Chapter 1. Human Nature
1. Dawkins 1991.
2. Weismann 1889.
3. Weismann 1889.
4. A few scientists argue that Chinese people are indeed descended from “Peking man,” the local version of Homo erectus, but the evidence is now heavily against them.
5. Karl Marx, in Criticism of the Gotha Program (1875), was paraphrasing Michael Bakunin, who declared, when on trial after the failure of an anarchist rising at Lyons (1870): “From each according to his faculties, to each according to his needs.”
6. Not all anthropologists would agree that all modern people are descendants of a race that was confined to Africa until 100,000 years ago, but most do.
7. Tooby and Cosmides 1990.
8. Mayr 1983; Dawkins 1986.
9. Hunter, Nur, and Werren 1993.
10. Dawkins 1991.
11. Dawkins 1986.
12. Tiger 1991.
13. See Edward Tenner’s article “Revenge Theory” in Harvard Magazine, March–April 1991, for why this is so.
14. Wilson 1975.
Chapter 2. The Enigma
1. Bell 1982.
2. Weismann 1889.
3. Brooks 1988.
4. J. Maynard Smith, interview.
5. Levin 1988.
6. Weismann 1889.
7. Bell 1982.
8. Fisher 1930.
9. Muller 1932.
10. Crow and Kimura 1965.
11. Wynne Edwards 1962.
12. Darwin 1859.
13. Humphrey 1983.
14. Williams 1966.
15. Fisher 1930; Wright 1931; Haldane 1932.
16. Huxley 1942.
17. Hamilton 1964; Trivers 1971.
18. Ghiselin 1974, 1988.
19. Maynard Smith 1971.
20. Stebbins 1950; Maynard Smith 1978.
21. Jaenike 1978.
22. Gould and Lewontin 1979.
23. Williams 1975; Maynard Smith 1978.
24. Maynard Smith 1971.
25. Ghiselin 1988.
26. Bernstein, Hopf, and Michod 1988.
27. Bernstein 1983; Bernstein, Byerly, Hopf, and Michod 1985.
28. Maynard Smith 1988.
29. Tiersch, Beck, and Douglas 1991.
30. Bull and Charnov 1985; Bierzychudek 1987b; Kondrashov and Crow 1991; Perrod, Richerd, and Valero 1991.
31. Bernstein, Hopf, and Michod 1988.
32. Kondrashov 1988.
33. Flegg, Spencer, and Wood 1985.
34. Stearns 1978; Michod and Levin 1988.
35. Kirkpatrick and Jenkins 1989; Wiener, Feldman, and Otto 1992.
36. Muller 1964.
37. Bell 1988.
38. Muller’s ratchet has recently been found at work in viruses; see Chao 1992; Chao, Tran, and Matthews 1992.
39. Crow 1988.
40. Kondrashov 1982.
41. M. Meselson, interview.
42. Kondrashov 1988.
43. Hamilton 1990.
44. C. Lively, interview.
Chapter 3. The Power of Parasites
1. Hurst, Hamilton, and Ladle 1992.
2. M. Meselson, interview.
3. Maynard Smith 1986.
4. Williams 1966, Williams 1975.
5. Maynard Smith 1971.
6. Williams and Mitton 1973.
7. Williams 1975.
8. Bell 1982.
9. Bell 1982.
10. Ghiselin 1974.
11. Darwin 1859.
12. Bell 1982.
13. Schmitt and Antonovics 1986; Ladle 1992.
14. Williams 1966.
15. Bierzychudek 1987.
16. Harvey 1978.
17. Burt and Bell 1987.
18. Eldredge and Gould 1972.
19. Williams 1975.
20. Carroll 1871.
21. Van Valen 1973; L. Van Valen, interview.
22. Zinsser 1934; McNeill 1976.
23. Washington Post, December 16, 1991.
24. Krause 1992.
25. Dawkins 1990.
26. Assuming thirty minutes per bacterial generation, there are 1,226,400 bacterial generations in a human lifetime of seventy years. In the 7 million years since we shared an ancestor with chimpanzees, there have been just over 200,000 “human” generations of thirty years each.
27. O’Connell 1989.
28. Dawkins and Krebs 1979.
29. Schall 1990; May and Anderson 1990.
30. Levy 1992.
31. Ray 1992.
32. Ray 1992; T. Ray, interview.
33. L. Hurst, interview.
34. Burt and Bell 1987.
35. Bell and Burt 1990.
36. Kelley 1985; Schmitt and Antonovics 1986; Bierzychudek 1987a.
37. Haldane 1949; Hamilton 1990.
38. Hamilton, Axelrod, and Tanese 1990; W. D. Hamilton, interview.
39. Haldane 1949; Clarke 1979.
40. Clay 1991.
41. Bremermann 1987.
42. Nowak 1992; Nowak and May 1992.
43. Hill, Allsopp, Kwiatkowski, Anstey, Twumasi, Rowe, Bennett, Brewster, McMichael, and Greenwood 1991.
44. Potts, Manning, and Wakeland 1991.
45. Haldane 1949.
46. Jayakar 1970; Hamilton 1990.
47. Jaenike 1978; Bell 1982; Bremermann 1980; Tooby 1982; Hamilton 1980.
48. Hamilton 1964; Hamilton 1967; Hamilton 1971.
49. Hamilton, Axelrod, and Tanese 1990.
50. Hamilton, Axelrod, and Tanese 1990.
51. W. D. Hamilton, interviews.
52. W. D. Hamilton, interview; A. Pomiankowski, interview.
53. Glesner and Tilman 1978; Bierzychudek 1987.
54. Daly and Wilson 1983.
55. Edmunds and Alstad 1978, 1981; Seger and Hamilton 1988.
56. Harvey 1978.
57. Gould 1978.
58. C. Lively, interview.
59. Lively 1987.
60. C. Lively, interview.
61. Lively, Craddock, and Vrijenhoek 1990.
62. Tooby 1982.
63. Bell 1987.
64. Hamilton 1990.
65. Hamilton 1990.
66. Bell and Maynard Smith 1987.
67. W. D. Hamilton, interview.
68. M. Meselson, interview.
69. R. Ladle, interview.
70. G. Bell, interview; A. Burt, interview; Felsentein 1988; W. Hamilton, interview; J. Maynard Smith, interview; G. Williams, interview.
71. Metzenberg 1990.
Chapter 4. Genetic Mutiny and Gender
1. Hardin 1968.
2. I make no apology for using the word gender when I mean sex (male or female); I know it is a word that originally referred only to grammatical categories, but meanings change and it is usefully unambiguous to have a word other than sex for males and females.
3. Cosmides and Tooby 1981.
4. Leigh 1990.
5. See Dawkins 1976, 1982, for the clearest exposition of this case.
6. Hickey 1982; Hickey and Rose 1988.
7. Doolittle and Sapienza 1980; Orgel and Crick 1980.
8. Dawkins 1986.
9. Nee and Maynard Smith 1990.
10. Mereschkovsky 1905; Margulis 1981; Margulis and Sagan 1986.
11. Beeman, Friesen, and Denell 1992.
12. Hewitt 1972; Hewitt 1976; Hewitt and East 1978; Shaw, Hewitt, and Anderson 1985; Bell and Burt 1990; Jones 1991.
13. D. Haig, interview.
14. Haig and Grafen 1991.
15. Charlesworth and Hartl 1978.
16. For a comprehensive review of meiotic drive see American Naturalist, vol. 137, pp. 281–456, “The Genetics and Evolutionary Biology of Meiotic Drive,” a symposium organized by T. W. Lyttle, L. M. Sandler, T. Prout, and D. D. Perkins, 1991.
17. Haig and Grafen 1991.
18. D. Haig, interview; see also S. Spandrel (unpublished).
19. Hamilton 1967; Dawkins 1982; Bull 1983; Hurst 1992a; L. Hurst, interview.
20. Leigh 1977.
21. Cosmides and Tooby 1981.
22. Margulis 1981.
23. Cosmides and Tooby 1981; Hurst and Hamilton 1992.
24. Anderson 1992; Hurst 1991b; Hurst 1992b.
25. Werren, Skinner, and Huger 1986; Werren 1987; Hurst 1990; Hurst 1991c.
26. Mitchison 1990.
27. L. Hurst, interview; see also Parker, Baker, and Smith 1972 and Hoekstra 1987 for additional, but not rival, features of the evolution of anisogamy and two genders.
28. Frank 1989.
29. Gouyon and Couvet 1987; Frank 1989; Frank 1991; Hurst and Pomiankowski 1991.
30. Hurst 1991a.
31. Hurst and Hamilton 1992.
32. Hurst, Godfray, and Harvey 1990.
33. Hurst, Godfray, and Harvey 1990.
34. Olsen and Marsden 1954; Olsen 1956; Olsen and Buss 1967.
35. Lienhart and Vermelin 1946.
36. Hamilton 1967.
37. Cosmides and Tooby 1981.
38. Bull and Bulmer 1981; Frank 1990.
39. Bull and Bulmer 1981; J. J. Bull, interview.
40. Frank and Swingland 1988; Charnov 1982; Bull 1983; J. J. Bull, interview.
41. Warner, Robertson, and Leigh 1975.
42. Bull 1983; Bull 1987; Conover and Kynard 1981.
43. Dunn, Adams, and Smith 1990; Adams, Greenwood, and Naylor 1987.
44. Head, May, and Pendleton 1987.
45. J. J. Bull, interview.
46. Bull 1983; Werren 1991; Hunter, Nur, and Werren 1993.
47. Trivers and Willard 1973.
48. Trivers and Willard 1973.
49. The sex ratio of presidential children was first noticed by Laura Betzig and Samantha Weber of the University of Michigan.
50. Trivers and Willard 1973.
51. Austad and Sunquist 1986.
52. Clutton-Brock and Iason 1986; Clutton-Brock 1991; Huck, Labov, and Lisk 1986.
53. T. H. Clutton-Brock, interview.
54. Clutton-Brock, Albon, and Guinness 1984.
55. Symington 1987.
56. For baboons, see Altmann 1980; for macaques, see Silk 1983, Simpson and Simpson 1982, and Small and Hrdy 1986; for a general summary, see Van Schaik and Hrdy 1991; for howler monkeys, I rely on K. Glander, interview; for a skeptical view of this data, T. Hasegawa, correspondence.
57. Hrdy 1987.
58. Van Schaik and Hrdy 1991.
59. Goodall 1986.
60. Grant 1990; Betzig and Weber 1992.
61. Grant 1990; V. J. Grant, correspondence.
62. Bromwich 1989.
63. K. McWhirter: “The gender vendors.” Independent newspaper, London 27 October 1991, pages 54–55.
64. B. Gledhill, interview.
65. For zebra finches, see Burley 1981; for red-cockaded woodpeckers, see Gowaty and Lennartz 1985; for bald eagles, see Bortolotti 1986; for other hawks, see Olsen and Cockburn 1991.
66. N. D. Kristof: “Asia, Vanishing Point for As Many As 100 Million Women.” International Herald Tribune, 6 November 1991, page 1.
67. Rao 1986; Hrdy 1990.
68. M. Nordborg, interview.
69. Bromwich 1989.
70. James 1986; James 1989; W. H. James, interview.
71. Unterberger and Kirsch 1932.
72. Dawkins 1982.
73. A. C. Hurlbert, personal communication.
74. Fisher 1930; R. L. Trivers, interview.
75. Betzig 1992a.
76. Dickemann 1979; Boone 1988; Voland 1988; Judge and Hrdy 1988.
77. Hrdy 1987; Cronk 1989; Hrdy 1990.
78. Dickemann 1979.
79. Dickemann 1979; Kitcher 1985; Alexander 1988; Hrdy 1990.
80. S. B. Hrdy, interview.
81. Dickemann 1979.
Chapter 5. The Peacock’s Tale
1. Troy and Elgar 1991.
2. Trivers 1972; see also Dawkins 1976.
3. Atmar 1991.
4. Darwin 1871.
5. Diamond 1991b.
6. Cronin 1992.
7. Marden 1992.
8. Baker 1985; Gotmark 1992.
9. Ridley, Rands, and Lelliott 1984.
10. Halliday 1983.
11. Hoglund and Robertson 1990.
12. Møller 1988.
13. Hoglund, Eriksson, and Lindell 1990.
14. Andersson 1982.
15. Cherry 1990.
16. Houde and Endler 1990.
17. Evans and Thomas 1992.
18. Fisher 1930.
19. Jones and Hunter 1993.
20. Ridley and Hill 1987.
21. Taylor and Williams 1982.
22. Boyce 1990.
23. Cronin 1992.
24. The best volumes on the two factions of sexual selection are Bradbury and Andersson 1987 and Cronin 1992.
25. O’Donald 1980; Lande 1981; Kirkpatrick 1982; see Arnold 1983.
26. Weatherhead and Robertson 1979.
27. Pomiankowski, Iwasa, and Nee 1991
28. Pomiankowski 1990.
29. Dugatkin 1992; Gibson and Hoglund 1992. Copying has also been proven in fallow deer: Balmford 1991.
30. Pomiankowski 1990; see also Trail 1990 for why capuchin birds and other monomorphic lekking species experience female-female competition.
31. Partridge 1980.
32. Balmford 1991.
33. Alatalo, Hoglund, and Lundberg 1991.
34. Hill 1990.
35. Diamond 1991a.
36. Zahavi 1975.
37. Dawkins 1976; Cronin 1992.
38. Andersson 1986; Pomiankowski 1987; Grafen 1990; Iwasa, Pomiankowski and Nee 1991.
39. Møller 1991.
40. Hamilton and Zuk 1982.
41. Ward 1988; Pruett-Jones, Pruett-Jones, and Jones 1990; Zuk 1991; Zuk 1992.
42. Low 1990.
43. Cronin 1992.
44. Møller 1990.
45. Hillgarth 1990; N. Hillgarth and M. Zuk, interview.
46. Kirkpatrick and Ryan 1991.
47. Boyce 1990; Spurrier, Boyce, and Manly 1991.
48. Thornhill and Sauer 1992.
49. Møller 1992.
50. Møller and Pomiankowski (in press); see also Balmford, Thomas, and Jones 1993; A. Pomiankowski, interview.
51. Maynard Smith 1991; see Cronin 1992 for a history of how people have repeatedly made the mistake of thinking choice must be conscious and active, and that therefore it was unreasonable to expect female animals to choose their mates using “rational” criteria.
52. Zuk 1992.
53. Zuk, in press.
54. Zuk, Thornhill, Ligon, and Johnson 1990; Ligon, Thornhill, Zuk, and Johnson 1990.
55. Flinn 1992.
56. Daly and Wilson 1983.
57. Folstad and Karter 1992; Zuk 1992.
58. Zuk, in press.
59. Wederkind 1992.
60. Hamilton 1990b.
61. Kodric-Brown and Brown 1984.
62. Dawkins and Krebs 1978.
63. Dawkins and Guilford 1991.
64. Low, Alexander, and Noonan 1987.
65. T. Guilford, interview; B. Low, interview.
66. Ryan 1991; M. Ryan, interview.
67. Basolo 1990.
68. Green 1987.
69. Eberhard 1985.
70. Kramer 1990.
71. Enquist and Arak 1993.
72. Gilliard 1963.
73. Houde and Endler 1990; J. Endler, interview.
74. Kirkpatrick 1989.
75. Searcy 1992.
76. Burley 1981.
77. The hypnosis idea is my own: see Ridley 1981. But it receives some indirect support from later experiments on peacocks and other pheasants: See Rands, Ridley, and Lelliott 1984; Davison 1983; Ridley, Rands, and Lelliott 1984; Petrie, Halliday, and Sanders 1991.
78. Gould and Gould 1989.
79. Pomiankowski and Guilford 1990.
80. A. Pomiankowski, interview.
Chapter 6. Polygamy and the Nature of Men
1. Betzig 1986.
2. Brown 1991; Barkow, Cosmides, and Tooby 1992.
3. Crook and Crook 1988.
4. Betzig and Weber 1992.
5. Trivers 1972.
6. Bateman 1948.
7. Alexander 1974, 1979; Irons 1979.
8. Clutton-Brock and Vincent 1991; Gwynne 1991.
9. For a clear summary of the argument that paternal care leads to the female initiative in courtship, and the evidence for it, see my namesake’s paper: Ridley (Mark) 1978.
10. Symons 1979; D. Symons, interview.
11. Symons 1979.
12. Symons 1979.
13. Tripp 1975; Symons 1979.
14. Maynard Smith and Price 1973.
15. Trivers 1971; Maynard Smith 1977; Emlen and Oring 1977.
16. Pleszczynska and Hansell 1980; Garson, Pleszczynska and Holm 1981. Incidentally, polygamy can mean having many mates of either sex; polygyny means specifically males having many female mates. Although polygyny is more precise, I have stuck with the more familiar words throughout this book: polygamy for males, polyandry for females.
17. L. Betzig, interview.
18. Borgehoff Mulder 1988, 1992; M. Borgehoff Mulder, interview.
19. “Polygamists emerge from secrecy seeking not just peace but respect” by Dirk Johnson. New York Times, 9 April 1991, page A22.
20. Green 1993.
21. Symons 1979 put it this way: “Heterosexual relations are structured to a substantial degree by the nature and interests of the human female.”
22. Crook and Gartlan 1966; Jarman 1974; Clutton-Brock and Harvey 1977.
23. Avery and Ridley 1988; Vos 1979.
24. Smith 1984.
25. Foley and Lee 1989.
26. Foley 1987; Foley and Lee 1989; Leakey and Lewin 1992; Kingdon 1993.
27. Symons 1987; K. Hill, interview.
28. Alexander 1988; R. D. Alexander, interview.
29. Kaplan and Hill 1985b; Hewlett 1988.
30. Kaplan and Hill 1985a; Hill and Kaplan 1988; Hawkes 1992; Cosmides and Tooby 1992; K. Hawkes, interview.
31. Cashdan 1980; Cosmides and Tooby 1992.
32. N. Chagnon, interview; Cronk 1991.
33. Rosenberg and Birdzell 1986.
34. Goodall 1990.
35. Daly and Wilson 1983.
36. “Dolphin Courtship: Brutal, Cunning and Complex” by N. Angier, New York Times, 18 February 1992, p. C1.
37. Dickemann 1979.
38. Hartung 1982.
39. L. Betzig, interview.
40. Betzig 1986.
41. Betzig 1986.
42. Finley, quoted in Betzig 1992b; the Gibbon quote is from The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, volume I, chapter 7.
43. Betzig 1992c.
44. Betzig 1992a.
45. Scruton 1986.
46. Brown and Hotra 1988.
47. D. E. Brown, interview.
48. Goodall 1986. However, old females are killed by the victors.
49. N. Chagnon, interview.
50. Chagnon 1968; Chagnon 1988.
51. I’m indebted to Archie Fraser for pointing out this parallel.
52. Chagnon 1968.
53. Smith 1984.
54. D. E. Brown, interview.
Chapter 7. Monogamy and the Nature of Women
1. Møller 1987; Birkhead and Møller 1992.
2. Murdock and White 1969; Fisher 1992 makes the interesting case that sexism, despotism, polygamy, and male “ownership” of wives were all invented along with the plow, which removed from women all their share in food winning; as women have come back into the work force in recent decades, so their say and status have improved.
3. Hrdy 1981; Hrdy 1986.
4. Bertram 1975; Hrdy 1979; Hausfater and Hrdy 1984. A remarkable experiment by Emlen, Demong, and Emlen 1989 greatly strengthened the contention that infanticide was an adaptive strategy. By removing territorial females, Emlen induced female jacanas—a role-reversed species—to kill the eggs of males with nests in their newly acquired territories.
5. Dunbar 1988.
6. Wrangham 1987; R. W. Wrangham, interview.
7. Goodall 1986, 1990; Hiraiwa-Hasegawa 1988; Yamamura, Hasegawa, and Ito 1990.
8. Daly and Wilson 1988.
9. Martin and May 1981.
10. Hasegawa and Hiraiwa-Hasegawa 1990; Diamond 1991b.
11. White 1992; Small 1992.
12. Short 1979.
13. Eberhard 1985; Hyde and Elgar 1992; Bellis, Baker, and Gage 1990; Baker and Bellis 1992.
14. Harcourt, Harvey, Larson, and Short 1981; Hyde and Elgar 1992.
15. Connor, Smolker, and Richards 1992.
16. Smith 1984. This explanation, that cool testicles are designed to increase the shelf life of stored sperm, fits the facts far better than the old notion that sperm must be manufactured in a cool organ or they will be deformed.
17. Harvey and May 1989.
18. Payne and Payne 1989.
19. Birkhead and Møller 1992.
20. Hamilton 1990b.
21. Westneat, Sherman, and Morton 1990; Birkhead and Møller 1992.
22. Potts, Manning, and Wakeland 1991.
23. Burley 1981.
24. Møller 1987.
25. Baker and Bellis 1989, 1992.
26. Birkhead and Møller 1992.
27. Hill and Kaplan 1988; K. Hill, interview.
28. K. Hill, interview.
29. Wilson and Daly 1992; R. W. Wrangham, interview.
30. Cherfas and Gribbin 1984; Flinn 1988.
31. Morris 1967.
32. Birkhead and Møller 1992.
33. Alexander and Noonan 1979.
34. The first authors to see it this way were Cherfas and Gribbin 1984.
35. Hrdy 1979; Symons 1979; Benshoof and Thornhill 1979; Diamond 1991b; Fisher 1992; Sillen-Tullberg and Møller 1993.
36. Korpimaki 1991.
37. Alatalo, Lundberg, and Stahlbrandt 1982. Recent research suggests that the wife, at least, knows what is happening. See Veiga 1992; Slagsvold, Amundsen, Dale, and Lampe 1992.
38. Veiga 1992.
39. Møller and Birkhead 1989.
40. Darwin 1803.
41. Wilson and Daly 1992.
42. Wilson and Daly 1992.
43. Thornhill and Thornhill 1983, 1989; Posner 1992.
44. Gaulin and Schlegel 1980; Wilson and Daly 1992; Regalski and Gaulin 1992.
45. A. Fraser, personal communication.
46. Malinowski 1927.
47. Wilson and Daly 1992.
48. French revolutionary law, quoted in translation by Wilson and Daly 1992.
49. Alexander 1974; Kurland 1979.
50. Betzig 1992a.
51. Voland 1988, 1992.
52. Boone 1988.
53. Darwin 1803.
54. Betzig 1992a.
55. Betzig 1992a.
56. Betzig 1992a.
57. Thornhill 1990.
58. Thornhill 1990.
59. Kitcher 1985; Vining 1986.
60. Perusse 1992.
61. W. Irons, interview; N. Polioudakis, interview.
Chapter 8. Sexing the Mind
1. Gaulin and Fitzgerald 1986; Jacobs, Gaulin, Sherry, and Hoffman 1990.
2. Konner 1982.
3. Darwin 1871.
4. Silverman and Eals 1992.
5. Maccoby and Jacklin 1974; Daly and Wilson 1983; Moir and Jessel 1991.
6. M. Bailey, interview.
7. Gaulin and Hoffman 1988.
8. Silverman and Eals 1992.
9. Wilson 1975; Kingdon 1993.
10. Daly and Wilson 1983.
11. Symons 1979.
12. Hudson and Jacot 1991.
13. Tannen 1990.
14. Gaulin and Hoffman 1988.
15. Maccoby and Jacklin 1974; Ehrhardt and Meyer-Bahlburg 1981; Rossi 1985; Moir and Jessel 1991.
16. Moir and Jessel 1991.
17. McGuinness 1979.
18. McGuinness 1979.
19. Imperato-McGinley, Peterson, Gautier, and Sturla 1979.
20. Daly and Wilson 1983; Moir and Jessel 1991.
21. Hoyenga and Hoyenga 1980.
22. Tannen 1990.
23. Tiger and Shepher 1977; Daly and Wilson 1983; Moir and Jessel 1991.
24. Fisher 1992.
25. Interviewed in the Sunday Times (London), 7 June 1992.
26. Dörner 1985, 1989; M. Bailey, interview; Le Vay 1992.
27. M. Bailey, interview; D. Hamer, interview.
28. Dickemann 1992.
29. Symons 1987.
30. Thornhill 1989a.
31. Buss 1989, 1992.
32. Ellis 1992.
33. Buss 1989, 1992.
34. Kenrick and Keefe 1989.
35. Ellis and Symons 1990.
36. Ellis and Symons 1990.
37. Symons 1987.
38. Mosher and Abramson 1977.
39. Ellis and Symons 1990.
40. Alatalo, Hoglund, and Lundberg 1991.
41. Fisher 1992.
42. Symons 1989.
43. Brown 1991.
44. Wilson 1978.
45. Tooby and Cosmides 1989.
46. Moir and Jessel 1991.
Chapter 9. The Uses of Beauty
1. M. Bailey, interview; D. Hamer, interview; F. Whitam, interview. Levay 1993.
2. Freud 1913.
3. Westermarck 1891.
4. Wolf 1966, 1970; Degler 1991.
5. Daly and Wilson 1983.
6. Shepher 1983.
7. Thornhill 1989b.
8. Thorpe 1954, 1961.
9. Marler and Tamura 1964.
10. Slater 1983.
11. Seid 1989.
12. Washington Post, 28 July 1992.
13. Frisch 1988; Anderson and Crawford 1992.
14. Smuts 1993.
15. Elder 1969; Buss 1992.
16. Ellis 1992.
17. Fisher 1930.
18. D. Singh, interview.
19. Low, Alexander, and Noonan 1987; Leakey and Lewin 1992; D. Singh, interview.
20. Ellis 1905.
21. The same idea—that fair hair is a sexually selected trait—has been put forward by Jonathan Kingdon recently; see Kingdon 1993.
22. Kingdon 1993.
23. This is a further reason that I am not convinced by Helen Fisher’s (1992) theory that human pair bonds lasted about four years on average.
24. R. Thornhill, interview.
25. Galton 1883.
26. See “No Better Than Average” by M. Ridley, Science 257:328.
27. Dickemann 1979.
28. Buss 1992; Gould and Gould 1989.
29. Berscheid and Walster 1974; Gillis and Avis 1980; Ellis 1992; Shellberg 1992.
30. Sadalla, Kenrick, and Vershure 1987; Ellis 1992.
31. Daly and Wilson 1983.
32. Daly and Wilson 1983.
33. Ellis 1992. The other facts in this paragraph are from Trivers 1985; Ford and Beach 1951; Pratto, Sidanius, and Stallworth 1992; and Buss 1989.
34. Bell 1976.
35. Symons 1992; R. Alexander, interview.
36. Fallon and Rozin 1985.
37. Ellis 1905.
38. Low 1979.
39. Bell 1976.
40. Darwin 1871.
41. B. Ellis, interview.
Chapter 10. The Intellectual Chess Game
1. Connor, Smolker, and Richards (1992) argue that the social complexity of dolphin species roughly correlates with brain size. Bottle-nosed dolphins seem to be the most socially complex and the largest-brained species of all.
2. Johansen and Edey 1981.
3. Tooby and Cosmides 1992.
4. Bloom 1992; Pinker and Bloom 1992.
5. Gould 1981.
6. Fox 1991.
7. Durkheim 1895.
8. Brown 1991.
9. Mead 1928.
10. Wilson 1975.
11. Gould 1978.
12. Gould 1987.
13. Pinker and Bloom 1992.
14. Chomsky 1957.
15. Marr 1982; Hurlbert and Poggio 1988.
16. Tooby and Cosmides 1992.
17. Leakey and Lewin 1992.
18. Lewin 1984.
19. Dart 1954; Ardrey 1966.
20. Konner 1982.
21. R. Wrangham, interview.
22. Gould 1981.
23. Badcock 1991.
24. Montagu 1961.
25. Leakey and Lewin 1992.
26. Budiansky 1992.
27. S. J. Gould, reported in Pinker and Bloom 1992.
28. Pinker and Bloom 1992.
29. Alexander 1974, 1990.
30. Potts 1991.
31. Humphrey 1976.
32. Humphrey 1976, 1983.
33. Barlow, unpublished.
34. Crook 1991.
35. Pinker and Bloom 1992.
36. Tooby and Cosmides 1992.
37. Barlow 1990; Barkow 1992.
38. Konner 1982.
39. Symons 1987.
40. Barlow 1987.
41. Byrne and Whiten 1985, 1988, 1992.
42. Macaulay’s works, vol. II, “Essay on the Athenian Orators.”
43. Dawkins and Krebs 1978.
44. Cosmides 1989; Cosmides and Tooby 1992; Gigerenzer and Hug (in press).
45. Byrne and Whiten 1985, 1988, 1992.
46. Trivers 1991.
47. Goodall 1986.
48. Miller 1992.
49. Connor, Smolker, and Richards 1992.
50. De Waal 1982.
51. Miller 1992.
52. Buss 1989.
53. Symons 1979; G. Miller, interview.
54. Leakey and Lewin 1992.
55. G. Miller, correspondence.
56. Erickson and Zenone 1976.
57. Miller 1992; see also Miller and Todd 1990.
58. Webster 1992.
59. Badcock 1991.