Notes
Chapter 1
1. The focus of this short study is the period from 1911 to 1949, usually referred to as republican China, but frequent mention is made of the New Policies initiated after the defeat of the Boxer Rebellion in 1900 and the reforms which followed in the wake of the 1895 Shimonoseki peace settlement: the era from 1895 to 1949 I loosely refer to as ‘modern China’.
2. An early call against teleology and the ‘revolution paradigm’ appeared in a remarkable article by Ramon H. Myers and Thomas A. Metzger, ‘Sinological shadows: The state of modern China studies in the United States’, Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs, no. 4 (July 1980), pp. 1–34; the counterpart of the ‘revolution paradigm’ is the notion of a ‘Western impact’, seen to have triggered the beginning of the revolution as China entered an ‘era of collapse’, and on this one should read P. A. Cohen, Discovering history in China: American historical writing on the recent Chinese past, New York: Columbia University Press, 1984; on the recent historiography of modern China, helpful is Rana Mitter, ‘Historiographical review: Modernity, internationalization, and war in the history of modern China’, Historical Journal, 48, no. 2 (2005), pp. 523–43.
3. Sugata Bose, ‘Starvation amidst plenty: The making of famine in Bengal, Honan and Tonkin, 1942–45’, Modern Asian Studies, 24, no. 4 (Oct. 1990), p. 700.
4. Fu Zhengyuan, Autocratic tradition and Chinese politics, Cambridge University Press, 1993, reviewed by Roger B. Jeans in the China Quarterly, no. 143 (Sept. 1995), p. 878.
Chapter 2
1. Arthur Waldron, ‘The warlord: Twentieth-century Chinese understandings of violence, militarism, and imperialism’, The American Historical Review, 96, no. 4 (Oct. 1991), pp. 1073–1100.
2. Jean Chesneaux, ‘The federalist movement in China, 1920–1923’, in Jack Gray (ed.), Modern China’s search for a political form, Oxford University Press, 1969, p. 108; see also Li Dajia, Minguo chunian de liansheng zizhi yundong (The federalist movement in early republican China), Taipei: Hongwenguan chubanshe, 1984.
3. Arthur Waldron, ‘Warlordism versus federalism: The revival of a debate?’, The China Quarterly, no. 121 (March 1990), pp. 116–28.
4. Leslie H. Dingyan Chen, Chen Jiongming and the federalist movement: Regional leadership and nation building in early republican China, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1999.
5. R. Keith Schoppa, ‘Province and nation: The Chekiang Provincial Autonomy Movement, 1917–1927’, Journal of Asian Studies, 36, no. 4 (Aug. 1977), pp. 661–74.
6. James A. Millward, Beyond the pass: Economy, ethnicity, and empire in Qing Central Asia, 1759–1864, Stanford University Press, 1998; Peter C. Perdue, China marches west: The Qing conquest of central Eurasia, Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 2005.
7. Ch’en Ts’un-kong, Lieqiang dui Zhongguo de junhuo jinyun: Min guo 8 nian — 18 nian (The foreign powers’ arms embargo against China from 1919 to 1929), Taipei: Zhongyang yanjiuyuan jindaishi yanjiusuo, 1983.
8. Thomas Rawski, Economic growth in prewar China, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989, p. 39.
9. Ibid., p. 40.
10. Arthur Waldron, From war to nationalism: China’s turning point, 1924–1925, Cambridge University Press, 1995.
11. Rawski, Economic growth in prewar China, p. 37.
12. Ibid., p. 42.
13. Tien Hung-mao, Government and politics in Kuomintang China, 1927–1937, Stanford University Press, 1972, pp. 138 and 143.
14. Qin Shao, Culturing modernity: The Nantong Model, 1890–1930, Stanford University Press, 2004; Lenore Barkan, ‘Patterns of power: Forty years of elite politics in a Chinese county’, in Joseph W. Esherick and Mary B. Rankin (eds.), Chinese local elites and patterns of dominance, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990, pp. 191–215; on the transformation of the material landscape in republican China, including the building of roads and electrification, see Frank Dikötter, Exotic commodities: Modern objects and everyday life in China, New York: Columbia University Press, 2007.
15. Harold S. Quigley, ‘Federalism and foreign relations in China’, Political Science Quarterly, 42, no. 4 (Dec. 1927), pp. 561–70.
16. Harold S. Quigley, ‘Aspects of China’s constitutional problem’, Political Science Quarterly, 39, no. 2 (June 1924), p. 198.
17. Frank Dikötter, Crime, punishment and the prison in modern China, New York: Columbia University Press, 2002.
18. John H. Fincher, Chinese democracy: The self-government movement in local, provincial and national politics, 1905–1914, London: Croom Helm, 1981, p. 219.
19. See Douglas R. Reynolds, China, 1898–1912: The xinzheng revolution and Japan, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993.
20. Roger R. Thompson, ‘The lessons of defeat: Transforming the Qing state after the Boxer War’, Modern Asian Studies, 37, no. 4 (Oct. 2003), p. 771.
21. Report of the Commission on Extra-Territoriality in China, London: HM Stationery Office, 1926, Cmd. 2774, pp. 79, 92–4.
22. Dikötter, Crime, punishment and the prison in modern China.
23. J. B. Condliffe, China to-day: Economic, Boston: World Peace Foundation, 1932, p. 117.
24. Dikötter, Crime, punishment and the prison in modern China.
25. Julia C. Strauss, Strong institutions in weak polities: State building in republican China, 1927–1940, New York: Oxford University Press, 1998.
26. Elizabeth J. Remick, Building local states: China during the republican and post-Mao eras, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004.
27. Prasenjit Duara, Culture, power, and the state: Rural north China, 1900–1942, Stanford University Press, 1988.
28. Edmund S. K. Fung, In search of Chinese democracy: Civil opposition in nationalist China, 1929–1949, Cambridge University Press, 2000.
29. Mark Elvin, ‘The gentry democracy in Chinese Shanghai, 1905–1914’, in Jack Gray (ed.), Modern China’s search for a political form, Oxford University Press, 1969, pp. 41–66.
30. Roger R. Thompson, China’s local councils in the age of constitutional reform, 1898–1911, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995.
31. Fincher, Chinese democracy, pp. 270–1.
32. Louise Edwards, Gender, politics and democracy: Women’s suffrage in China, Stanford University Press, 2008.
33. Chesneaux, ‘The federalist movement in China, 1920–1923’, pp. 107–8.
34. See Roger B. Jeans (ed.), Roads not taken: The struggle of opposition parties in twentieth-century China, Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1992; see also Eugene Lubot, Liberalism in an illiberal age: New Culture liberals in republican China, 1919–1937, Westport, CN: Greenwood Press, 1982; Marina Svensson, Debating human rights in China: A conceptual and political history, Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield, 2002.
35. Fung, In search of Chinese democracy, pp. 346–7.
36. Sidney D. Gamble, North China villages: Social, political, and economic activities before 1933, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1963, pp. 41–2, 151–2, 167–9.
37. ‘On the eve of the China People’s Conference’, Pacific Affairs, 4, no. 6 (June 1931), pp. 527–9.
38. John A. Fairlie, ‘Constitutional developments in China’, The American Political Science Review, 25, no. 4 (Nov. 1931), pp. 1016–22.
39. Guenther Stein, ‘People’s Political Council reorganizing’, Far Eastern Survey, 11, no. 14 (July 1942), pp. 158–60.
40. Fung, In search of Chinese democracy.
41. A. Doak Barnett, China on the eve of communist takeover, New York: Praeger, 1963, pp. 60–70.
42. Chen Chih-mai, ‘Post-war government of China’, The Journal of Politics, 9, no. 4 (Nov. 1947), pp. 503–21.
43. Thomas E. Greiff, ‘The principle of human rights in nationalist China: John C. H. Wu and the ideological origins of the 1946 Constitution’, The China Quarterly, no. 103 (Sept. 1985), p. 446.
44. Carl Crow, China takes her place, New York: Harper, 1944, p. v.
45. Fincher, Chinese democracy, p. 266.
46. Min-ch’ien Tuk Zug Tyau, China awakened, New York: Macmillan, 1922, pp. 116–7.
47. Andrew J. Nathan, Chinese democracy, New York: Knopf, 1985, pp. 145–8; on foreign languages in the religious periodical press, see Rudolph Löwenthal, The religious periodical press in China, Beijing: Synodal Commission in China, 1940, p. 281.
48. See, for instance, Xu Xiaoqun, Chinese professionals and the republican state: The rise of professional associations in Shanghai, 1912–1937, Cambridge University Press, 2001.
49. Li Shijie, ‘Sixing zhi yanjiu’ (Research on the death penalty), Jianyu zazhi, 1, no. 1 (Nov. 1929), pp. 1–6.
50. Tyau, China awakened, p. 121.
51. Stephen R. MacKinnon, ‘Toward a history of the Chinese press in the republican period’, Modern China, 23, no. 1 (Jan. 1997), pp. 3–32.
52. Ibid., p. 18.
53. L. Sophia Wang, ‘The independent press and authoritarian regimes: The case of the Dagong bao in republican China’, Pacific Affairs, 67, no. 2 (summer 1994), pp. 216–41.
54. Fincher, Chinese democracy, p. 255.
55. Olga Lang, Chinese family and society, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1946, p. 91.
56. William T. Rowe, Hankow: Conflict and community in a Chinese city, Stanford University Press, 1989; Mary B. Rankin, Elite activism and political transformation in China, Zhejiang province, 1865–1911, Stanford University Press, 1986.
57. Marianne Bastid, ‘Currents of social change’ in D. Twitchett and J.K. Fairbank (eds.), The Cambridge history of China, Cambridge University Press, 1980, vol. 11, part 2, pp. 562–3.
58. Chinese Ministry of Information, China handbook, 1937–1945: A comprehensive survey of major developments in China in eight years of war, New York: Da Capo Press, 1947, p. 589.
59. Marie-Claire Bergère, The golden age of the Chinese bourgeoisie, 1911–1937, Cambridge University Press, 1989, p. 57; see also Liu Zehua and Liu Jianqing, ‘Civic associations, political parties, and the cultivation of citizenship consciousness in modern China’, in Joshua A. Fogel and Peter G. Zarrow (eds.), Imagining the people: Chinese intellectuals and the concept of citizenship, 1890–1920, Armonk, NY: Sharpe, 1997, pp. 39–60.
60. Tyau, China awakened, p. 159.
61. David Strand, ‘Historical perspectives’ in Deborah Davis, Richard Kraus, Barry Naughton and Elizabeth Perry (eds.), Urban spaces in contemporary China, Cambridge University Press, 1995, p. 419.
62. David Strand, Rickshaw Beijing: City people and politics in the 1920s, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989, p. 177.
63. Ibid., p. 285; see also Mary B. Rankin, ‘State and society in early republican politics, 1912–18’, China Quarterly, no. 150 (June 1997), pp. 271–3.
64. Robert J. Culp, ‘Elite association and local politics in republican China: Educational institutions in Jiashan and Lanqi Counties, Zhejiang, 1911–1937’, Modern China, 20, no. 4 (Oct. 1994), pp. 446–77.
65. Elizabeth VanderVen, ‘Village-state cooperation: Modern community schools and their funding, Haicheng County, Fengtian, 1905–1931’, Modern China, 31, no. 2 (April 2005), pp. 204–35.
66. See Caroline Reeves, ‘The power of mercy: The Chinese Red Cross Society, 1900–1937’, doctoral dissertation, Harvard University, 1998, and Shirley S. Garrett, Social reformers in urban China: The Chinese Y.M.C.A., 1895–1926, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1970.
67. Léon Vandermeersch, ‘An enquiry into the Chinese conception of the law’, in Stuart R. Schram, The scope of state power in China, London: School of Oriental and African Studies, 1985, pp. 3–26; see also William C. Jones, ‘Chinese law and liberty in comparative historical perspective’, in William C. Kirby (ed.), Realms of freedom in modern China, Stanford University Press, 2004, pp. 44–56.
68. See, among others, William C. Kirby, ‘China unincorporated: Company law and business enterprise in twentieth-century China’, Journal of Asian Studies, 54, no. 1 (Feb. 1995), pp. 43–63.
69. Dikötter, Crime, punishment and the prison in modern China; see also Alison Conner, ‘Lawyers and the legal profession during the republican period’, in Kathryn Bernhardt and Philip C. C. Huang (eds.), Civil Law in Qing and republican China, Stanford University Press, 1994, pp. 215–48.
70. Sifayuan (ed.), Quanguo sifa huiyi huibian (Documents on the national judiciary conference), Nanjing: Sifayuan, 1935; see also J. E. Lemière, ‘La première conférence judiciaire chinoise’, Revue Nationale Chinoise, 23, no. 77 (14 Oct. 1935), pp. 165–75.
71. Laszlo Ladany, Law and legality in China: The testament of a China-watcher, London: Hurst, 1992, pp. 49–50.
72. Meredith P. Gilpatrick, ‘The status of law and lawmaking procedure under the Kuomintang 1925–46’, The Far Eastern Quarterly, 10, no. 1 (Nov. 1950), p. 54.
Chapter 3
1. On this, see some interesting comments by J. R. Levenson, Revolution and cosmopolitanism: The Western stage and the Chinese stages, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971.
2. Michael R. Godley, ‘The late Ch’ing courtship of the Chinese in Southeast Asia’, The Journal of Asian Studies, 34, no. 2 (Feb. 1975), pp. 361–85; to put this in comparative perspective, a similar number of emigrants from South Asia would only be reached by the end of the twentieth century; see Judith M. Brown (ed.), Global South Asians: Introducing the modern diaspora, Cambridge University Press, 2006.
3. Wang Gungwu, The Chinese overseas: From earthbound China to the quest for autonomy, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2000, p. 40.
4. Wu Lien-teh, Plague fighter: The autobiography of a modern Chinese physician, Cambridge: Heffer, 1959.
5. Lee Guan-kin, ‘Responding to eastern and western cultures in Singapore: A comparative study of Khoo Seok Wan, Lim Boon Keng and Song Ong Siang’, doctoral dissertation, University of Hong Kong, 1997.
6. Lee, ‘Responding to eastern and western cultures in Singapore’.
7. ‘Report on the trade of Amoy, for the year 1883’, Report on the trade at the ports of China for the year 1883, Shanghai: Imperial Maritime Customs’ Press, 1884, p. 294.
8. ‘Report on the trade of Kiungchow, for the year 1893’, Report on the trade at the ports of China for the year 1893, Shanghai: Imperial Maritime Customs’ Press, 1894, p. 551.
9. Hu Zijin, ‘Guangzhou zhuzhici’ (Bamboo verses on Canton) in Lei Mengshui et al. (eds.), Zhonghua zhuzhici (Bamboo verses of China), Beijing: Beijing guji chubanshe, 1997, vol. 4, p. 2897.
10. D. S. Hosie, Portrait of a Chinese lady, London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1929, p. 58.
11. ‘Wuchow’, Decennial reports, 1922–31, Shanghai: Statistical Department of the Inspectorate General of Customs, 1933, p. 279.
12. Zhu Huayu, Huaqiao shehui shenghuo yu jiaoyu (Social life and education of overseas Chinese), Canton: Huaqiao wenti yanjiushe, 1937, pp. 114–7.
13. ‘Report on the trade of Amoy, for the year 1904’, Report on the trade at the ports of China for the year 1904, Shanghai: Imperial Maritime Customs’ Press, 1905, p. 648; ‘Report on the trade of Amoy, for the year 1908’, Report on the trade at the ports of China for the year 1908, Shanghai: Imperial Maritime Customs’ Press, 1909, p. 480.
14. Chen Da, Nanyang huaqiao yu Min Yue shehui (Overseas Chinese from Southeast Asia and society in Fujian and Guangdong), Shanghai: Shangwu yinshuguan, 1938; see also Liu Shimu and Xu Zhigui, Huaqiao gaiguan (General survey of overseas Chinese), Shanghai: Zhonghua shuju, 1935, pp. 50–3.
15. Chen, Nanyang huaqiao yu Min Yue shehui, p. 116.
16. Ibid., p. 120.
17. Chen Ta, Chinese migrations, with special reference to labor conditions, Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1923, p. 157.
18. Stephen Fitzgerald, China and the overseas Chinese: A study of Peking’s changing policy, Cambridge University Press, 1972, pp. 121–2.
19. See the essential work of John M. Carroll, Edge of empires: Chinese elites and British colonials in Hong Kong, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2005.
20. Ng Lun Ngai-Ha, ‘The role of Hong Kong educated Chinese in the shaping of modern China’, Modern Asian Studies, 17, no. 1 (1983), pp. 137–63.
21. Priscilla Roberts, ‘Paul D. Cravath and China between the wars’, Tamkang Journal of International Affairs, 4, no. 1 (fall 1999), pp. 31–2.
22. Diran John Sohigian, ‘The life and times of Lin Yutang’, doctoral dissertation, New York: Columbia University, 1991, p. 668.
23. Kingsley Bolton, Chinese Englishes: A sociolinguistic history, Cambridge University Press, 2003, pp. 243–4.
24. Margaret E. Burton, Notable women of modern China, New York: Revell, 1912, pp. 115–220; G. H. Choa, ‘Heal the sick’ was their motto: The Protestant medical missionaries in China, Hong Kong: Chinese University Press, 1990, pp. 81–2.
25. Eric Teichman, Travels of a consular officer in north-west China, Cambridge University Press, 1921, pp. 116–7; see also Robert S. Clark and Arthur de Carle Sowerby, Through Shen-kan: The account of the Clark Expedition in north China 1908–9, London: Fisher Unwin, 1912, p. 62.
26. Albert Feuerwerker, The foreign establishment in China in the early twentieth century, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1976, p. 38.
27. Min-ch’ien Tuk Zug Tyau, China awakened, New York: Macmillan, 1922, pp. 222–3; see also Julean Arnold, China: A commercial and industrial handbook, Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1926, p. 66, and Edward T. Williams, China yesterday and to-day, London: George Harrap, 1923, p. 581.
28. Frances Wood, No dogs and not many Chinese: Treaty port life in China, 1843–1943, London: John Murray, 1998, pp. 2–3 and 297.
29. Richard P. Dobson, China cycle, London: Macmillan, 1946, p. 13.
30. Banque de France, ‘Offshoring’, Banque de France Bulletin Digest, no. 133, 2005, pp. 21–35; Norman D. Hanwell, ‘France takes inventory in China’, Far Eastern Survey, 7, no. 19 (Sept. 1938), pp. 217–25.
31. Shannon R. Brown, ‘Cakes and oil: Technology transfer and Chinese soybean processing, 1860–1895’, Comparative Studies in Society and History, 23, no. 3 (July 1981), pp. 449–63.
32. Feuerwerker, The foreign establishment, p. 92.
33. Ibid., pp. 61–2.
34. Ibid., pp. 68–77.
35. Ibid., pp. 106–7.
36. Guy Brossollet, Les Français de Shanghai, 1849–1949, Paris: Belin, 1999, pp. 227–32.
37. Arthur Ransome, The Chinese puzzle, London: Allen and Unwin, 1927; Robert Bickers, Britain in China: Community, culture and colonialism 1900–1949, Manchester University Press, 1999.
38. Foremost among these historians is Wood, Treaty port life in China, 1843–1943; see also Nicholas R. Clifford, Spoilt children of empire: Westerners in Shanghai and the Chinese revolution of the 1920s, Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1991, p. 76.
39. Robert N. Tharp, They called us White Chinese: The story of a lifetime of service to God and mankind, Charlotte, NC: Eva E. Tharp Publications, 1994.
40. John K. Fairbank, Chinabound: A fifty-year memoir, New York: Harper and Row, 1982, p. 51.
41. Feuerwerker, The foreign establishment, p. 104; see also Thomas Lawton, A time of transition: Two collectors of Chinese art, Lawrence, KS: Spencer Museum of Art, 1991, pp. 65–97.
42. Carl Crow, Four hundred million customers, New York: Halcyon House, 1937, p. 17.
43. Ida Pruitt, A China childhood, San Francisco: Chinese Materials Center, 1978.
44. Pearl Buck, My several worlds, a personal record, New York: John Day, 1954, p. 10.
45. Innes Jackson, China only yesterday, London: Faber and Faber, 1938; Reginald F. Johnston, Twilight in the forbidden city, Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 1985.
46. Rudolph Löwenthal, The religious periodical press in China, Beijing: Synodal Commission in China, 1940, pp. 252–3 and 269.
47. Constantin Rissov, Le dragon enchaîné: De Chiang Kai-shek à Mao Ze-dong, trente-cinq ans d’intimité avec la Chine, Paris: Robert Laffont, 1985.
48. John Haffenden, William Empson: Among the mandarins, Oxford University Press, 2005.
49. For instance Zhang Kaiyuan, ‘Chinese perspective: A brief review of the historical research on Christianity in China’, in Stephen Uhalley and Xiaoxin Wu (eds.), China and Christianity: Burdened past, hopeful future, Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 2001, pp. 29–42.
50. Tharp, They called us White Chinese.
51. James C. Thomson, While China faced West: American reformers in Nationalist China, 1928–1937, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1969, pp. 76–9.
52. Feuerwerker, The foreign establishment, pp. 39–49.
53. Thomson, While China faced West, pp. 35–8.
54. A. J. Nathan, A history of the China International Famine Relief Commission, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1965; see also Gerald Yorke, China changes, London: Jonathan Cape, 1935, pp. 70–1.
55. Thomas Rawski, Economic growth in prewar China, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989, pp. 235–6.
56. This point was made by Jonathan Mirksy in a review of a biography of Edgar Snow in The New York Review of Books in February 1989, only to be atttacked by John K. Fairbank, doyen of Chinese studies at Harvard; see ‘Mao and Snow’, The New York Review of Books, 36, no. 7, 27 April 1989.
57. Wood, No dogs and not many Chinese, p. 301.
Chapter 4
1. William C. Kirby, ‘The internationalization of China: Foreign relations at home and abroad’, China Quarterly, no. 150 (June 1997), pp. 437–8.
2. Tang Qihua, ‘Qingmo minchu Zhongguo dui “Haiya baohe hui” zhi canyu (1899–1917)’ (China’s participation in the Hague Peace Conferences, 1899–1917), Guoli zhengzhi daxue lishi xuebao, no. 23 (May 2005), pp. 45–90; see also Xu Guoqi, China and the Great War: China’s pursuit of a new national identity and internationalization, Cambridge University Press, 2005.
3. Pao-Chin Chu, V. K. Wellington Koo: A case study of China’s diplomat and diplomacy of nationalism, 1912–1966, Hong Kong: Chinese University Press, 1981; Stephen G. Craft, V. K. Wellington Koo and the emergence of modern China, Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2004.
4. F. T. Cheng, East and West: Episodes in a sixty years’ journey, London: Hutchinson, 1951.
5. Kirby, ‘The internationalization of China’, pp. 448 and 455.
6. ‘International Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Women and Children’, American Journal of International Law, 18, no. 3 (July 1924), pp. 130–7.
7. Manley O. Hudson, ‘The registration of treaties’, American Journal of International Law, 24, no. 4 (Oct. 1930), pp. 754–5; see also L. K. Quan, China’s relations with the League of Nations, 1919–1936, Hong Kong: Asiatic Press, 1939; of interest is also Jürgen Osterhammel, ‘“Technical co-operation” between the League of Nations and China’, Modern Asian Studies, 13, no. 4 (1979), pp. 661–80.
8. See International Anti-Opium Association, The war against opium, Tianjin: Tientsin Press, 1922, pp. 22–4; William McAllister, Drug diplomacy in the twentieth century: An international history, London: Routledge, 2000, pp. 24–7; Zhou Yongming, Anti-drug crusades in twentieth-century China: Nationalism, history, and state-building, Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 1999, pp. 27–32.
9. Frank Dikötter, Crime, punishment and the prison in modern China, New York: Columbia University Press, 2002, pp. 39, 50, 65, 114–5, 142–3, 200, 227 and 345–6.
10. Frank Dikötter, Imperfect conceptions: Medical knowledge, birth defects and eugenics in China, New York: Columbia University Press, 1998, Chapter 2.
11. Zheng Shengtian, ‘Waves lashed the Bund from the West: Shanghai’s art scene in the 1930s’ in Jo-Anne Birnie Danzker, Ken Lum and Zheng Shengtian (eds.), Shanghai modern, 1919–1945, Ostfildern-Ruit: Hatje Cantz, 2004, pp. 174–99.
12. Beijing tushuguan (ed.) Minguo shiqi zong shumu, 1911–1949 (Catalogue of books published in the republican era, 1911–1949), Beijing: Shumu wenxian chubanshe: Xinhua shudian, 1986–96.
13. See Dikötter, Crime, punishment and the prison in modern China, the bibliography in particular; as a specific example, twelve out of these twenty-five books carry the title Penology, although at least thirty books with that title are known to have been published in the republican era; see the more complete catalogue complied by Zhongguo zhengfa daxue tushuguan (ed.), Zhongguo falü tushu zongmu (Catalogue of law books in Chinese), Beijing: Zhongguo zhengfa daxue chubanshe, 1991, pp. 486–92.
14. Quanguo diyi zhongxin tushuguan weiyuanhui quanguo tushu lianhe mulu bianji zu (ed.), Quanguo zhongwen qikan lianhe mulu, 1833–1949 (Catalogue of periodicals in Chinese, 1833–1949), Beijing: Beijing tushuguan, 1961.
15. Otto Struve, ‘The decline of international cooperation in astronomy’, Science, 87, no. 2260 (April 1938), pp. 364–5.
16. See Dikötter, Crime, punishment and the prison in modern China, Chapters 4 and 5, in particular pp. 199–202.
17. Ibid., pp. 394–5.
18. Maurice Freedman, ‘Sociology in and of China’, British Journal of Sociology, 13, no. 2 (June 1962), p. 113.
19. Leonard Shih-lien Hsu, ‘The sociological movement in China’, Pacific Affairs, 4, no. 4 (April 1931), pp. 283–307.
20. Bingham Dai, Opium addiction in Chicago, orig. 1937, Montclair, NJ: Patterson Smith, 1970; he was most recently recognised as a pioneer in the Newsletter of the Society for Applied Anthropology, 13, no. 1 (Feb. 2002), p. 3; see also Geoffrey Blowers, ‘Bingham Dai, Adolf Storfer, and the tentative beginnings of psychoanalytic culture in China: 1935–1941’, Psychoanalysis and History, 6, no. 1 (2004), pp. 93–105.
21. Julean Arnold, China through the American window, Shanghai: American Chamber of Commerce, 1932, p. 33.
22. See E-tu Zen Sun, ‘The growth of the academic community, 1912–1949’, in John K. Fairbank and Albert Feuerwerker (eds.), The Cambridge history of China, vol. 13, part 2, p. 364; C. P. Fitzgerald, ‘Review of Chinese Intellectuals and the West by Y. C. Wang’, Pacific Affairs, 40, no. 1 (Spring 1967), p. 140; Jerome Ch’en has written some magnificent pages on the returned students; see his China and the West: Society and culture, 1815–1937, London: Hutchinson, 1979, pp. 151–202.
23. Jing Cheng Qu, ‘Chinese physicists educated in Germany and America: Their scientific contributions and their impact on China’s higher education (1900–1949)’, doctoral dissertation, Ohio State University, 1998.
24. Rudolph Löwenthal, The religious periodical press in China, Beijing: Synodal Commission in China, 1940, p. 291.
25. Olga Lang, Chinese family and society, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1946, p. 89.
26. A. S. Roe, Chance and change in China, London: Heinemann, 1920, p. 27.
27. G. L. Dickinson, Appearances: Being notes of travel, London: Dent, 1914, p. 68.
28. Sidney D. Gamble, North China villages: Social, political, and economic activities before 1933, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1963, pp. 104–8.
29. D. H. Kulp, Country life in south China: The sociology of familism, Taipei: Ch’eng-wen, 1966, pp. 226–33.
30. Elizabeth VanderVen, ‘Village-state cooperation: Modern community schools and their funding, Haicheng County, Fengtian, 1905–1931’, Modern China, 31, no. 2 (April 2005), pp. 204–35.
31. Frank Dikötter, The discourse of race in modern China, Stanford University Press, 1992; both quotations appear on p. 163.
32. Jerome Ch’en, China and the West: Society and culture, 1815–1937, London: Hutchinson, 1979, pp. 108–11.
33. Lian Xi, The conversion of missionaries: Liberalism in American Protestant missions in China, 1907–1932, Pennsylvania Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1997, p. 158.
34. Kenneth Scott Latourette, A history of the expansion of Christianity, New York: Harper, 1945, vol. 7, pp. 335 and 369.
35. Ibid., vol. 7, p. 342.
36. Ibid., vol. 7, pp. 352–3.
37. John K. Fairbank, ‘The place of Protestant writings in China’s cultural history’, in Suzanne Wilson Barnett and John K. Fairbank (eds.), Christianity in China: Early Protestant missionary writings, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1984, pp. 7–13; see also Kathleen L. Lodwick, Crusaders against opium: Protestant missionaries in China, 1874–1917, Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1995, pp. 53 and 66–67.
38. See Norman Howard Cliff, ‘The life and theology of Watchman Nee, including a study of the Little Flock Movement which he founded’, London: Open University, 1983, MPhil dissertation, pp. 62–77.
39. See Bob Whyte, Unfinished encounter: China and Christianity, London: Collins, 1988; on the True Jesus Church, see Allen J. Swanson and Grace Lo, The Church in Taiwan: Profile 1980, a review of the past, a projection for the future, Pasadena: William Carey Library, 1981, pp. 76–9; see also Daniel H. Bays, ‘Indigenous Protestant churches in China’, in Steven Kaplan (ed.), Indigenous responses to Western Christianity, New York University Press, 1995, pp. 124–43.
40. Cliff, ‘The life and theology of Watchman Nee’, pp. 31–44.
41. These numbers were furnished as early as in 1945 in Latourette, A history of the expansion of Christianity, vol. 7, p. 370.
42. Gabriele Goldfuss, ‘Binding sutras and modernity: The life and times of the Chinese layman Yang Wenhui (1837–1911)’, Studies in Central and East Asian Religion, vol. 9 (1996).
43. Darui Long, ‘An interfaith dialogue between the Chinese Buddhist leader Taixu and Christians’, Buddhist-Christian Studies, vol. 20 (2000), pp. 167–89.
44. Francesca Tarocco, ‘Attuning the Dharma: The cultural practices of modern Chinese Buddhists’, doctoral dissertation, University of London, 2004.
45. Holmes Welch, The Buddhist revival in China, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1968.
46. Emma Louise Benignus, ‘Current religious trends in China’, Journal of Bible and Religion, 15, no. 4 (Oct. 1947), pp. 199–205.
47. Welch, The Buddhist revival in China, pp. 98 and 262; his examples, however, all date from the 1920s, and for later periods one could add Yorke, China changes, p. 174, who mentions construction activity all over central China in the mid-1930s, although he was still berated in a review by G. E. Taylor for not having sufficiently emphasised the amount of building performed by lay practitioners rather than by professional monks, a critical point which might be extended to Welch’s work as well; see G. E. Taylor, ‘Review’, Pacific Affairs, 9, no. 3 (Sept. 1936), pp. 464–6.
48. See the pioneering work of a member of the Department of Journalism at Yenching University, Rudolph Löwenthal, The religious periodical press in China, Beijing: Synodal Commission in China, 1940, pp. 211–50.
49. Dru C. Gladney, ‘Sino-Middle Eastern perspectives and relations since the Gulf War: Views from below’, International Journal of Middle East Studies, 26, no. 4 (Nov. 1994), p. 679.
50. Derk Bodde, ‘China’s Muslim minority’, Far Eastern Survey, 15, no. 18 (Sept. 1946), pp. 281–4; Chan Wing-tsit, Religious trends in modern China, New York: Octagon Books, 1969, pp. 186–216; see also Andrew D.W. Forbes, Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: A political history of republican Sinkiang, 1911–1949, Cambridge University Press, 1986, and Linda Benson, The Ili Rebellion: The Moslem challenge to Chinese authority in Xinjiang, 1944–1949, Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1990.
51. Dru C. Gladney, ‘Islam’, Journal of Asian Studies, 54, no. 2 (May 1995), pp. 371–8.
52. Darui Long, ‘An interfaith dialogue between the Chinese Buddhist leader Taixu and Christians’, Buddhist-Christian Studies, vol. 20 (2000), pp. 167–89.
53. Ibid., p. 179; Chan, Religious trends in modern China, pp. 82–3.
54. Dikötter, Crime, punishment and the prison in modern China, pp. 109–10.
55. Don A. Pittman, ‘The modern Buddhist reformer T’ai-hsü on Christianity’, Buddhist-Christian Studies, vol. 13 (1993), pp. 79–80.
56. Lewis Hodous, ‘The Chinese Church of the Five Religions’, Journal of Religion, 4, no. 1 (Jan. 1924), pp. 71–6; Paul de Witt Twinem, ‘Modern syncretic religious societies in China’, Journal of Religion, 5, no. 5 (Sept. 1925), pp. 463–82.
57. Eileen Chang, Written on water, translated by Andrew F. Jones, New York: Columbia University Press, 2005.
58. Jo-Anne Birnie Danzker, ‘Shanghai modern’, in Jo-Anne Birnie Danzker, Ken Lum and Zheng Shengtian (eds.), Shanghai modern, 1919–1945, Ostfildern-Ruit: Hatje Cantz, 2004, p. 64.
59. Shelagh Vainker, ‘Modern Chinese painting in London, 1935’, in Danzker, Lum and Zheng, Shanghai modern, 1919–1945, pp. 118–23.
60. Zhang Zhen, An amorous history of the silver screen: Shanghai cinema, 1896–1937, University of Chicago Press, 2005, pp. 288–96.
61. Ibid., p. 240.
62. Ibid., p. 199; this line also appears in Jay Leyda, Dianying: An account of films and the film audience in China, Cambridge, MA: M.I.T. Press, 1972, p. 62, who quotes Cheng Jihua, Zhongguo dianying fazhan shi (History of the development of Chinese cinema), Beijing: Zhongguo dianying chubanshe, 1963, vol. 1, p. 133.
63. Fu Poshek, Between Shanghai and Hong Kong: The politics of Chinese cinemas, Stanford University Press, 2003, pp. xiv and 55–63.
64. The exception is Edwin Kin-keung Lai, ‘The life and art photography of Lang Jingshan (1892–1995)’, doctoral dissertation, University of Hong Kong, 2000.
65. ‘Chinese show breaks nude taboo’, BBC News, 29 Jan. 2001.
66. Heinz von Perckhammer, Edle Nacktheit in China (The culture of the nude in China), Berlin: Eigenbrödler, 1928.
67. See Frank Dikötter, Exotic commodities: Modern objects and everyday life in China, New York: Columbia University Press, 2007, Chapter 10.
68. For an introduction, see Editions Revue Noire (eds.), Anthology of African and Indian Ocean Photography, Paris: Editions Revue Noire, 1999.
69. Chao Mei-pa, ‘The trend of modern Chinese music’, T’ien Hsia Monthly, no. 4 (March 1937), pp. 269–86; L’Artiste Chinois Chao Mei-Pa. Appréciations, Brussels: Wellens and Godenne, n.d. (1933?); see also Sheila Melvin and Jindong Cai, Rhapsody in red: How Western classical music became Chinese, New York: Algora Publishing, 2004.
70. Alexander Tcherepnine, ‘Music in modern China’, The Musical Quarterly, 21, no. 4 (Oct. 1935), pp. 391–400.
71. Andrew F. Jones, Yellow music: Media culture and colonial modernity in the Chinese Jazz Age, Durham: Duke University Press, 2001.
72. Jonathan Stock, ‘Reconsidering the past: Zhou Xuan and the rehabilitation of early twentieth-century popular music’, Asian Music, 26, no. 2 (Spring 1995), pp. 119–35; Andreas Steen, ‘Zhou Xuan: When will the gentleman come back again?’, Chime, nos. 14–15 (1999–2000), pp. 125–53; Sue Tuohy, ‘Metropolitan sounds: Music in Chinese films of the 1930s’ in Zhang Yingjin (ed.), Cinema and urban culture in Shanghai, 1922–1943, Stanford University Press, 1999, pp. 200–21.
73. Jones, Yellow music, p. 15.
Chapter 5
1. John K. Fairbank, Edwin O. Reischauer and Albert M. Craig, East Asia: Tradition and transformation, Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1973, p. 178.
2. Frank Dikötter, Exotic commodities: Modern objects and everyday life in China, New York: Columbia University Press, 2007.
3. David Faure, China and capitalism: A history of business enterprise in modern China, Hong Kong University Press, 2006, pp. 45–64; not all enterprises immediately took advantage of the Company Law; see William C. Kirby, ‘China unincorporated: Company law and business enterprise in twentieth-century China’, Journal of Asian Studies, 54, No. 1 (Feb. 1995), pp. 43–6.
4. ‘International Convention Relating to the Simplification of Customs Formalities’, American Journal of International Law, 19, no. 4, Supplement: Official Documents (Oct. 1925), pp. 146–66.
5. Hao Yen-p’ing, The commercial revolution in nineteenth-century China: The rise of Sino-Western mercantile capitalism, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986; Philip Richardson, Economic change in China, c. 1800–1950, Cambridge University Press, 1999, p. 42.
6. Richardson, Economic change in China, c. 1800–1950, p. 43.
7. Ibid., pp. 43–4.
8. Thomas Rawski, Economic growth in prewar China, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989, pp. 5–7.
9. Ibid., pp. 6–8.
10. Jack Gray, Rebellions and revolutions: China from the 1800s to the 1980s, Oxford University Press, 1990, p. 168.
11. Richard A. Kraus, Cotton and cotton goods in China, 1918–1936, New York: Garland, 1980, p. 2; Philip C. C. Huang, The peasant family and rural development in the Yangzi delta, 1350–1988, Stanford University Press, 1990, pp. 98, 116 and 152.
12. Trade reports, ‘Report on the trade of China, 1936’, 1936.
13. Gray, Rebellions and revolutions, pp. 152–3.
14. Chinese Ministry of Information, China handbook, 1937–1945: A comprehensive survey of major developments in China in eight years of war, New York: Da Capo Press, 1947, pp. 404–5; see also G. C. Allen and A. G. Donnithorne, Western enterprise in Far Eastern economic development: China and Japan, New York: Macmillan, 1954, p. 119.
15. James Hsioung Lee, A half century of memories, Hong Kong: South China Photo-Process Printing Co., n.d., 1960s, p. 89.
16. Ibid., p. 85.
17. Gray, Rebellions and revolutions, p. 156.
18. John L. Buck, Land utilization in China, Nanjing: University of Nanking, 1937; Gray, Rebellions and revolutions, p. 160.
19. Gray, Rebellions and revolutions, pp. 160–1.
20. Loren Brandt, Commercialization and agricultural development: Central and eastern China, 1870–1937, Cambridge University Press, 1989.
21. Gray, Rebellions and revolutions, p. 163.
22. This is not the place to review these debates, but the interested reader can find an excellent overview in Richardson, Economic change in China, c. 1800–1950.
23. Stephen L. Morgan, ‘Economic growth and the biological standard of living in China, 1880–1930’, Economics and human biology, no. 2 (2004), pp. 197–218.
24. David Faure, The rural economy of pre-liberation China: Trade expansion and peasant livelihood in Jiangsu and Guangdong, 1870 to 1937, Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 1989, p. 203; see also Brandt, Commercialization and agricultural development.
25. Huang, The peasant family and rural development in the Yangzi delta, 1350–1988, p. 15.
26. Dikötter, Exotic commodities, Chapter 2.
27. Wenshi ziliao yanjiu weiyuanhui (ed.), Xinhai geming huiyi lu (Reminiscences about the revolution of 1911), Beijing: Wenshi ziliao chubanshe, 1981, p. 366.
28. M. B. Treudley, The men and women of Chung Ho Ch’ang, Taipei: Orient Cultural Service, 1971, p. 40.
29. ‘Swatow’, Decennial reports, 1922–31, Shanghai: Statistical Department of the Inspectorate General of Customs, 1933, p. 162.
30. Brian H. Low, ‘The standard of living’, in John L. Buck, Land utilization in China, Nanjing: University of Nanking, 1937, p. 459.
31. Liu Shanlin, Xiyang feng: Xiyang faming zai Zhongguo (Inventions from the West in China), Shanghai: Shanghai guji chubanshe, 1999, p. 142.
32. Zhu Zhihong, Baxianzhi (A history of Ba county), orig. 1939, Chengdu: Bashu shushe, 1992, vol. 13, p. 4.
33. Stephen Mennell, All manners of food: Eating and taste in England and France from the Middle Ages to the present, London: Blackwell, 1985, pp. 321 and 329.
34. Dikötter, Exotic commodities, Chapter 9.
35. Andrew Nathan, ‘A constitutional republic: The Peking government, 1916–28’, in Denis Twitchett and John K. Fairbank (eds.), The Cambridge history of China, vol. 12, part 1, Cambridge University Press, 1983, pp. 267 and 272–3.
36. Department of Overseas Trade, Economic conditions in China to September 1st, 1929, London: Stationery Office, 1930, p. 26.
37. W. G. Sewell, The land and life of China, London: Edinburgh House Press, 1945, pp. 13–4.
38. Victor Purcell, Chinese evergreen, London: Michael Joseph, 1938, pp. 152, 173–4, 191, 244.
39. Gerald Yorke, China changes, London: Jonathan Cape, 1935, p. 89.
40. L. H. Dudley Buxton, China: The land and the people, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1929, p. 139.
41. Peter Fleming, One’s company: A journey to China, London: Jonathan Cape, 1934, p. 200.
42. ‘Report on the trade of Amoy, for the year 1883’, Report on the trade at the ports of China for the year 1883, Shanghai: Imperial Maritime Customs’ Press, 1884, p. 294.
43. Gong Debo, Gong Debo huiyi lu (Reminiscences of Gong Debo), Taipei: Longwen chubanshe, 1989, p. 11.
44. Lena E. Johnston, China and her peoples, London: Church Missionary Society, 1925, p. 118.
45. Hiroyuki Hokari, ‘Donghua yiyuan yu huaren wangluo’ (The Tung-Wah Hospital and Chinese networks) in South China Research Center and South China Research Circle (eds.), Jingying wenhua: Zhongguo shehui danyuan de guanli yu yunzuo (Managing culture: Chinese organizations in action), Hong Kong Educational Publishing Co., 1999, pp. 229–43.
46. Department of Overseas Trade, Economic conditions in China to September 1st, 1929, pp. 22–3.
47. Wang Fuming, ‘Making a living: Agriculture, industry and commerce in eastern Hebei, 1870–1937’, doctoral dissertation, Iowa State University, 1998, p. 154; see also Ernest P. Liang, China: Railways and agricultural development, 1875–1935, University of Chicago Press, 1982.
48. Chang Jui-te, ‘Technology tranfer in modern China: The case of railway enterprise (1876–1937)’, Modern Asian Studies, 27, no. 2 (1993), p. 291.
49. Lee, A half century of memories, p. 22.
50. Department of Overseas Trade, Economic conditions in China to September 1st, 1929, p. 30.
51. Harrison Forman, Changing China, New York: Crown, 1948, pp. 278– 9.
52. Dikötter, Exotic commodities, Chapter 4.
Chapter 6
1. Jeffrey Brooks, ‘Official xenophobia and popular cosmopolitanism in early Soviet Russia’, American Historical Review, 97, no. 5 (Dec. 1992), pp. 1431–48.
2. Valerie Hansen, The open empire: A history of China to 1600, New York: W. W. Norton, 2000.
3. Joanna Waley-Cohen, The sextants of Beijing: Global currents in Chinese history, New York: W. W. Norton, 1999.