There is a method in man’s wickedness.
—Beaumont & Fletcher
The methods and procedures used to collect the news can affect the potential accuracy, relevance, and sufficiency of the news. A variety of issues need to be considered.
Chapter 5 describes methods by which to collect information from a representative sample or portion of persons or documents. Fake news often has a small sample or a “cherry picked” amount of information that presents a distorted and biased conclusion.
Chapter 6 presents different methods and instruments used to collect information included in the news. Fake news will tend to use inappropriate procedures or only a single method to collect the information. Fake news will use inappropriate question wording in questionnaires and poorly constructed tests to generate results.
Chapter 7 includes examples of how fake news deceives with the use of graphs, tables, and adjusted scores. Distorted and cut off tables and graphs, grouped categories of scores, and adjusting scores all are potential ways to provide inaccurate and even fake news to influence others.
Chapter 8 presents some commonly misused quantitative scores used with fake news. These scores are the “average” and “correlation” that have a history of suggesting fake representation of a typical person or of indicating a fake causal relation. “Percentiles” and “grade equivalent” scores are also presented with caution for use in educational practice.
Chapter 9 addresses the concerns regarding interpreting the quantitative and other information. Lack of clarity of assumptions, measurement errors, counterfactual thinking, and failure to examine alternative explanation contribute to fake news often claiming “proof” or “disproof” rather than interpretations based upon probability.
Chapter 10 examines how fake news makes promises or recommendations without sufficient indication of assumptions and qualifiers to permit verification of feasibility and potential success. Fake news can make promises. Reality may be different.