The Colonial Period

The voice of every people is the sword
that guards them,
or the sword that beats them down.
-ALFRED TENNYSON

On the Shores of Mactan

In 1800, Don Baltazar Gonzales wrote De Los Delitos (Of the Crimes). In this book Gonzalez credits Datu Mangal with bringing the art of kali to Mactan Island, and Sri Bataugong and his son Sri Bantug Lamay, with later bringing the art to the island of Cebu.¹ Through constant struggle and wars with neighboring islands, Mangal's son, Rajah Lapulapu (a.k.a., Tanday Lupalupa) developed a fighting system called pangamut. According to Gonzales, pangamut consisted of six slashes (i.e., to the head, chest, and kidneys-both left and right sides), and two thrusts (i.e., to the face and abdominal region). In the sixteenth century Lapulapu and Rajah Humabon, the son of Sri Bantug Lumay, began to quarrel. Tensions were rising and battle was imminent when Lapulapu accused Humabon of wrongfully taking land that belonged to his father. This battle, however, never occurred as the Philippines was unexpectedly visited by the trading vessels of Spain.

The Spanish methods of employing the rapier and dagger was taken to the Philippines in 1521 by way of the ships of the Portuguese explorer, Ferdinand Magellan. Magellan, sailing under the flag of Spain, was in search of a westward route across the Pacific, but was killed soon after his arrival in the Philippines at the battle of Mactan. Antonio Pigafeta, the historian who chronicled Magellan's voyage, wrote a rather detailed account of this battle in his text, Magellan's Voyage.² Although this account is frequently cited in presentations of the history of Filipino martial arts, it is significant enough to offer a brief summary.

On Saturday, March 17, 1521, Ferdinand Magellan's ship came across an archipelago unknown to the Western world. He docked off the coast of what is now known as the island of Samar. On March 18, he made the acquaintance of Rajah Kolambu, as well as Rajah Humabon, the chief of Cebu. He converted them to Catholicism and a short-lived Spanish allegiance. Rajah Humabon, anxious to take advantage of this new situation, convinced Magellan to agree to conquer Mactan Island on April 26, and offer it to the Rajah as a token of friendship. Armed with their kampilan (long, dual-pointed cutlasses), sibat (spears), kalasag (protective shields), and other weapons, Lapulapu's mandirigma (warriors) repelled these invaders, killing Magellan in the low tide that forced him into a hand-to-hand battle instead of a ship-based bombardment of the island. Pigafeta described the battle that followed:

"Our large pieces of artillery which were in the ships could not help us, because they were firing at too long range, so that we continued to retreat for more than a good crossbow flight from the shore, still fighting, and in water up to our knees. And they followed us, hurling poisoned arrows four and six times; while, recognizing the captain, they turned toward him inasmuch as twice they hurled arrows very close to his head. But as a good captain and a knight he still stood fast with some others, fighting thus for more than an hour. And as he refused to retire further, an Indian threw a bamboo lance in his face, and the captain immediately killed him with his lance, leaving it in his body. Then, trying to lay his hand on his sword, he could draw it out but halfway, because of a wound from a bamboo lance that he had in his arm. Which seeing, all those people threw themselves on him, and one of them with a large javelin thrust it into his left leg, whereby he fell face downward. On this all at once rushed upon him with lances of iron and bamboo and with these javelins, so that they slew our mirror, our light, our comfort, and our true guide."³

Although the battle of Mactan establishes Spain's "Western discovery" of the Philippines, and the historical importance of Filipino martial arts in the Philippines, it is possible that this battle did not occur at this location, particularly given the paucity of supporting archaeological data. If the battle had, in fact, taken place, one would expect to find remnants of Spanish swords, armor, or artillery on or off the coast of Mactan Island. However, debates in Philippine newspapers during 1994 suggest that recent archaeological expeditions off the coast of Mactan uncovered no supporting artifacts. Interestingly, archaeological remains of Spanish armaments have recently been found off the coast of Mattan, an island south of Mactan. Further research into this matter indicates that the debate over the exact location surfaced during a time of local political elections. By one party linking the battle to his island (i.e., Mattan), he hoped to generate a nationalistic following for his campaign. Regardless of its exact location, the battle of Mactan did occur in the Visayas, near the island of Cebu, and as Pigafeta described.

A Spanish Colony

Upon Magellan's unsuccessful second circumnavigation of the globe (he had unknowingly sailed around the Philippines six years earlier), Spain sent three other unsuccessful expeditions to Southeast Asia lead by Loaisa, Saavedra, and Villalobos, respectively. Between 1525 and 1542, Spain repeatedly attempted to gain control of the spice trade in the Philippines and the Moluccas, taking rights and control from Portugal.

It wasn't until 1565, however, that the Spanish gained a foothold in the Philippines through the efforts of Miguel Lopez de Legaspi. On November 21, 1564, King Philip II of Spain decided to send an expedition from New Spain (Mexico) to be led by Legaspi, who was accompanied by Father Andres de Urdaneta. Remembering the plight of Magellan, Legaspi befriended the natives he encountered and later "conquered" them by gaining their trust and through their conversion to the Catholic faith. Upon Legaspi's arrival at Leyte he found the natives uncooperative and largely unfriendly. They were so hostile that Legaspi's fleet was forced to travel southward as far as Bohol before they found friendly inhabitants. To show a mutual acceptance of their trust, Legaspi and Rajah Sikutana made a blood compact (sandugo; kasi-kasi) to seal their friendship.

During his brief stay in Bohol, Legaspi decided to move on to the island of Cebu, where there were many small villages. Upon his arrival Legaspi sent word to the islanders that they should receive him in friendship. Recalling the words and deeds of Magellan, the Cebuanos were reluctant to do so, and they armed themselves and prepared for battle. Being more heavily armed and generally better equipped for combat, Legaspi's men took the island of Cebu with little trouble, establishing a fort and a new town called Villa San Miguel (the Village of Saint Michael).

Unfortunately for the Spaniards this village did not last long, due to continuous raids by Cebuano warriors. Thus, in 1568, Legaspi decided to relocate to the island of Panay, and later to Manila. Vic Hurley notes that during pre-Hispanic times the Manila bay area was known as Lusong. It was guarded by a fortress constructed of nipa and bamboo called a cotta, defended by Islamic warriors, and ruled by the Muslim chieftain, Rajah Nicoy.⁴Nicoy was succeeded by Rajah Kanduli, who, in turn, was succeeded by Lakandula. Lakandula was succeeded by the Bornean prince, Rajah Soliman, who was the reigning chief of Manila during the time of Legaspi's resettlement.

Legaspi asked his nephew Martin de Goiti to conquer Manila for the king of Spain, and sent a message asking for the friendship and support of Rajah Soliman. Although Soliman agreed, a cannon was fired from a Spanish ship, which hit Soliman's fortress, causing a battle to erupt. Soliman fought valiantly to his death. Needless to say, the power of the Spanish ships was greater than the combat skills of native islanders, and Legaspi was victorious. Miguel Lopes de Legaspi was therefore responsible for the first Spanish settlement and colonial government in Manila in 1565. With the help of Mindanao-native Panday Pira, a blacksmith with a cannon foundry, the new Capital of the Spanish settlement was presumed impenetrable.

Once this foothold was secured, Spanish families began to build new homes to welcome the many new arrivals from New Spain. Even though the Spanish government was established and Manila was shielded with wooden barricades armed with Pira's cannons, the settlement was subjected to a number of raids and attacks. In fact, the feared Chinese pirate, Limahong (a.k.a., Lim-Ah-Hong; Lin Feng; Lin T-ao), assisted by his Japanese counterpart, Sioco, attacked Manila from the sea. Although born of noble parents, Limahong preferred a life of crime and attacked Manila with sixty-two armed junks and some four-thousand warriors on November 29, 1574.⁵ Although Limahong's first attack was somewhat successful, at least based on the death toll, the Spaniards kept him at bay. Before he could mount his second attack, however, Limahong and his men were defeated at the hands of Juan de Salcedo, Legaspi's grandson.

Escaping capture at the hands of Salcedo, Sioco, Limahong, and his remaining army fled to Pangasinan where they captured a number of chieftains, holding them ransom for food and other privileges. It wasn't long until the Philippines' new colonial government readied a force to repel the Chinese pirate. Headed by Salcedo, the troops arrived in Pangasinan and took Limahong by surprise, destroying his fleet of junks. After some four months of constant attacks on Limahong's fort the colonial army was able to capture it, but not before Limahong's men had built two-dozen new boats. Limahong and Sioco were said to have successfully escaped through a secret canal and were never known to have returned to the Philippines.

The battles against Limahong and Sioco were important events in the development of Filipino martial arts. Although the Chinese had been trading with the Filipinos since the ninth century, this marked the first time that the Filipinos engaged the Chinese in hand-to-hand combat. It was also the first time that the Filipinos had seen the Japanese method of swordplay which they were later to encounter during World War II. These battles also marked the first time that the Filipinos fought alongside the Spaniards, when not engaging with their own people for tribal property. Hence, these skirmishes allowed the Filipino warriors to experience first hand, how their martial arts stood against the fighting arts of three countries, Spain, China, and Japan.

In 1578, the Spanish Governor de Sande initiated the first official raids on the southern Philippines with hopes of conquest and conversion. Hurley notes that Spain's interference with the Moro's religious beliefs paved the way for legitimate jihad (holy wars), as enjoined by the tenets of the Qur'an.⁶ Faced by Moros and malaria the Spanish conquistadors met with repeated defeat when their Toledo blades engaged Moro kris and barong.

In 1596, Esteban Rodriguez de Figueroa set out to conquer Moroland (Mindanao and Sulu) with the hopes of conquering it for de Sande and converting the infidel Moros to Christianity. Figueroa foolishly sailed to Buhayen, Mindanao, the territory of Datu Silongan, with a single company of soldiers and three priests. He sent a reconnaissance team into the jungle but they never returned. Figueroa then took the initiative and led his conquistadors 100 yards up beach. They were ambushed by the Moros and Figueroa was cleaved almost in two by a kris wielded by Silongan's youngest brother. The Spanish carried their leader in retreat to the beach and fled back to Manila.

In 1597, the Spanish forced the disbandment of Manila's Sultanate. By 1637, the Spanish friars had written and created a new form of theatrical entertainment known generically as komedya. These are socio-religious plays depicting the victory of the Christian Spaniards over the Muslim Moors of Africa. They were used as propaganda by the Spanish friars to spread Catholicism throughout the Philippines by showing the superiority of the Christian faith over pagan beliefs. In time, more plays emerged for the Spaniard's enjoyment. These plays were viewed by the Filipino as a mechanism through which to practice their martial arts under the guise of harmless entertainment. As Spanish influence declined across the archipelago, the komedya, too, decreased in popularity.

In an effort to trade with and subdue the Moros, Miguel Lopez de Legaspi sent a number of expeditions to the southern Philippines. What the Spanish found, however, were not the easily conquerable Filipinos who inhabited the central and northern islands of the Visayas and Luzon, respectively. Instead, they encountered well-organized and skillfully trained Islamic warriors. It wasn't until after some twenty-nine years of war that the Spanish colonial government sent enough supporting troops to Mindanao and were able to establish an outpost. Tarling notes that although Jesuit missionaries were able to negotiate peace treaties for the teaching of Christianity in Zamboanga in 1635, they regrettably did so with the use of military force.⁷ As a result, the Jesuits and Spanish conquistadors felt the wrath of Sultan Kudarat.

From 1619 to 1671, Mindanao was ruled by Sultan Muhammad Dipatuan Kudarat (a.k.a., Cachil Kudarat), a direct descendant of Sharif Kabungsuwan. Kudarat and his mandirigma repelled continuous Spanish attempts at invasion of his sultanate in Jolo and Zamboanga. In an effort to subdue Kudarat, the Spanish Governor Corcuera led a well-equipped expedition to Mindanao in 1637. On the banks of the Rio Grande Mindanao stood the proud fort of Sultan Kudarat, surrounded by over two-thousand armed warriors. What followed was a grueling battle that left the colonial forces in control of the town, while Kudarat and his followers retreated to the hills. It was in these mountains that Sultan Kudarat did the unheard of-he befriended the other Muslim Sultans and after four years of preparation attacked the Spanish stronghold. Using their native skills in silat and kali, the sultans were victorious. After the death of Corcuera, Francisco Atienza, the commandant of Jolo, offered Kudarat concessions of alliance, land, and trade zones in an effort to achieve peace. Kudarat's diplomacy was successful and by 1663 the Spanish had closed their fort at Zamboanga.

Perhaps the best known quality that Sultan Kudarat possessed was the respect even his enemies bestowed upon him. It is said that upon capturing a conquistador in battle, Kudarat would leave him unharmed and allow him to return to his forces. A practical ruler and good administrator, Kudarat encouraged all Filipinos to trade with one another. In addition, he was an avid promoter of agricultural knowledge. It is Sultan Muhammad Dipatuan Kudarat who's statue proudly stands in Makati, Metro Manila, the prime business district of the Philippines. His likeness, as well, graces a Philippine commemorative stamp.

Although the Spaniards were able to establish leadership in the central and northern regions of the Philippines, it was the mandirigma of the southern islands who put fear in Spanish hearts through their courageous display in battle of their deft skills in kali. Although many Filipinos complied with Spanish rule, other natives continued to feel the sting of oppression. This repression led to a number of Filipino rebellions, including, but not limited to, the Palaris Revolt (1762-65), the Cagayan Uprising (1763), and the eighty-five year long Dagohoy Revolt (1744-1829). This revolt left over 20,000 Filipino followers under their own government in Bohol. These revolutions, it should be noted, were all led and backed by men and women skilled in the "ancient" Filipino martial arts of kali-then relegated to clandestine training, later to re-emerge as the "classical" arts of eskrima.

In 1762, the Philippines became involved in the Seven-Years War between England and France. When Spain allied itself with France, Britain declared war on Spain and in turn attacked an ill-prepared Manila. After ten days of battle, English soldiers were able to enter the city through a rupture in its surrounding walls. Through the efforts of the Spanish Lieutenant-Governor, Don Simon de Anda y Salazar, the remainder of the archipelago retained its loyalty to Spain. British control of Manila was short-lived as the Seven-Years War ended on February 10, 1763. The collapse of central Spanish authority during the British occupation of Manila, however, led to a number of uprisings in Pangasinan, Cavite, Tondo, Iloilo, Samar, and Zamboanga, to name a few.

Perhaps the most serious of these was the Rebellion of Diego Silang (1762-63). Seeing that the Spanish could be defeated, Silang openly protested the cruel treatment of the indios (Philippine natives) by the Spanish. Diego Silang led successful rebellions in Vigan on November 14 and December 25, 1762. On February 1, 1763, Simon de Anda y Salazar issued a decree asking Silang to surrender. Realizing that to actualize his dream of freedom from oppressive Spanish rule the support of the British was essential. Silang then offered peace and friendship to the British. The British were so impressed with Silang that General Dawsonne Drake honored him with the title of captain general (the equivalent of vice-president today). Thus, the English offered recognition of Diego Silang as the governor of llocos. To his dismay, Diego was never to receive the promised British military support. On May 28, 1763, he was tragically murdered by "friends" of his revolutionary movement. His wife, Gabriela, then vowed to continue the fight for freedom and to avenge her husband's death. Fighting ruthless battles, Gabriela Silang became the most wanted woman under the Spanish rule. Her efforts, however, were suppressed after four months.

In an act of caution Salazar prohibited the brandishing of the dagger and bolo (general utility knife) in 1764. This was done with the hopes of preventing future revolts by limiting the Filipino's access to bladed weapons. Henceforth, Filipinos were unable to practice their native martial arts as they once had. Sticks were used to simulate swords. It was no doubt difficult for new students of such arts to visualize cutting an opponent with a wooden

implement, and needless to say, over the next century the "ancient" martial arts of kali became diluted in the Spanish dominated regions to a point where their practitioners fell guilty of becoming too comfortable with the blunt characteristic of hardwood and rattan sticks. The wooden weapons made it possible to defend against an opponent's strike with force-to-force blocks, and to disarm by grabbing the opponent's weapon-two things that are not possible with sharp steel blades. The term eskrima, after the Spanish word for fencing, was coined by the Spaniards who witnessed a fight between Filipino stick fighters in the Visayas that reminded them of their European fencing movements. It was not uncommon at this time for the arts of eskrima to be referred to by such names as estoque or estocada (after the use of the estoc sword), and fraile (since fencing was a favorite past time of the Spanish friars in Manila).

Through rebellion and repression the ancient Filipino martial arts of kali were thus altered. This, coupled with the tremendous influence of Spanish culture, prompted the evolution of eskrima, the "classical" martial art of the Philippines. It was perhaps the Spanish or Italian rapier and dagger schools that had the greatest influence on the art's transformation. The use of numbered angles of attack and what have become the traditional eskrima uniforms were products of acculturation (learned and acquired traits of Spanish culture). Although Filipino (a Tagalog-based language) is the current national language of the Philippines, many eskrimadors use Spanish as the language for teaching their martial arts.

In 1853 ames de mano, a term used by the Spanish friars to describe the ornate trappings on the komedya actors' costumes, became a new name for the hidden, artistic expressions of kali movements. In 1853, arnes de mano was abbreviated to (and accepted as) arnis, after the poet, Laureate Francisco "Balagtas" Baltazar, mentioned it in his epic "Florante at Laura": "Larong buno't arnes na kinakitaan ng kanikaniyang liksi't karunungan" (the arts of buno and arnis displayed each one's skill and knowledge).⁸

The Cry for Freedom

The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 made travel to the Philippines easier for the European in general and more desirable for the Spaniard in particular. Inspired by the French Enlightenment, many of the new visitors to the archipelago had ideas of reform and independence. Ironically, it was the liberal Spaniards who brought Freemasonry to the Philippines. Contained by the Spanish clergy, these organizations initially only admitted peninsular Spaniards and foreigners. These men were more concerned with ideas of liberation than with revolution. As Freemasonry expanded in the Philippines, its membership opened up to include the mestizos (Spanish- Filipinos; Chinese-Filipinos), but not indios (Philippine natives). In 1889 native Filipinos were finally accepted into the secret society. Eager to support Freemasonry, Filipinos joined lodges throughout Europe.⁹ It was through these fraternal orders that the Filipinos found a medium through which to publish propaganda against the oppressive rule of Spain.

(Left) Jose Rizal (Right) Marcelo H. Del Pilar

During this time a man named Don Jose de Asis operated a school of Spanish fencing and Filipino eskrima. The school, called Tanghalan ng Sandata (Hall of Weapons), was located inside the Ateneo de Manila, an exclusive Jesuit high school.¹⁰ The Tanghalan was a place where many future leaders of the Philippine Revolution met and practiced eskrima and Western fencing. Jose Rizal, a Filipino national hero and graduate of Ateneo de Manila, went on to study medicine, philosophy, literature, several languages, and arts and crafts, and to practice fencing at the University of Madrid. It was there that he rallied against Spanish oppression in the Philippines. Rizal, with the editorial help of Marcelo H. Del Pilar, formed a Filipino movement called The Propagandists. They published (among a number of brochures and pamphlets) a newspaper called La Solidaridad (The Solidarity), which they used as a vehicle to publicly oppose Spanish political, economic, and social policies in the Philippines. Rizal wrote in favor of reforms not revolution, although he was later executed as a revolutionary. Juan Luna, one of Rizal's contemporaries, also studied in Europe and, in addition to his mastery of eskrima, became an expert fencer. Luna was also a distinguished painter who, along with Felix Resurrecion, won high honors in a contest initially confined to Spanish artists.¹¹

After the unjust execution of three Filipino priests, the Propaganda Movement grew to full force. Rizal was an avid contributor to their writings, as was Marcelo H. Del Pilar, Graciano Lopez-Jaena, Mariano Ponce, and Antonio Luna. Aside from his support of The Propagandists, Rizal continued his own efforts to gain reform for the Filipinos through the publication of his literary masterpieces, Noli Me Tangere (The Lost Eden), and its sequel, El Filibusterismo (The Subversive). After publishing his novels Rizal decided he could no longer help his country by living in Europe so he returned to the Philippines with his sister, Lucia. Shortly after his arrival Rizal and a few associates formed a society called La Liga Filipina, whose purpose it was to unite all Filipinos. With the news of this development, the Spanish government arrested Rizal and sent him in exile to the city of Dapitan, Zamboanga.¹²

(Left) Jose Rizal (Right) Marcelo H. Del Pilar

Rizal was the idol of the oppressed Filipino and his banishment only led many more to think in terms of reform and rebellion again Spain. One such individual was Andres Bonifacio, who, on July 2, 1892, founded the secret society called Ang Kataastaasan Kagalanggalangang Katipunan ng mga Anak ng Bayan (The Highest and Most Honorable Association of the Sons of the People)-or Katipunan (Brotherhood), for short. The Katipunan was concerned with one thing: complete separation from Spain by way of revolution. To do this it gathered the popular fanatical support of some 200,000 Filipinos and trained them in the basic techniques of eskrima.

Rizal, opposed to a revolution, argued that the Filipino people were neither properly equipped nor trained and would consequently suffer great losses. Much to his surprise, Rizal found that the Katipunan had already nominated him as their president. Knowing his life was in danger, Rizal left Zamboanga with the permission of Governor Ramon Blanco to work as a doctor in Cuba. Until the Spanish authorities discovered their intentions, the Philippine Revolution had been set for August 30, 1896. Not wanting to loose their chance at freedom, Bonifacio gathered his followers for a secret meeting in Balintawak. He asked his followers if they would fight until death. They all agreed. Thus began the Philippine Revolution.

While in Barcelona, Spain, en route to Cuba, Rizal was arrested by Spanish authorities. They accused him of being a member of the Katipunan. Rizal pleaded that he had no association with the Society and, in fact, did not know Andres Bonifacio. Despite his protestations of innocence, on December 28, 1896, Jose Rizal was found guilty of having caused the Philippine Revolution by way of his novels and the society, La Liga Filipina. On December 30, Rizal, arms tied, was sentenced to be shot in the back by a firing squad in Bagumbayan Field. This was done in hopes of suppressing further revolutionary actions with Rizal as an example. Being shot in the back was the mark of a traitor and Rizal, who felt he had never committed treason, quickly turned and faced the firing squad as they showered him with bullets. Contrary to the intentions of the Spanish, the death of Rizal was the single factor that united all indios across the length of the Philippines to unite in the revolt against Spain.

Although the Katipunan was gaining ground against the Spaniards in many areas, it was ultimately plagued by internal disputes. In fact, two rival factions, the Magdalo of Cavite and the Magdiwang of Noveleta, arose, thus dividing the Brotherhood. When attempting to reunite his revolutionary movement, Bonifacio found that his authority had already been superseded by General Emilio Aguinaldo. Aguinaldo was chosen as the president of the new Philippine revolutionary government. Bonifacio, opposing such a coupe d'état, initiated an internal war. Soon thereafter, however, Bonifacio and his brother, Procopio, were captured and later executed for treason on May 10, 1897.

Despite the execution of Rizal, the court martial of Bonifacio, a number of failed treaties, and the exile of Aguinaldo to Hong Kong, the Philippine Revolution, which was spirited and headed by eskrimadors, continued in full force until America declared war on Spain in 1898.