Chapter 8
Writing and Speaking Skills
Robert V. Smith*
Llewellyn D. Densmore†
Abstract
Graduate researchers need approaches and styles that will enhance their effectiveness in written and oral communications. Improvement requires attention to the elements of good writing, methods for improving writing skills, and tips on writing specific pieces. Writing is aided by outlines, revising and rewriting, avoiding jargon, using university writing centers, and developing a “writing friends” system. Protocols for texting, emailing, and preparing notes, memos, and letters are useful when used appropriately. In research, data management and organization of notebooks are aided by software, including so-called electronic laboratory notebooks. Reports and related efforts such as research articles benefit from approaches that include general outline questions, tabulating and graphing results, well accepted approaches and formats for text and referencing, and limiting speculation. A schema can be used in preparing book and journal reviews. Oral communications are assisted by a unique style, considering the needs of others, listening skills, and gravitas.
Keywords
writing
revision
style
notebook
report
article
review
speaking
listening
gravitas
“You should say what you mean,” the March Hare went on.
“I do,” Alice hastily replied; “at least – at least I mean what I say – that’s the same thing, you know.”
“Not the same thing a bit!” said the Hatter. “Why you might just as well say that ‘I see what I eat’ is the same thing as ‘I eat what I see’!”
– Lewis Carroll (pen-name for Charles Ludwidge Dodgson) (1832–1898) English writer, mathematician, academic, photographer, and Anglican deacon
Writing and speaking may span the sublime to the ridiculous. All researchers must write and make oral presentations. It is, therefore, important as a graduate student and developing professional, to acquire approaches and styles that will enhance your effectiveness in writing and speech making.
Writing skills
Students should begin early in their graduate careers to improve writing skills. Improvement requires an understanding of the elements of good writing, methods for improving writing skills, and tips on writing specific pieces including: (1) notes and outlines; (2) texting, email and written notes, memos, and letters; (3) entries in research notebooks; (4) reports and research papers; and (5) book reviews.
Elements of good writing
Fielden [148] noted that good writing is characterized by four elements:
1. Thought
2. Correctness
3. Appropriateness
4. Readability
Thought. Well-written pieces are thoughtful. Passages are well organized, and faithful to the stated purpose of the work. Good writing contains proper hypotheses, assumptions, and conclusions. It shows a lack of bias and portrays believable justifications. Thoughtful writing reflects the author’s enthusiasm and persuasiveness, when needed (e.g., correspondence, grant proposals, and reports).
Correctness. Good writing contains correct grammar, punctuation, and spelling. Correct writing is coherent. It is marked by proper syntax, and good sentence transitions. Correct writing is neat. It contains judiciously chosen headings and subdivisions.
Appropriateness. Good writing has the right tone. The reader is neither patronized, nor buried in verbosity and pompousness. Appropriate writing gives the reader a clear idea of needs and desires.
Readability. Good writing is readable. It flows smoothly. It does not require the rereading of every other sentence. Readable pieces have a lead off topic sentence followed by sentences that outline the work. The reader knows early on where the material is heading, and how the work will turn out. Readable works contain logically presented ideas. These works also have clear transitions, from paragraph to paragraph. Summarizing statements appear periodically that help the reader understand prior text.
Approaches to good writing
Many books are available on writing nonfiction, and researchers will find it useful to read at least one of these. Two of our favorites are the books by Day and Gastel [149], and Zinsser [150]. If your native language is other than English, we also recommend the book on “scientific English” by Day and Sakaduski [151].
Good writing, like all creative activities, develops with practice and a willingness to try new methods. One method that is essential for the modern researcher is word processing. It is up to researchers to choose the hardware and software that they find most suitable, but the choices should be guided by criteria such as reliability, ease of use, and compatibility with other software programs (e.g., spreadsheet and database filing, electronic notebook) used in your research group. To facilitate communications, it is also useful to consider compatibility of software with that used by other colleagues, faculty, and staff in your program or department.
Regardless of the choices of hardware and software, most people find that an outline is a good place to start writing efforts. Once an outline has been developed, it is useful to write against a self-imposed deadline. If the introductory section of a paper is started at 9 a.m., see if it can be finished by noon. The “dither” or tension generated by the deadline helps the creative process.
Preparing notes and outlines
Different writing efforts require different degrees of planning. Major writing tasks, such as papers and dissertations, require reviews of notes from books and articles read previously, reports and manuscripts of personal articles published previously, and research notebooks. While notes from books and articles read, along with reports and prior manuscripts, will likely be available in electronic format, the picture may vary, relative to research notebooks. The latter have traditionally consisted of hardbound and blank lined notebooks serving as repositories for notes on experimentation – documented by hand, when experiments are conducted, including data collection and analyses. In recent times, research groups have adopted one or more of the many electronic laboratory notebook (ELN) options, available either commercially or through open sources. The ELN options include systems that are self-contained within a local network, or others that are supported through the Internet.
Lass [152–154], in a three-part set of papers, offers a good review of the data management and organizational considerations in adopting suitable software for ELNs. A review of these articles will be helpful in understanding a system, or systems, that may have already been adopted by your advisor’s group. Alternatively, you may be involved in decision-making on the adoption or readoption of an ELN, discussions of which will benefit from your insights. Ideally, the ELN used should offer ready downloading of data and text into reports and manuscripts, and facilitate communication among members of the research group.
Getting back to the prospective writing task, once references and notes have been organized, an outline or its equivalent should be prepared for the work to be written. Researchers may use topic or sentence outlines, or a combination of both. Some people like to prepare a “very rough draft” that serves as a basis for their outline. Others like to use an annotated outline containing reference notations and topic sentences. Regardless of the approach, the writing efforts will be assisted by a word processor that permits facile changes, and transfer and deletion of text from one section to another, or from one document to another. Word processing software should also contain spell- and grammar-checks, synonym finder (Thesaurus), functions for creating tables, and features for importing graphics.
After the outline is complete, consider having it reviewed by an advisor and friends. It is a good idea to develop a “writing friends” system for review of outlines, reports, grant proposals, and manuscripts. Find one or two friends who write well. Make a pact with them to review each other’s work. This arrangement will be immensely helpful during your graduate career.
Different approaches should be tried for the preparation of outlines. Remember that there is no right or wrong way. Find the method that works well for you.
Write, rewrite, and rewrite
Red Smith [155], the Pulitzer Prize winning sports writer, noted: “Writing is easy. You just sit at the typewriter, open a vein, and read it out a drop at a time.” All professionals know that writing is difficult, but the best way to start is to start. Some words on the screen “fuel” further efforts. Follow an outline. Try beginning with a topic sentence (it is better to make it more general than not), and follow with some sentences that outline the paragraphs to come. The actual act of writing will help the creative process. As words appear on a computer screen, new ideas will emerge.
Write simply. Stick to subject–verb–object sentences! Avoid long beginning adjectival phrases that the reader is forced to remember before coming to the subject of the sentence.
Keep most sentences less than 40 words. Produce contiguous sentences of varying lengths. Include summary sentences at the end of major sections. Once the writing has begun, try to get as much as possible composed, without stopping. Worry about revision later.
Try using the outline like a To Do List. After completing an emotionally exhausting section, reward yourself with a soft drink or fresh cup of coffee or tea, or a walk around the room. This allows time to reflect on accomplishments and to encourage subsequent efforts. Use headings liberally. One accepted format is:
MAIN HEADING
Main Subheading
Text begins here …
Secondary subheading. Text begins here …
Use the active voice rather than the passive voice where possible. Try not to impress, rather than inform. Many nationalities, and especially people from the United States, have a tendency to try to sound important. Among US citizens’ most serious faults are verbosity, and excessive use of jargon. These failings also lead to problems with syntax.
Jargon includes confused, strange, technical, obscure, and often pretentious language. Technical words must be used in scientific writing, but they should be properly defined. Avoid using acronyms without noting their meaning during first usage (e.g., Environmental Protection Agency [EPA]). All other forms of jargon should be avoided (e.g., “at this point in time” for “now”; and “in a number of cases” for “some,” as noted in Day and Gastel [149]).
With practice, writing styles can be improved. Booth [156] suggests writing as though you are talking to the reader. The “talk” must be grammatically correct, and devoid of colloquialisms. This approach is aided by consciously trying to speak well. The training includes speaking slowly, choosing words deliberately, and finishing each sentence. Other approaches to writing styles are described by Zinsser [150], and in Strunk and White [157].
Revision is an indispensable part of writing that is facilitated by word processing; this has made inadequate revision of written works inexcusable. Good authors revise their works five or more times. The revision process provides the best opportunity to clarify thoughts, and to correct possible contradictions. Try to develop empathy for the reader. Keep asking, “Could I understand this material if I were reading it for the first time?” You might also try thinking of how the work would appear to a reader whose native tongue is not English.
During the revision process, try to cut out wordiness. Minimize clutter by eliminating adjectives and adverbs, as much as possible. We overuse words such as: “very,” “quite,” “rather,” “fairly,” “relatively,” “several,” and “much.” In English, nouns may be used to modify nouns. These noun adjectives (e.g., gas engine, monoamine oxidase, life science) are useful, but can become confusing if stacked (e.g., albino mouse liver monoamine oxidase).
There are different approaches to the revision process. Tichy and Fourdrinier [158] recommend “cooling,” or allowing a piece to sit for a day or longer before revision. Some writers wait a week. This helps you see work as others will see it. It is often surprising how confusing complex sentences or phrases seem after they have “cooled off” for a few days.
A second revision process, recommended by Mullins [159], calls for section rewriting:
1. Write the first section and leave it alone.
2. Revise the first section before writing the second section.
3. Revise the first and second sections before writing the third section, etc.
The Mullins’ method works best if a work is completed in six sections, or less. Otherwise, unnecessary repetition is introduced before the last section is written.
A third method for revision involves reading passages aloud [150]. This helps uncover awkward and confusing sentences. Regardless of the method used, the revision process should be done slowly and repeatedly, until you are satisfied. The finally revised work should be reviewed by an advisor and “writing friends.” Ask for a tough review, and respond constructively.
Writing tools
The tools of a good writer have traditionally included: dictionaries, synonym finders, specialized handbooks, and grammar and composition guides. Not too many years ago, our advice would have included the acquisition of an armful of books, and some time to familiarize yourself with the references. Today, thanks to resources available through the Internet, and at many research universities, the picture has changed.
Many graduate researchers already know that Googling a term, followed by the word “definition,” will provide a wide array of dictionary descriptions that can be opened one-by-one to illuminate a word’s meanings. Such a routine also provides a handy entry to correct spelling, besides spellchecks commonly available through word processing software. Similarly, you will receive suggestions for use if you Google a word with the companion: “synonym” (same meaning), “antonym” (opposite meaning), or “homonym” (either words with the same spelling and different meanings (homographs), e.g., “minute” as being very small vs. a unit of time; or different spellings and meanings, but sounding the same (homophones), e.g., “air” and “err”).
Besides the Internet resources noted, graduate researchers at many research universities have the benefits of accessing writing centers that have websites providing Internet links to other helpful web resources and guides (e.g., Chicago Manual of Style, grammar primers). Writing centers are often affiliated with university English departments, and employ, typically, staff members who are expert writers that are available to students and faculty, for one-on-one guidance. For example, Colorado State University has a site (Writing @CSU; http://writing.colostate.edu/ind) where students can not only access open source books on writing, but also request reviews of draft material via email. The Writing Center at George Mason University (http://writingcenter.gmu.edu/) has over 20 tutors (on two campuses), from various backgrounds and disciplines, who help writers individually. The Writing Center at the University of Wisconsin–Madison (http://writing.wisc.edu/) has a staff of “dedicated, and creative academic- and classified-staff colleagues, graduate teaching assistants, and undergraduate Writing Fellows, who collectively work with some 7000 undergraduate and graduate-student writers each year.” The Odegaard Writing & Research Center at the University of Washington (UW) was formed through a collaboration of the UW Libraries, the division of Undergraduate Academic Affairs, the Graduate School, and the College of Arts and Sciences. The Odegaard website contains the following description of their services: “This is a place to come and chat with peer tutors and librarians, to grow as a writer in the context of whatever project is foremost in your mind. We can’t magically ‘fix’ papers for you (it wouldn’t even really help you long-term if we could), but we can ask all kinds of smart questions and talk with you in order to help …”
So, the take-home message of this section is this: look around your university for the people and electronic resources that offer additional “tools to good writing.” Include in your search a contact with a professional librarian that can help you with the organization of your reference materials, and conducting advanced searches of the literature.
Texting, email and written notes, memos, and letters
New graduate researchers hardly need instruction on texting and email, although we are fond of offering a suggestion to our own students: the common disregard for proper grammar, punctuation, spelling, and formatting in texting and email – especially– has one great disadvantage. It promotes sloppiness and disorder that is not supportive of great writing and communication skills.
Effective communications include written and email notes, memoranda, and letters. We differentiate between notes and memoranda. Notes are informal messages. Memoranda (memos) are more formal than notes, and are reserved for correspondence among persons within the university. Letters are the most formal type of correspondence.
All types of correspondence are now commonly sent by email because of its ease, cost, and speed. However, the tone of email correspondence should be modulated according to the formality suggested by the situation.
Written notes should be dated, and contain the full name of the recipient. Here is an example of a format for written notes:
Joseph Procter
10-29-2014
Hi Joe,
Your books are ready at the printer. Kindly, Bob
Memoranda can be written using the following format:
To:
From:
Re:
The “Re” alerts the recipient to the subject of the memorandum. The body of the memo is developed using the communicator’s guide:
• Here’s where I am …
• Here’s how I got there …
• Here’s what I want from you …
Here is an example of a properly constructed memorandum from the chairperson of a human subjects institutional review board to a graduate student researcher.
Memorandum
September 12, 2014
To: Mary Chavez, Department of Psychology
From: Lee Baker, Chair, IRB
Re: IRB Meeting, September 26, 2014
You are invited to attend the IRB meeting scheduled for Monday, September 26, 2014, at 4:00 p.m. in the Administration Building, Room 104.
Our IRB regularly meets with investigators whose proposals are being considered for approval. We hope that you can be present at our meeting to answer questions about your proposal, “Depression in Sensory Deprived Subjects.” Thank you for your cooperation.
This memorandum is direct, yet courteous. It fulfills the goals of the communicator’s guide, and gives enough information for the recipient to respond correctly.
A format for business letters is:
Your address
Date
Title, name, position
and address of recipient
Re: (optional)
Salutation: (or,)
Body of letter.
Complimentary close,
Your signature
Your name typed
and your position
Enclosures: (list them)
Your initials in capital letters followed by a forward slash and then the initials of the typist in lower case letters.
The intended recipient of the letter should be addressed properly. If he or she has an earned doctorate, “Dr” (or “Doctor”) can be used, or the initials of the highest earned degree can be placed after the recipient’s name (e.g., Joseph G. Cannon, PhD; Elaine S. Waller, Pharm D). Faculty may be addressed as “Prof.” (or “Professor”) if appropriate. It is better to address nondoctoral professorial faculty as “Professor” than “Ms” or “Mr.”
Be sensitive to national customs and individual preferences. In some countries (e.g., Germany, Switzerland) it is common to refer to male doctoral faculty as “Dr Prof.” or “Herr Dr Prof.”; women faculty would analogously be referred to as “Dr Prof.” or “Frau Dr Prof.” Some women prefer “Mrs” or “Miss” to “Ms,” and they will indicate this in their correspondence. Retired deans and professors may be referred to correctly as “Dean” and “Professor,” respectively.
The titles of recipients’ positions should be added after their names (e.g., Howard B. Lassman, PhD, Director of Clinical Pharmacology; Catherine R. Stimpson, PhD, Editor). This is proper protocol for all professional administrators. The remainder of the address should be complete, and it may contain accepted abbreviations (e.g., Co. for Company; Inc. for Incorporated).
The “Re” is useful in citing important numerical notations. Manuscripts considered for publication have number assignments that should be referred to in correspondence containing revisions. Letters referring to orders for merchandise should include purchase order numbers (e.g., Re: Order no. 27,632A).
The salutation should read “Dear Dr” (“Prof.,” “Ms,” “Mr,” etc.) followed by a colon. A colon is proper when the recipient is not known well. First names followed by a comma can be used for friends. When no specific person is addressed, “Dear Sir/Madam” can be used. Other salutations include “Dear Person,” or “Dear People,” or “Dear,” followed by a word denoting the person’s profession. A letter to a pharmacist, for example, might include the salutation, “Dear Pharmacist (surname).” Analogous salutations can be constructed for accountants, architects, dentists, engineers, nurses, etc.
Develop the body of the letter using the communicator’s guide. Letters are often longer than memos, but should be restricted to one page, if possible. Necessary details can be included in appendices that should be properly labeled to prevent loss.
The tone of letters should vary, according to their purpose. Most Americans welcome informality. Other nationalities tend to be more formal, except between friends. Try to strike a balance between stuffiness that is unbecoming, and casualness that may be insulting.
The complimentary close may read “Yours truly,” “Yours faithfully,” or “Yours sincerely.” Some prefer a simple “Sincerely.”
Persuasiveness
Memos, letters, and prospective sections of reports and grant proposals may require persuasion. There are strategies for being persuasive. Understand that the persuasion referred to is not that of the huckster. Assertions must be based on fact. Arguments should be developed logically. Sensational claims or examples should be avoided. Ewing [160] suggested that, if you have a sympathetic reader, arguments can be ordered with the strongest appearing last. Lead off with the strongest argument if the reader is unsympathetic.
Try appealing to positions held by the individual or institution. For example, a university or industrial firm committed to excellence in research will be affected positively by arguments for policy changes that elevate standards.
Copies of memos or letters can be used to one’s benefit. A copy judiciously sent (i.e., as indicated by a “c”, “ec” (electronic copy), or “pc” (photocopy; “cc” for carbon copy is an anachronism) and the recipient’s name in the lower left-hand corner of the letter) to an official higher than the recipient can provide a useful power play.
Be cautious with power plays. They should only be used as a last resort. A complaint to a professor about her or his performance in a course, written with a “pc” to the department chairperson, can backfire. Misunderstandings of a situation can create ill feelings and cause repercussions later. Honest dialog is invariably better than confrontation.
Students sometimes harbor a fantasy that begins with their righteous correction of a professor’s errors, during a lecture or seminar. This act is met with thunderous applause from the class, and a humbling of the professor. This is stuff best left to Hollywood. A rational approach is more often effective. Confidential memos or letters call for honest dialog. If this doesn’t work, the “copy tactic” can be used.
Research notebooks
The research notebook is used to prepare a record of experimental work. It is also the repository for diagrams, graphs, and standardization routines that permit repetition of experiments. Traditionally, research notebooks have been hardbound and blank lined notebooks, with consecutive pagination. Handwritten entries are made in permanent ink, and signed and dated at the time of completion of each page. ELNs will have features that mimic the hardbound equivalents, relative to permanency and authentication. In either case, copies of all notebook entries should be prepared and stored in a safe place. Loss of notes through fire or other accidents can be catastrophic.
Research notebook descriptions should include:
1. Title, date, and purpose
2. List of required equipment and materials
3. Outline of procedures, including calibrations and standardizations
4. Observations and data
5. Graphical representations of data
6. Equations, calculations, and statistical tests
7. Records of unusual events that may influence results
8. Conclusions
9. Modified hypotheses, and plans for future experiments
10. Researcher’s signature, and current date
If an experiment resembles a previous one, page references may be substituted for items 2 and 3. Data should be collected on data sheets specifically designed for the experiment, or through use of table-preparation functions of word processing software. Such software, or equivalent spreadsheet software, should also allow automatic mathematical conversion of columnar data to graphic displays. The computer-developed tabular data or spreadsheets should be affixed to notebook pages, when experiments are complete. In the case of electronic notebooks, wireless connectivity to instrumentation may allow direct transfer of data to ELNs. The ELN packages should then allow analyses through built-in software features.
In general, data should not be recorded on loose scraps of paper that can be lost. Also, sections of the notebook should not be rewritten because errors can be made during transcription of data.
Notebook entries should end with conclusions and descriptions of unusual events that may have influenced the results. Conclusions should be analyzed in terms of experimental hypotheses. If necessary, alternative hypotheses and experiments should be proposed. Completed notebook entries should be signed, and the signature of a witness added, if there are plans to apply for a patent.
Notebooks should be kept up to date. Entries should be made as close as possible to the conduct of experiments. Otherwise, errors may occur, or motivation for notebook updating may wane. As noted earlier, a common temptation is to forget negative results, not entering them in the notebook. This can lead to unnecessary duplication of work and embarrassment.
The research notebook is an important part of research. It is not, however, useful in conveying results to others. This activity requires a report.
Reports
Report writing is an integral part of research. Paradis [161] noted that the preparation of reports and related pieces (e.g., research articles) requires as much as one-third of the time of professionals who choose a career in research. If a career is chosen in a highly regulated industry (e.g., pharmaceuticals), or in government, the requirement for report writing will increase.
Reports should answer the following questions:
• What are you trying to do?
• Do the methods and conclusions make sense?
• What is the importance of the work?
Report writing skills are beneficial throughout a graduate career. The practice gained in writing reports will also help in the preparation of research articles, grant proposals, and the thesis or dissertation. The importance of report writing makes it imperative that a research advisor be chosen who regularly requires this activity. A good advisor will also prepare timely critiques of work. This encourages students to gain the necessary writing experience.
Report writing helps to clarify one’s thoughts about research. John Stuart Mill [162] noted, “Hardly any original thoughts on mental or social subjects ever make their way among mankind, or assume their proper importance in the minds even of their inventors, until aptly selected words and phrases have, as it were, nailed them down and held them fast.”
Reports are useful at three stages of research: at the beginning, during difficulties, and at project’s end. During the development of a research project the report should include
1. A statement of the problem and underlying hypotheses
2. Analysis of how the problem developed
3. Description of possible solutions
4. Steps to be used to implement preferred solutions
5. Costs
Intervening reports help researchers confront anomalies in data, plan new experiments, and modify hypotheses. As noted by Beveridge [163], “The systematic arrangement of the data often discloses flaws in the reasoning, or alternative lines of thought which have been missed. Assumptions and conclusions at first accepted as ‘obvious’ may even prove indefensible when set down clearly and examined critically.” The take-home message by one sage reviewer: “Learn to write concise, accurate, clear text. Spelling errors [will] not [be] accepted well by editors or reviewers.” Final reports serve as preludes to manuscripts for publication.
Report Format and Style
Here is a good format for interim and final research reports:
• Title
• Table of Contents
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Experimental Section
• Results
• Discussion
• Bibliography
• Appendices
The title page contains the full title and name of the author(s), department, and university. Titles should indicate the subject and scope of the report. Avoid unnecessary words in the title such as: “Investigations of …,” “Interesting Aspects of …,” and “Results of … .” Develop a title that is a label, rather than a sentence. Use noun adjectives and correct syntax. Do not use abbreviations, chemical formulae, proprietary names, or jargon, in a title. Ask these questions about the title: How will it look as a title to a paper? Does it entice the reader into the rest of the report?
The title page should bear the date of the report, and a serial number, if this is the practice in your department. Do not number the title page. Its imaginary number is “i” if the report has a table of contents. If the report is short, and contains no table of contents, then the title page bears an imaginary “1.”
A table of contents is useful for reports longer than 10 pages. It can be composed of headings and subheadings from the body of the report, and their corresponding page numbers. Subheadings are indented from headings and may be used selectively. Try to keep the length of the table of contents to one page. If it is longer, use the numbering “iii,” “iv,” etc. for continuation pages. The table of contents and subsequent sections are numbered in the lower center of each page.
The abstract is the most important part of the report. It is the section read by most people, and it gives readers an overview of the report. The abstract, therefore, should be written last, and with special care. Here are the sections of the abstract and sources of material for each:
• Statement of the problem – “Introduction”
• Brief description of methodology – “Materials and Methods”
• Main findings – “Results”
• Conclusions – “Discussion”
The abstract should be written simply. Use the past tense, write in the third person, and minimize the use of technical language. Include only ideas and claims found in the report. The abstract of a report describing a new method should contain the method’s basic principles, range of operation, and degrees of accuracy and precision.
Abstracts should not include references to tables and figures, descriptions of published work, or reference citations. Conclude the abstract with one or two major points from the discussion.
Some people begin reports by writing the experimental and results sections first. Others begin by writing the introduction that should be started with a statement of the problem. Continue development of the introduction with background information, and add reference citations using the Harvard system (given later). Previous work should be surveyed, but not in an encyclopedic way. It is not necessary to cite every known reference. The introduction should contain a brief review of the material presented in the report. This helps the reader decide whether it is worth continuing. Introductions should be interesting, and should inspire further reading.
The experimental section contains descriptions of experiments and methods. Include enough details to permit repetition of the experiments, but omit procedures already reported, although these prior descriptions should be referenced. Develop the experimental section in a sensible order. Don’t be afraid to deviate from the chronology of the experimental work. A research report should not read like a diary. Rather, experiments should be arranged logically, in order to benefit the reader.
Use headings to highlight paragraphs describing materials, equipment, methods, and experiments. The materials and equipment listings should include sources and manufacturers, respectively. Give technical specifications and purities of reference chemicals and materials. Provide accurate identifications of animals, plants, and microorganisms, including genera, species, and strains. Animals should also be described by weight, age, sex, and special handling. Experimental sections for human subjects research should include selection criteria, and details of informed consent procedures.
Descriptions of methods and experiments should also contain the what, where, when, and how of procedures. Use abbreviations and a format approved by the journal that will probably publish the work. Do not repeat published procedures, but do cite germane references. If the published method is complex, give a two- or three-sentence description of it, using an introduction such as, “The method of Day (2002) was used. Briefly, it involved … .” This brief description helps the reader develop a conceptual understanding of the results, without having to consult another paper.
The results section can be written after the introduction or experimental sections. Describe the results in the past tense, using the chronology established in the previously prepared section(s). Do not repeat material from the experimental section. The experimental section is a description of what was done. The results section helps to describe what happened.
Tables (and figures – see the following) should be prepared to stand on their own. The reader should be able to make sense of a table without reading the entire report. This is accomplished through clear titles and headings, and well-developed footnotes. Column headings can be abbreviated, and should contain units of measurements. Columns containing descriptive material and independent variables should appear on the left. Columns for dependent variables go on the right. Table 8.1 is an example of a well-constructed table. Note how like elements are read down. Compare the format of Table 8.1 with that of Table 8.2. The cross listing of the like elements in Table 8.2 makes it more difficult to comprehend. Number tables consecutively; refer to them in numerical order in the results section.
Table 8.1
A Well-Constructed Table Showing the Characteristics of Fruit-Bearing Plants of North Americaa
| Plant | Average growing season (month)b | Average height (cm)c | Color of fruit | Average yield of fruit (kg/plant) |
| Grapefruit | 4.2 | 400 | Yellow | 170 |
| Lemon | 5.6 | 300 | Yellow | 30.0 |
| Lime | 5.2 | 275 | Green | 25.5 |
| Strawberry | 8.0 | 5.75 | Red | 0.09 |
a Bogus data.
b In South Texas.
c During the growing season.
Table 8.2
A Poorly Constructed Table Showing the Characteristics of Fruit-Bearing Plants of North Americaa
| Determination | Grapefruit | Lemon | Lime | Strawberry | Tomato |
| Average growing season (month)b | 4.2 | 5.6 | 5.2 | 8.0 | 9.2 |
| Average height (cm)c | 400 | 300 | 275 | 5.75 | 180 |
| Color of fruit | Yellow | Yellow | Green | Red | Red |
| Average yield of plant (kg/plant)c | 170 | 30.0 | 25.5 | 0.09 | 5.00 |
a Bogus data.
b In South Texas.
c During the growing season.
Day and Gastel [149] refer to graphs as pictorial tables. Tables help with the listing of data, and graphs help to depict trends in data. Graphs are useful in planning experiments, and should be used liberally in reports prepared for an advisor. Graphic displays and analyses are facilitated by the use of word processing or spreadsheet software, as noted previously.
The discussion is written after the results. It should not, however, recapitulate the results. Continue to write in the active voice, when appropriate. Put the results in context with published work. Use the past tense when referring to your results, and the present tense for published results. Until work has been subjected to peer review, and published, it should be considered tentative. In contrast, published work is accepted. Avoid anthropomorphic expressions such as: “The results suggest …,” “The instruments measured …,” and “The data point to … .” Results, instruments, and data are capable of such feats only in cartoons.
Discuss the theoretical and practical importance of the work, and include the possible implications of failures experienced. Be sensitive to readers’ mental questions about steps or procedures that seemed to yield positive results. Try to illuminate how you believe success was achieved. Also, develop the discussion with a “storyline” to keep readers, interest. Allude to negative results or pathways that might have helped to uncover leads in positive directions. However, don’t dwell on negatives. A summary figure or diagram may also be useful in providing a “bird’s-eye” view of the work.
Remember that you cannot prove negatives. As noted by Sagan [164], “absence of evidence is not evidence of absence.” Confront ambiguities and apparent contradictions in the work. When choosing between hypotheses, consider the admonition of the great anthropologist, Loren Eiseley [165], who noted that scientists must “flourish Occam’s razor and reduce hypotheses about a complex world to human proportions.” Stated differently, scientists prefer the simplest explanation that agrees with all the evidence. Also, be careful not to introduce observations into the discussion that were not covered in the results. Limit speculation; assess the importance of the findings on the basis of previously published work.
The discussion section should be completed with plans for the near future (i.e., 2–6 weeks). Give a brief description of what experiments will be done, and indicate expected results. Suggest how these results might affect current hypotheses. Indicate any problems or special needs that can be anticipated during the planned experiments.
The bibliography should be prepared in the format of the journal that may publish the work. Journals use three bibliographic systems:
• Harvard system
• Citation order
• Alphabet-number system
The Harvard system involves the use of a surname notation for citing references in the text. The reports of Ryan (1996) and Ryan and Okita (1994) are referred to with names and dates (in parentheses) as indicated, or as follows: “Gene transfer techniques have been evaluated (Ryan 1996; Ryan and Okita, 1994) in … .” Citations with three authors appear as “Ryan, Okita, and Cook (1995)” the first time they are cited, and as “Ryan et al. (1995)” or “(Ryan et al., 1995)” subsequently. The last two formats are used uniformly for references having four or more authors. When there are two or more “Ryan (1996)” references, the first one cited becomes “Ryan (1996a)” and the second becomes “Ryan (1996b).” The reference list is compiled alphabetically for the bibliography. References such as “Ryan, 1996a,” “Ryan, 1996b,” and “Ryan, 1997” are arranged chronologically and alphabetically.
The Harvard system helps during writing and revision. Citations can be noted in the developing text, without stopping to type out the reference. The name citations are used later to prepare the complete bibliography.
The citation order system uses a series of numbers, starting with “1” to identify references. Number assignments follow the order of appearance of references in the report. The bibliography lists the references in numerical order.
The alphabet-number system is similar to the Harvard system that is often used during the writing process and in compiling the reference list. Subsequent use of the alphabet-number system requires numbering of the alphabetized reference list. The numbers are then substituted for the author-date entries in the report. Numbers are used parenthetically, or as superscripts, depending on the format of the journal that may publish the work.
The references in a report should be checked against the original literature resources. Make sure that each reference is accurately cited. Do the references contain the material claimed? Are the names, dates, and volume and page numbers correct? This is a tedious process, but references “locked into” a report will save time during subsequent writing efforts.
A common system of abbreviations has been developed by the American National Standards Institute [166] for journal title words, as indicated by Day and Gastel [149]. These abbreviations should be used uniformly, except for one-word journal titles (e.g., Science, Biochemistry) that are unabbreviated. Abbreviations of words like “arachnology” (spiders), “entomology” (insects), and “ichthyology” (fish) always end after the … “ol.” The standard abbreviations are used with the volume-page number-year format of the journal you intend to publish in.
Quotations require special care. All words and punctuation marks must be checked to assure that they are correct. Split quotes “are denoted by three dots … as indicated.” Check for proper placement and use of diacritical marks (such as the two dots of the umlaut) in foreign words.
Appendices containing supplementary data may be added after the bibliography. Number them sequentially, and use title and column headings similar to those in tables. Detailed instructions for routine procedures (sometimes referred to standard operating procedures, or SOPs) can be included as appendices to monthly research reports. Copies of the SOPs can be posted in the laboratory, or other work areas, and on computer desktops, for daily use. Write-ups for computer routines, animal care procedures, and screening protocols for human subjects research are also good appendix materials. Such appendices may eventually be transported to theses or dissertations. There should be a feeling of pride when your first research report is completed. Later, the value of reports will be realized during the development of research papers, and your thesis or dissertation.
Research papers
There are several types of research papers. The four most common are:
• Articles or full-length papers
• Notes
• Communications
• Letters
Articles are written to describe extensive and definitive studies. The format and style of articles are similar to those in research reports. The elements of research reports are listed in Table 8.3, along with modifications that are necessary to prepare articles. The recommendations are general, and given as guidance. Before preparing any research paper, check the “instructions to authors” found periodically in issues of journals, or on the publisher’s website. The text material for research papers is often distilled from several research reports, and word processors help in the preparation of composite material.
Table 8.3
Recommendations for Converting Research Reports into Research Articles
| Format element of research report | Changes needed to prepare research article |
| Title Page | Add keywords for literature retrieval systema |
| Abstract | Statements may require numbering depending on journal |
| Table of Contents | Omit |
| Experimental | May use tables to list large numbers of research specimens (e.g., plants, animals) |
| Results | Avoid presentation of negative results |
| Discussion | Limit speculation, discussion of negative results, and plans for future research |
| – | Add summary and conclusion sections, as required by journal |
| – | Add acknowledgment section to express gratitude to: funding sources,b faculty, students, and staff |
| Bibliography/Literature Cited | Note reference system used by journal |
| Appendices | Omit |
a Check journal instructions for relevance and limitations.
b Include grant numbers when relevant.
Footnotes can support statements that do not fit easily into the results and discussion sections. Some journals require the use of footnotes for proprietary and manufacturers’ names. Footnotes can also be used to respond to criticisms of reviewers, but they should not be overused. Twedt [167] refers to the overuse as “footnoteitis.” Symptoms of “footnoteitis” are observed when half or more of the text manuscript pages are devoted to footnotes.
Tables and graphs require special attention, when papers are prepared for publication. The number of tables and graphs should be limited. Find ways of incorporating mean data into the text. If tables are needed, use the guidelines described under research reports.
Graphs are known as line drawings to printers, and must be prepared carefully, using word processor or spreadsheet software. Photographic images should be submitted as jpgs or “jpegs” (Joint Photographic Experts Group; from the joint committee of the International Organization for Standardization of the International Electrotechnical Commission) or tiffs (tagged image files), with compression features, and in black and white or color, as recommended by the journal publisher.
Figure legends may be typed on separate pages, or included in the jpgs or tiffs, as directed in the instructions to authors. Include enough information in the legend to permit the figure to stand on its own. A key for different curves must be included; for example, sheer-stress as a function of temperature: carbon steel (-o-), vanadium steel (-X-), and iron (-∆-).
Watch the numbering of tables and figures. Many journals use Roman numerals for tables, and Arabic numbers for figures. Find out if the word “Figure” can be abbreviated in the text and figure legends; also, determine whether it should start with a capital, or be all lower case letters, when referred to in the text.
Notes, communications, and letters have different purposes and styles than research articles. Notes are used to describe definitive, though shorter, studies than those presented in articles. Some journals dispense with abstracts in notes; otherwise, the format for notes is the same as that of articles.
Communications and letters are short papers (i.e., normally less than five typewritten pages, or with a predetermined word or character limit), of unusual importance. Manuscripts prepared as communications are rarely divided into formal sections. Rather, the text contains elements from the introduction, experimental, results, and discussion sections. The brevity of communications and letters requires a minimum of figures and tables. The figures and tables that are included, however, must be accompanied by experimental detail. Examples of well-prepared figures and tables can be found in issues of journals, such as Nature and Science.
Research papers should be formatted according to the “instructions to authors” in the journal of choice. This involves, typically, production of 12-point type, double spaced printing on 22 × 28 cm paper, with 2.5–3.5 cm margins.
Book or journal reviews
It may be rare for graduate students in some disciplines to prepare book or journal reviews for publication; however, graduate professionals commonly prepare such reviews. Thus, it is helpful to gain the necessary experience during an academic career, perhaps through joint reviews with an advisor – an activity that would be particularly appropriate for this book.
Journal editors who supply a gratis copy of the book or journal solicit reviews. The following evaluations (as exemplified for a book) will be expected:
• The range and nature of the book.
• Whether or not the book meets the author’s stated purpose.
• How the book fits into a field or discipline?
• The appropriateness of the references cited.
• How the book compares with other published works?
• The themes or theses developed by the author.
• Typographical and grammatical errors.
• The style and accuracy of the text.
Keep the criticisms objective and constructive. Avoid personal attacks, even if you know and dislike the author or editor. Remember that scholars and their work will be remembered long after the work of critics.
Briefly review the background and credentials of the author or editor. This is most important in the social sciences. Hammett [168] noted that the approaches of scholars, such as historians and sociologists, are often influenced by the personal situation of the author.
Watch the length requirement established by the journal for the review. Follow format guidelines carefully, and supply necessary ancillary information, such as biographical data on the author(s).
Few graduate students write books or edit journals, during their academic careers. Thus, some may find it difficult to develop the empathy necessary to review others’ books or journals. However, once students have begun writing their theses or dissertations, they begin to understand the rigors of producing book-length works. Guidelines for preparing theses and dissertations are contained in Chapter 9. But, before going on, we want to offer some ideas on approaches to the companion communication skill – speaking.
Speaking and Communicating Well
The commonly espoused “straight talking and plain dealing” is a good starting point for speaking and communicating well. It also suggests a style that is desirable in all scientific communications.
Think about style. Furthermore, think about a unique “signature” you might add to your personality and presence. We refer specifically to approaches to others, and how you are perceived in such approaches. In essence, consider the total effect you have through communication and communications. A German colleague might refer to this “total effect” in terms of character, fashion, and form or, more succinctly, the gestalt of your interactions with others.
A personal gestalt is influenced markedly by the following characteristics:
• Formal versus informal approaches
• Kindliness
• Gravitas factor
Let’s consider each of these factors.
Formal versus informal approaches. Communication approaches begin with attention to formality, especially when addressing people inside and outside of the university. Customs vary around the nation and the world, but, for most organizations or institutions, particularly in the United States, a less rather than more formal approach is helpful in building camaraderie among colleagues. Accordingly, many faculty advisors promote a “first name” usage among colleagues and students.
A more formal approach is warranted when initially contacting individuals outside of the university. However, you will find, from working with colleagues around the world, whether through research collaborations or interactions at international meetings, that more and more of our world’s citizens feel comfortable with a “first name” relationship, soon after being formally introduced. Although, in some countries (e.g., Saudi Arabia, Vietnam), the custom may be to embellish the first name with earned or appointed titles. Thus, the well-known “DNA architect” and Nobel laureate, James Watson, would be known in some places as Dr James.
Another aspect of an informal style of communication is learning and using others’ first names during conversations and meetings. Many are familiar with the apocryphal story of the patient who seeks help from the health professional, the latter of whom allegedly espouses concern for the patient, but does not use the patient’s name during an office visit. At one point of the visit, the patient challenges the health professional: “Sir/Madam, if you are so interested in me why don’t you address me by my name?” Many people relate sympathetically with this story. Accordingly, consider making efforts to learn and use peoples’ names frequently in conversations.
The memorization and use of names in conversations takes practice, but there are aids to assist the efforts. First, be alert to names during introductions. It is easy to become distracted during initial exchanges of pleasantries, thus it is important to register at least a first name in your memory. A trick you can use to fix a person’s name in your mind involves the use of names during introductions. For example, you are at a reception, and you introduce yourself, or are introduced to John White. You can say, “Hi, John. It is very nice to meet you, John.” The double use of the name appears odd in print, but in situ it plays out quite normally, and has a significant effect on memory.
Despite such tricks, you may still forget the newly acquainted person’s name after a few minutes of conversation. In such a case, do not be ashamed to apologize and ask a person politely to remind you of his or her name. People are generally not offended by the request for a reminder. In any case, try to lock a new acquaintance’s name into your memory through a silly word association, or connection to the name of a well-known friend or colleague.
In another situation, if you are chairing a meeting where a number of people are sitting at a table, consider a little exercise that can be used to learn and use names. First of all, be sure to have a pad of paper or electronic tablet along, and draw on it an outline of the table where you are all seated. If you do not know everyone present, suggest that participants introduce themselves sequentially, and offer a few words about their responsibilities in the organization. As they share their names, jot these down at the points on your table outline corresponding to their positions at the table. This will help you use their names during the forthcoming conversation, or when entertaining questions.
A list of meeting participants will also serve as a memorization aid, assuming such a list is available ahead of time.
As you use participants’ names during the course of your meeting, try to reinforce the memorization process that is an important object of the exercise – namely, to rise after the meeting and walk around the table, and shake every participant’s hand, while simultaneously using their first name in a farewell greeting.
Successfully done, this exercise has a powerful impact on participants, in part, because many people will not note the “drawing aid” you used to help learn participants’ names. Others may observe your taking notes, but will not necessarily connect it with the details of the exercise.
Kindliness. An informal and naturally friendly approach to communication and communications, especially oral communications, suggests a kindliness that many find essential to success in graduate school and beyond. People of good will are heartened by acts of kindness – they disarm hardened people. You may now be asking: What is meant specifically by acts of kindness?
Philosopher Harold Rosen is known for his sage advice to “actively seek what others need.” It is at the heart of a kindliness paradigm that many adopt during their lives. It becomes apparent when first meeting prospective colleagues and friends.
All of us have known boorish people who monopolize conversations with talk about themselves and their interests. A New Yorker Magazine cartoon, years ago, captured the characterization well. A man is at a cocktail party, surrounded by apparent friends and acquaintances. We are led to believe that he has been boring the company with blabber about himself, when he is depicted as saying: “Well that’s enough about me. What do you think about me?”
In contrast to this cartoon buffoon, a graduate professional adopting the “Rosen approach” actively engages newly introduced acquaintances with questions about themselves: their background, interests, possible reasons for a visit to your university, people they know who may be mutual acquaintances, and possible interactions you might have with them, in joint research or scholarly projects. Such questioning portrays sincere interest, particularly if you demonstrate good listening skills, or what a Truman scholar once admonished: “listen, hear, and be truly present.”
An indirect benefit of the “Rosen approach” is that it typically leads to questions about you and your interests from the new acquaintance, without your having to solicit such interest. However, sometimes the conversation is entirely one-sided, thereby diminishing the potential success of a continuing relationship with the new acquaintance.
The kindliness that marks a personal communication style need not detract from having the courage to face difficult situations, and make tough decisions. How often do we hear the comment: “He or she is too nice a person to be effective”? Effective professionals need not be disagreeable, but they do need to know when and how to be serious, fair, and just.
Gravitas factor. According to Morrow [169], gravitas “is a secret of character and grasp and experience, a force of the eye, the voice, and bearing.” Others might think of the term “charisma” that implies engaging and intriguing personality traits, and leadership skills.
Professionals with gravitas fit well in leadership roles. They are also people who seem to have the personal fortitude and sharpness of wit to weather significant challenges and crises. Gravitas is manifested by the take-charge professional – the one whose voice, stature, and manner inspire confidence – the one who might be characterized by “straight talking and plain dealing.”
Citizens of the twentieth century witnessed social and political leaders with gravitas – from Winston Churchill to Rudy Giuliani, Barbara Jordan, John F. Kennedy, Martin Luther King, Jr., Franklin Delano Roosevelt, and Gloria Steinem, to name a few. During your graduate career you will observe advisors and colleagues – who, though typically informal and friendly – are able to assume a seriousness of intent and purpose. These individuals, characterized by gravitas, also have an extraordinary ability to focus during a time of challenge, and can inspire commitment and rally groups to important goals. The gravitas displayed in such acts reflects core values, and a sense of confidence that encourages unselfish service in others.
Style and a compelling personal gestalt are important, but using them in informal and formal settings effectively take further thought, and a commitment to practice.
Informative and effective oral communications are critical to the success of all graduate professionals. Thus, oral communication deserves our attention, from one-on-one interactions, to group interactions, to informal presentations, more formal speeches, and other presentations. However, akin to written communications, oral communications include a broad array of topics and approaches that would require much more space than can be afforded through this volume. Fortunately, there are many books that can be used for supplemental study. In addition to a previous effort in this area [170], we recommend works by Cook [171], Detz [172,173], and Jeary [174].
In the following sections, we summarize some of the most salient ideas for graduate professionals who may be organizing or reassessing their ideas on oral communications.
One-on-one communications. Several pointers noted previously apply to one-on-one communications. For example, we emphasize using first names, avoiding boorishly monopolizing conversations, adopting a tone of kindliness, and adhering to the advice to “listen, hear, and be truly present.” Relative to good listening, the “being truly present” refers to “active and empathetic listening” that deserves some elaboration.
Imagine a scene where someone you are supervising – let’s just say, an undergraduate research assistant – is not performing a task to your liking. Imagine, also, a hypothetical conversation in which the assistant is confronted with a series of “you messages,” such as: “you seem to have a problem understanding directions,” “you are getting the task all wrong,” and “you need to make the correction as soon as possible.” If you have experienced such a scenario, you know how negative and counterproductive it can be.
Now, contrast the “you-laced” scenario with one that is more “I” and “we” focused. The modified monolog might go something like this: “I am concerned about the performance of this task,” “we need to review how performance of this task can be improved,” and “let’s see if we can implement the solution as soon as it is feasible.” Sounds completely different – doesn’t it? And, it plays out a whole lot differently in the minds of people reporting to you.
“I” and “we” messages portray a personal concern, and an acknowledgement that lapses in performance are not always one-sided. Rather, your inadequate direction or communication of needs may be part of a performance problem. Through “I” and “we” messages, the person you are supervising is given the benefit of the doubt.
Besides using “I” and “we” messages, effective one-on-one communication benefits from active listening strategies that facilitate understanding, such as in conversations with your advisor. One active listening strategy involves a type of inquisitive feedback that causes you to frame statements such as, “if I understand you correctly, you are saying … .” Another strategy will involve questioning along the lines, “could you state your position in another way?” A third strategy includes a summing up approach, wherein you say something such as, “I believe that we have come to an understanding that… .”
Obviously, there is a give and take in interchanges such as those noted earlier, but the use of listening strategies helps to clarify understanding, build trust, and direct positive action.
Working and communicating with colleagues, particularly those who may be involved in joint research efforts, should have an overall “feel” of support. Accordingly, and in contrast with some colleagues we have worked with, we recommend that you be generous with praise. Those who do this well are heard saying things such as, “I am feeling very good about how this project is going,” and “I really appreciate your efforts in our research efforts this month.”
Advisors, for example, who are genuinely supportive and communicate their supportive sentiments, are appreciated greatly by graduate student researchers. Indeed, we have known advisors who, when changing positions from one university to another, are said to be “loved by their former graduate students,” during background checks.
Management gurus are fond of reminding us that supervising people is not a popularity contest. Outstanding advisors, for example, understand the principle, and know that advising graduate students is not a quest to be popular. Rather, being a notable advisor equates to mentoring, and effective support of graduate students. A signaling of that support not only involves one-on-one communication, but also group interactions and public presentations, best practices of which should be understood by graduate researchers.
Group interactions, speechmaking, and other presentations. Going from one-on-one interactions to group interactions and presentations requires special efforts to insure success in a variety of settings, from research group meetings to retreats, to informal and formal speeches, and other presentations. Let’s consider each of these in order.
Regardless of research group size, advisors may be subject to periodic reviews by supervisors (typically chairs) or other administrators of their colleges or graduate school. During such reviews, the following questions could be posed: Do you meet regularly with your graduate students and researchers? Do your meetings have an agenda, or other purposeful means of proceeding? What mechanisms are used to engage your students and other researchers in the meeting organization process, and the meetings per se? How are your meetings used to delegate responsibility and to make progress in research projects and initiatives? How do you follow-up on matters discussed formally in meetings? These are also good questions for the novice graduate researcher, when considering the choice of an advisor.
Woody Allen observed, “Half of life’s success is in showing up. The other half is being on time.” Comedy aside, attending research group meetings or retreats, and being on time, are prerequisites to success as a graduate researcher. More important, however, is active participation and careful preparation for oral presentations of research, or other reports. The research group contributions will then serve as platforms for presentations outside of your research group, whether in departmental assemblages, or professional meetings external to the university.
Our tips and suggestions focus on the types of presentations and approaches that will help insure clarity, coherence, and understanding among research group colleagues and others.
Presentations can be generally categorized as:
• Regular progress remarks (3–10 min).
• Short presentations (10–20 min) that are prepared as formal reports on projects, or as professional meeting presentations.
• Substantive presentations (30–50 min) that are designed to review an area of research, such as in a departmental seminar, or on progress in your thesis or dissertation research, over a period of a year or more, such as a presentation to a master’s or doctoral dissertation committee.
We have been fairly explicit about the time frames for presentations – not so much to be dogmatic, but to emphasize one of the cardinal rules of oral presentations. That is, do not exceed your allotted time, unless you want to risk embarrassment. In a research group meeting, for example, your advisor will likely want to hear from all researchers, and there may be a generally set time for meetings. Use that time to present an abstract of your most recent monthly report, possibly. Anticipate the likely time allotted to each researcher, and try to stay within that time frame. Of course, if your advisor wishes to pursue discussion around a point or two, that is her or his prerogative. But, your initial presentation should be timed appropriately. Thus, you will want to prepare your remarks, possibly through a one-page handout, with a modest number of points. The handout may be supplemented by a limited number of graphs or figures that might be projected within the conference room, or possibly available for display through a laptop computer, or electronic tablet, if the room and group are small.
If your first language is not English, and you feel unsure of proficiency in English, rely on more “busy slides” to offer tips for speaking. But, resolve to work with native English speaker colleagues in order to improve your proficiency in the language.
For mentors who have students whose English proficiency is not up to par, seek help through teaching, writing, and other resource centers that may assist the deficient students. Graduate faculty should also take a “tough line” on suggestions of admitting students who will not fare well because of insufficient proficiency in English.
Akin to our tips on writing, try to anticipate difficulties your colleagues may have in understanding your overall project, or where you are in progress toward your research goals. Don’t be afraid to remind colleagues how your research project was originally conceived, or fits into the larger program managed by your advisor, but beware of being too detailed, or going over the time allotted. During early matriculation in your research group, have a conversation with your advisor on expectations during regular research group meetings, especially in presenting research reports – informal or otherwise.
In more formal and expansive presentations, consider using PowerPoint, or other presentation software, in the preparation of remarks. A modification of the communicator’s guide can be used to shape the presentation:
• Here’s where I am (or “we are,” if you are representing work from a group effort) – refer to a generalized statement, or short set of bullet points about the nature and content of the presentation.
• Here’s how I (we) got here – provide some background on the project, and how it may fit into a larger research program.
• Here are my (our) results – use bullet points, key graphs, and figures to illustrate the results and conclusions.
• Here’s what I (we) would like for you to take from this presentation – describe briefly how the results and conclusions fit into progress in your research project, and/or the larger project associated with your work.
We generally find that few people can cover – on average – more than one slide per minute of any presentation (for your first or second presentation, it may be less than one slide per minute), so be mindful again of time allotted. As in all oral communication efforts, try to avoid being overly ambitious. Remember the adage that “beginning teachers try to tell their students everything they know”; and the admonishment of Voltaire, “The secret of being a bore is to tell everything.”
Communication skills, in general, are critical in any employment milieu, but especially in the industrial sector. The literature abounds with industrial administrators saying something like: “Send us people who can communicate well, in writing, in presentations, and in one-on-one and group supervision.”
We have more to share on the topics of written and oral communications in the context of theses and dissertation, and the presentation and publication of papers, respectively; and these ideas and recommendations follow in Chapters 9 and 10.