accomplishment can save and make a person right with God (Eph 2:8–9).

10:14–21 God’s own people, the Jews, rejected his message. Paul clearly stated that Israel was responsible for rejecting the gospel. Paul refuted any potential arguments the Jews might raise, such as claiming that they lacked messengers from God (vv. 14–17), an opportunity to hear (v. 18) or a clear understanding of the message (vv. 19–21). Paul clearly assigned responsibility to the Jews for rejecting the gospel. Israel’s failure stemmed not from a lack of hearing or understanding but from disobedience and rebellion (v. 21).

11:1–10 God preserved a faithful remnant. Paul identified himself as belonging to this remnant of Jewish believers (v. 1). The remnant provided evidence that God had not totally abandoned his people. Good works do not merit God’s grace; they are evidence of his grace (vv. 5–6; see Eph 2:8–10). Paul quoted Isaiah 29:10 to illustrate the blindness of disobedience (Ro 11:8). Some understand that this verse does not describe God’s intended result for his people but the inevitable result when people close their hearts and minds to God. Others believe God’s grace is extended to the elect who constitute the remnant (vv. 5–9), while those remaining are blinded in their sins (vv. 7–8).

11:11–24 The Jews’ rejection of the gospel amazingly resulted in its being extended more quickly to the Gentiles. The first-century missionaries proclaimed the gospel to the Jews first as recorded in the book of Acts. When the Jews rejected the message, the Christians turned to the Gentile audience (see Ac 13:46). Nevertheless, Paul had not given up on the Jews. Paul employed the imagery of an olive tree to warn the Gentiles against boasting about their new status (Ro 11:17–24). The unbelieving Jews are the natural branches that have been cut from God’s olive tree. The Gentile believers are only wild olive branches that have been grafted in. How much more easily can the natural branches again be grafted into the tree when Jews respond in faith (vv. 23–24)!

11:25–36 Israel will never experience utter rejection or abandonment. Always a remnant of believers will exist. Paul affirmed that “all Israel will be saved,” not suggesting every individual Jew, but a great number of Jews would turn to Christ in the end times (v. 26). The phrase “all Israel” includes “the full number of the Gentiles” (v. 25). A few critical scholars interpret “all Israel” to include the idea that all people ultimately will experience salvation, which is universalism. Still others believe that “all Israel” is a spiritual designation for the church. The eschatological understanding seems the better interpretation. Paul ended this passage on a note of praise celebrating God’s wisdom and grace toward mankind (vv. 33–36).

12:1–2 Paul turned to practical matters concerning the application of salvation (see Ro 12–15). These verses constitute a call (“urge,” Gk. parakalō, lit. “call alongside”) to committed living. In “view of God’s mercy,” all that God has done for believers as presented in the earlier chapters of Romans, God’s people should in gratitude offer a consecrated lifestyle to him (Ro 12:1). The verb “offer” (Gk. parastesai, “receive challenge”) can carry the connotation of “to place at the disposal of” or “to yield.” The Christian woman’s sacrifice to God is to live her life as holy or set apart to God and to please him. Her lifestyle is to express complete devotion to the Lord. The believer is not to be molded by the pressures of the sinful world (“conform,” Gk. skematizō, v. 2). The believer is to experience a transformation (Gk. metamorphoō, lit. “to change”), a new way of thinking made possible through the power of the Holy Spirit. The verb is used sparingly elsewhere in the NT—only twice concerning the transfiguration of Jesus and once concerning the change in believers who are contemplating Jesus (Mt 17:2; Mk 9:2; 2Co 3:18).

12:9–21 Paul’s letters always include a practical section instructing believers how to live daily as a Christian. Paul began by an appeal to love—the primary motivating factor in Christian living. Christlike behavior or character includes showing genuine love (sincere); avoiding evil and clinging to good; respecting others; being diligent in service; demonstrating hope, joy, patience and steadfastness; meeting the needs of others; showing hospitality; living humbly and peaceably; and repaying evil with good. Parts of this passage are reminiscent of Jesus’ teachings in the Sermon on the Mount (Mt 5–7). A genuine relationship with Christ will be evident in personal relationships with others.

13:1–7 Paul recognized that government is ordained by God. Thus Christians should obey the law and pay their taxes out of a sense of service to God (vv. 1–2). Paul viewed the government as God’s instrument to prevent chaos in the world. Paul may have emphasized the need for civil obedience on the part of Christians to disassociate them completely from certain rebellious Jews. The Jews, particularly the Zealots, were noted for their insurrections. The government provided to individuals certain protections and services that they could not enjoy otherwise.

13:8–10 Paul summarized a Christian’s obligations to others in the commandment to love one’s neighbor, identified as anyone in need. A believer who demonstrates love by acting in the best interest of another person has fulfilled the law (see Mt 22:35–40). The debt of love can never be fully paid (Ro 13:8).

13:11–14 The early Christians anticipated the return of Christ in the near future. “Understanding the present time” (Gk. kairos), meaning “right time,” is a reference to the time when Christians have an opportunity to take a stand for God (v. 11). Thus Paul exhorted Christians to awaken from sleep. The present age of darkness was passing; the new day of Christ’s return was dawning. The Christian woman’s hope in the Lord’s return should motivate her to consistent, daily, Christlike living. Anticipation of Christ’s return should encourage rather than discourage ethical living.

14:1–13 Paul’s understanding of freedom in Christ was characterized by a deep respect for others. Although Paul identified those who felt bound by external matters like dietary regulations as weak in the faith, he indicated that their convictions were not to be taken lightly. These persons were not to be ridiculed or treated with contempt. Neither were the weaker believers to condemn the stronger ones. Freedom in Christ means that a believing woman is free to follow her own convictions. It also means that each Christian must allow other believers that same freedom. Therefore no basis exists for judging one another. Christ alone qualifies as Judge (vv. 10–12). Furthermore, one should focus not primarily on herself but rather on others, seeking not to present a stumbling block to their faith. “Stumbling block” refers to any attitude or action that causes another believer to sin or to become confused about God’s character and purposes (v. 13). The kind of attitude Paul encouraged would promote unity and harmony in the church. Liberty is to be regulated by love. Elsewhere Paul viewed unity as vital to the life of God’s people (see 1Co 12:12–27; Php, Introduction: Outline on Unity).

14:14–23 Paul asserted that in Christ the dietary laws of the OT are no longer in effect (see Mk 7:19; Ac 10). However, a more mature believer should do nothing that might hinder the faith of a weaker believer. In the kingdom of God, love is more important than liberty; relationships are more important than observing regulations. One aspect of the kingdom of God is God’s reign in the hearts of believers (Lk 17:21; Jn 3:3). The kingdom of God is the realm where God’s sovereignty is recognized and his will is supreme. The believer is to live in a manner that promotes harmony and edifies or builds up others. Paul asserted that all failure to live by faith is sin, that is, missing God’s aim for life (Ro 14:23).

15:1–6 Paul encouraged a life of self-denial and consideration for others within the fellowship of believers. He specifically referred to the duty of the stronger toward the weaker members of the body of Christ (see Gal 6:1–2). He set before the Roman Christians the example of Christ. The Greek word translated “bear” (Ro 15:1) is the same word used of Christ bearing his cross (Jn 19:17). Paul realized that people change more quickly in an atmosphere of love than in an atmosphere of criticism. A genuine consideration for the concerns and needs of others promotes harmony and unity within the church. Such unity (Ro 15:6) brings glory to God (see Ro 3:23, note; Ps 19:1, note). Strength in a woman of God is evident by her willingness to focus on the needs of others and her desire to foster a spirit of genuine harmony among God’s people.

15:7–13 The fellowship of believers is to be inclusive rather than exclusive. Paul emphasized the unity of Jew and Gentile within the body of Christ. Christ came to his own people, to the Jews, but they did not receive him (v. 8; Jn 1:11). Christ also came for the Gentiles. Paul quoted the OT to show the place of the Gentiles in God’s plan (Dt 32:43; 2Sa 22:50; Ps 18:49; 117:1; Isa 11:1,10). Because Christ has freely welcomed all into his family, his family members should welcome one another with full acceptance.

15:14–21 Paul was a pioneer missionary. His goal was to preach the gospel in areas where it had never been heard (vv. 20–21). He identified himself as a minister of Christ to the Gentiles. Paul had shared the gospel on journeys from Jerusalem to the frontier area of Illyricum, a Roman province bordering the eastern side of the Adriatic Sea (v. 19). Again Paul commended the virtues of his readers (v. 14; see Ro 1:8,12). Paul boldly instructed the Romans because God had commissioned him to minister (Ro 15:15–16). He expressed faith in the triune God, referring to God, Jesus Christ and the Holy Spirit (vv. 16–19). He claimed glory not on his own merits but only as a servant or minister of Christ (vv. 17–18). Any woman who genuinely desires to serve Christ focuses not on what she is able to achieve by her own efforts but rather on Christ who is at work in her life.

15:22–33 Paul had long desired to visit the Romans, but each time he had been delayed (Ro 1:10–15). He did not want them to think that he had abandoned his mission to the Gentiles. He was preparing to go to Jerusalem because the Gentile churches had collected a significant offering for the Jewish church in Jerusalem (Ro 15:25–26). The church in Jerusalem had great financial needs. Paul wanted to deliver the offering in person to make sure Christians understood the significance of the offering for the unity of Jews and Gentiles in the church. Though he wanted to visit Rome and then journey to Spain, Paul was apprehensive about his visit to Jerusalem to deliver the offering (vv. 24,28). Paul requested the Roman Christians to pray for him (vv. 30–32). This doxology may have formed an intended ending of the letter to the Roman Christians (v. 33; see Ro 16:3–4, note). However, Paul was moved further by the Holy Spirit to pen chapter 16.

16:3–4 Priscilla and Aquila were Paul’s close friends, who, like him, were tentmakers. Paul met them in Corinth (Ac 18:1–3). When Paul left Corinth for Ephesus, he took this noteworthy couple with him (see Ac 18:18–19). A church met in the house of Aquila and Priscilla (1Co 16:19), who courageously risked their lives for Paul (Ro 16:4).

16:5–16 Paul extended greetings to a number of lesser known individuals. Epenetus is identified as Paul’s first convert in Asia (v. 5). A number of women appear in this group Paul greeted. Mary, one of six women called Mary in the NT, is characterized as a hard worker for the sake of the gospel (v. 6). The names listed in verse 12 are women’s names. Tryphena and Tryphosa mean “dainty” and “delicate.” Persis was a slave name. Paul referred to the mother of Rufus as a dear mother to him also (v. 13). Julia may be the wife of Philologus (v. 15). Rabbis practiced the custom of greeting one another with a kiss. Jesus’ disciples followed the practice, and this method of greeting was used in the early church (v. 16).

16:17–20 Paul described those who caused division as selfish and smooth-talking (v. 18). He referred to God as “the God of peace” (v. 20; see Ro 15:33). God desired not division but peace and harmony among his people. The crushing of Satan calls to mind an earlier reference (Ro 16:20; see Ge 3:15).

16:21–27 Paul sent greetings from those working with him. Timothy, the best known of this group of workers, was a native of Lystra (see Ac 16:1–3). Gaius is identified as Paul’s host. Tertius functioned as Paul’s secretary or amanuensis. A final benediction or doxology is included (Ro 16:25–27). The “mystery” now revealed is God’s gift of salvation for all through Jesus Christ (vv. 25–26). The purpose of preaching the gospel is identified as for “the obedience that comes from faith” (v. 26). Paul ended this chapter on a note of praise, the only appropriate response to God who graciously has done so much for all through his Son Jesus Christ.