Roman Catholics believe in an unbroken continuity from the New Testament church to modern Catholicism. Because all the Catholic denominations in this chapter derive from the broader Roman Catholic Church, the historical introduction for this chapter is found in my discussion of Roman Catholicism below.
Founded: Claimed to be first century
Members: More than 63,400,000
Congregations: Unknown
Beginnings
New Testament churches were governed by a plurality of elders (1 Timothy 5:17; 1 Peter 5:1). One of these elders typically rose to a position of authority over the others. He became a “first among equals,” akin to a chairman of the elders. This individual eventually came to be known as a bishop, an office distinct from that of the elder. This hierarchy facilitated the practical running of the church.
As churches in the larger cities continued to grow numerically, they divided into a number of smaller congregations spread throughout the city, with an elder overseeing each of them. The bishop of the city exercised authority over all the congregational elders of the city.
Eventually, some bishops attained greater authority than others. In some cases this was due to the simple fact that the bishop was a strong personality who exerted powerful leadership skills. In other cases, the bishop became prominent because the city in which the church was located was prominent. This was the case in Alexandria, Antioch, Rome, and Carthage.
The office of bishop became solidified by the middle of the second century, and consequent historical developments served to greatly enhance the office. For example, when Constantine (288–337) divided his empire into four praetorian prefectures (governmental provinces), the bishops of the capital cities in these provinces gained significant influence. As well, the Council of Nicaea (in its sixth canon) gave the Alexandrian, Antiochian, and Roman bishops authority over the bishops in the broader territories of which these cities were centers. This set the stage for the eventual elevation of the Roman bishop.
The rise of the bishop of Rome. The bishop of Rome eventually became the head of the entire church. A number of factors led to this development. First, as the capital of the Empire, Rome was strategically located (“all roads lead to Rome”). Further, this was the only Western church to have received an epistle from the apostle Paul. Still further, Catholics believe Peter took up residence in Rome in AD 42, became its first bishop, and remained there until his martyrdom in AD 67. When Jerusalem fell in AD 70, Rome’s authority was further enhanced. Add to this the fact that the Roman church had attained significant wealth and great power, and one can easily perceive how Rome’s bishop was destined for greatness.
In the fourth century, the claims of authority for the bishop of Rome increased. In the fifth century, Pope Leo I claimed authority over all other churches.
Ups and downs in the medieval church. In the late sixth and early seventh centuries, Pope Gregory I expanded the authority of the Roman Catholic Church to include military and civil power. However, from the mid-seventh to the eleventh centuries, the Roman Empire suffered a decline in power, and this was accompanied by a general decline in the authority of the bishops of the Roman Catholic Church. By the late eleventh century, however, a reformed papacy was able to restore episcopal power.
The East–West split. In AD 1054, the Eastern and Western churches split. Prior to 1054, the bishop of Rome served as the head of the Western church while the bishop of Constantinople served as the head of the Eastern church. Neither one asserted authority over the other. However, a consensus eventually developed in the Western church that the entire church should be ruled by a single ecclesiastical institution with a single head (the Roman bishop). The bishop of Constantinople—Michael Caerularius—was not impressed with this idea. Because the two bishops could not come to an agreement, they promptly excommunicated each other, and their churches went their separate ways.
The Reformation. Martin Luther (1483–1546), during his doctoral studies, uncovered what he believed to be significant differences between the teachings of the Bible and those of Roman Catholicism. He therefore set out to motivate the Roman Catholic Church to reform its theology and practices so it would be more in line with the Word of God. His concerns included the power of the pope, the abuse involved in the sale of indulgences, and the teaching that souls are in purgatory. In 1517, Luther posted his famous 95 Theses on the door of Wittenberg Castle Church.
The theses caused a firestorm. The Roman Catholic pope and religious authorities pressured Luther to recant his views, but he refused. Luther had hoped to bring reformation to the church, but he ended up bringing division to the church. Both the pope and Luther were unbending. The pope excommunicated Luther, and Luther refused to recognize the authority of the pope. Western Christianity became splintered.
The Council of Trent. The Council of Trent was an ecumenical council of the Roman Catholic Church held in 25 sessions between AD 1545 and 1563. During these sessions, many distinctive Roman Catholic doctrines were defined for the first time, and the present ecclesiastical structure of the Church was codified. At this council, anathemas were pronounced against those who differed with the church concerning the doctrine of justification and salvation. A notable outcome of Trent is that from this time forward, the pope became the foundation of stability, unity, and authority in the church.
Emergence in the United States. Roman Catholicism initially emerged in the United States as a result of Spanish explorers infiltrating Central and South America in the sixteenth century. Catholic missionaries always accompanied these explorers, and Catholicism quickly grew in what would become Florida, Texas, New Mexico, and California. These settlements became centers of Catholic evangelism among Native Americans. The first Catholic parish was established in Saint Augustine, Florida, in 1565. Meanwhile, French missionaries evangelized among Native Americans in what is now Maine and New York.
Geometric growth of Catholicism took place in the United States in the nineteenth century. During this time, there was a massive Catholic immigration from such countries as Ireland, Italy, and Germany. During the 100 year period between 1820 and 1920, some ten million Catholics immigrated.
Vatican Council I. Pope Pius IX convened the First Vatican Council in 1869 in Saint Peter’s Basilica in Rome. Some 1050 bishops were eligible to participate. However, only about 700 attended the formal opening on December 8, 1869. Additional bishops eventually participated. Perhaps the most significant outcome of this council is that the doctrine of the supremacy and infallibility of the pope was formulated.
Vatican Council II. The Second Vatican Council was an ecumenical council of the Roman Catholic Church held in Rome in four sessions. The first was during the pontificate of Pope John XXIII in 1962, and the other three were during the pontificate of Pope Paul VI in 1963, 1964, and 1965. Some 2500 Roman Catholic priests attended. Guests from other Christian churches were invited to observe.
Vatican II allowed priests to celebrate the Mass in the language of the people (instead of Latin). It allowed modern methods of biblical study and interpretation, it encouraged the laity to be involved in parish life, and it allowed Roman Catholics to enter into ecumenical and interfaith dialogue. It also addressed the Catholic view that Mary was the Blessed Mediatrix and Mother of the church.
Significantly, this council decided that all who are named Christian (including non-Catholics) are a part of God’s family. Non-Catholics are now considered “separated brethren.” The council concluded that “the church knows that she is joined in many ways to the baptized who are honored by the name of Christian, but who do not however profess the Catholic faith in its entirety or have not preserved unity which unites them to Christ.”1
Distinctive Ideas in Roman Catholicism
• The Bible includes the Apocrypha.
• Scripture must be interpreted by church tradition.
• Mary was immaculately conceived and was thus free of original sin. She remained a virgin perpetually. She was bodily assumed into heaven. She is venerated by the church.
• When the pope speaks on matters of faith “from the chair,” he speaks infallibly.
• Baptism removes original sin.
• In the Eucharist, the elements change into the literal body and blood of Jesus (transubstantiation).
• Catholics who are imperfectly purified in this life must suffer in purgatory for a time before entering heaven.
• Non-Catholics are viewed as “separated brethren.”
Beliefs
Diversity. Not all Roman Catholics believe the same things. Ultratraditional Catholics are critical of the changes brought about by Vatican II. Traditionalist Catholics, while critical of liberalism and modernism within the church, are generally accepting of the reforms of Vatican II. Liberal Catholics have replaced the Bible and church authority with the authority of human reason and have questioned the infallibility of the pope, church councils, and the Bible itself. Charismatic and evangelical Catholics affirm conservatively orthodox doctrines and emphasize the gifts of the Holy Spirit, the importance of being baptized in the Holy Spirit, and the Spirit-filled life. Cultural Catholics are “womb-to-tomb” Catholics—that is, they are born, baptized, married, and buried in the Catholic church, but they may be relatively unconcerned about spirituality. Popular folk Catholics predominate in Central and South America and are eclectic in their beliefs, combining elements of an animistic or nature religion with a traditional medieval Catholicism. The discussion of doctrines below reflects the official teachings of the Roman Catholic Church.
The Bible. A body of truth was passed down to the pope and bishops in two ways—tradition and the written Word. Tradition refers to information in unwritten form, such as the oral teachings, oral worship, and oral prayers of the apostles. God’s written Word, by contrast, is what we find recorded in the pages of Scripture. Catholics believe that both written Scripture and oral tradition together form the Word of God. They together constitute the “sacred deposit of faith.”
The written Word of God is found not only in the Old and New Testaments but also in the apocryphal books—seven complete books and four partial books, many of which originated in the period between the Old and New Testaments. These books were canonized at the Council of Trent (AD 1545–1563).
God. The one God, the Almighty, is triune.
Jesus Christ. Jesus is Lord, the only Son of God, and is one in being with the Father. Through Him all things were made. In the Incarnation He took on a human nature. In His humanity, He was begotten of the Holy Spirit and born of the Virgin Mary. He was crucified, was resurrected three days later, and ascended into heaven, where He now sits at the right hand of the Father. He will one day come again to judge the living and the dead.
The Holy Spirit. The Holy Spirit is the third person of the Trinity, who proceeds from the Father and Son and is the Giver of life. With the Father and Son, He is worshipped and glorified. He has spoken through all the biblical prophets.
Sin and salvation. When Adam and Eve fell into sin, they lost the divine life God had bestowed on them through sanctifying grace. Since then, every human being born into the world has been born without this divine life or sanctifying grace. For a person to be saved, there must be a restoration of sanctifying grace.
Toward this end, the salvation process starts out with “first actual grace.” This grace is “first” in the sense that it is God who initially reaches out to a person and gives him the grace that will enable him to seek God, have faith, and prepare his soul for baptism and justification. It is “actual” in the sense that good acts are the goal.
This grace does not have an automatic influence. A person must respond to it—yield to its influence—for it to become effectual. Should a person cooperate with this grace, he will end up performing “salutary acts” that prepare his soul for baptism and justification. If he continues to reject this grace until he dies, he is lost.
When a person is finally baptized, original sin is removed from the soul, and in its place sanctifying grace is “infused.” At this point the person experiences “initial justification.” No one can merit or earn this grace, so this initial aspect of justification is said to be by grace. When the soul is infused with this sanctifying grace of God, inherent righteousness becomes one of the soul’s characteristics.
Following initial justification, a second aspect of justification occurs throughout life as the person continues to cooperate with God’s grace and progresses in good works, thereby meriting the further grace that is necessary for him or her to enter eternal life. This means the person must sustain his new relationship with God and continue cooperating with God’s grace to gain full and final justification. He must be cautious along the way not to commit mortal sins (conscious, deliberate, serious sins), which erase grace from the soul. (Only in the sacrament of penance—involving confession and acts of penance—can a Catholic be absolved from such a sin.) Only at the end of the process (that is, when the believer dies) will he or she know for certain that he or she is finally justified.
The church. Roman Catholics have traditionally believed that their church is the only true church where salvation may be found. After all, Rome’s bishops are said to be the successors of Christ’s 12 apostles, and the Catholic pope is said to have inherited his throne from Peter (Matthew 16:18). In the twelfth century, the Fourth Lateran Council thus affirmed, “There is only one universal Church of the faithful, outside which none will be saved.”2 In 1854, Pope Pius IX declared, “It is to be held as a matter of faith that no one can be saved outside the Apostolic Roman Church. It is the only ark of salvation and anyone who does not enter it must sink in the flood.”3 As noted earlier, however, since Vatican II, Roman Catholics acknowledge that all who are named Christian (including non-Catholics) are viewed as a part of God’s family. Non-Catholics are now considered to be “separated brethren.”
Power in the Roman Catholic Church centers in the pope, the Supreme Pontiff. He is the Vicar of Christ on earth. (Vicar literally means “one serving as a substitute or agent.”) The pope as Vicar of Christ acts for and in the place of Christ. As successor to the apostle Peter, the pope exercises authority over the 3250 bishops in the church. When he speaks ex cathedra (Latin, meaning “from the chair”) on issues pertaining to faith and morals, he is believed to be infallible.
The pope is assisted by top advisors and administrators (cardinals) who oversee the Roman Curiae—the administrative and judicial offices of the Vatican. If the pope should die, this group of cardinals would elect a new pope.
Below the pope and cardinals are the archbishops, who preside over one or more dioceses in a given territory. They are typically addressed “Your Excellency.” Among other things, they have the authority to call bishops to provincial councils and to act as first judge of appeal over a decision of one of the bishops.
The bishops are viewed as the successors of Christ’s apostles. According to the Second Vatican Council, the bishops “have by divine institution taken the place of the apostles as pastors of the Church, in such wise that whoever listens to them is listening to Christ and whoever despises them despises Christ and him who sent Christ.”4 When they speak “with one voice” (in agreement with each other), they as a group are viewed as infallible in matters of doctrine.
Below the pope, cardinals, archbishops, and bishops are the priests who serve in individual parish churches. Their primary task is to administer the sacraments (especially the Mass and penance) and pastor the flock of God.
The sacraments. There are seven sacraments: baptism, penance, the Eucharist, confirmation, matrimony, holy orders, and the anointing of the sick. These sacraments are believed to be containers of grace, and this grace is infused into the believer when participating in the sacraments. The Catechism of the Catholic Church states, “The Church affirms that for believers the sacraments of the New Covenant are necessary for salvation.”5
The Eucharist (or Mass) is perhaps the most important of the Roman Catholic sacraments. It involves a “representing” or “renewing” of the sacrifice of Jesus over and over again. Catholics believe the sacrament constitutes a “true and proper sacrifice,” and in every single Mass, God is appeased.6 It is believed that during the Mass, the bread and wine miraculously turn into the actual body and blood of Christ (transubstantiation). This happens at the prayer of consecration of the priest.
Baptism, another important sacrament, is thought to confer initial justification and the new birth (regeneration). It purifies one from sin, makes him a new creature, renders him an adopted son of God, and infuses sanctifying grace into his soul.
In the sacrament of penance, the priest and confessing parishioner go through a programmed ritual in which each verbalizes responses and prayers. In the course of the ritual, the parishioner verbally confesses his sins, admits how often they occurred, and acknowledges sorrow for such moral failure. Following this, the parishioner is assigned some acts of penance and is instructed to say an “act of contrition”—a penitential prayer that indicates personal sorrow for the sins committed. The priest then extends his right hand toward the parishioner and absolves him of his sins.
Distinctives. A distinctive Roman Catholic teaching claims that Mary was “immaculately conceived” (and is thus beyond sin altogether), remained perpetually a virgin, is the “Mother of God,” is a co-redeemer and mediatrix of grace, and was “bodily assumed” into heaven at the end of her life. Consequently, Mary is venerated by Catholics worldwide. Catholics say the veneration given Mary (hyperdulia) is less than the adoration given God (latria) but higher than that rendered to angels and other saints (dulia).
The end times. Jesus will one day come again in glory and judge the living and the dead. Heaven is for the finally righteous. Hell is for the unrighteous. Purgatory exists for those who die in God’s friendship but are still imperfectly purified, so that, following a time of purging, they can finally enter the joys of heaven.
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Founded: 1500–1700
Members: About 500,000
Congregations: Unknown
Beginnings
The Eastern Rite Catholic Church embraces Eastern Orthodox believers who have returned to, and established a union with, the Roman Catholic Church but retain their distinctive rites, practices, sacred art, spirituality, and married clergy. The Roman Catholic Second Vatican Council Decree on the Catholic Eastern Churches reaffirmed the pledge of earlier popes regarding the legitimacy of these Eastern churches with their distinctive rites and practices. Like Roman Catholics, Eastern Rite Catholics accept the pope as the head of the church, celebrate the seven sacraments, and accept the Roman Catholic faith.
In the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries, a number of Orthodox groups united with the Roman Catholic Church. This includes the Ruthenians in east-central Europe (1595), the Romanians of Transylvania (1698), and the Melchites (Syrian Christians) (1724). The largest and most significant union took place in 1596 when the majority of Ukrainian Orthodox bishops accepted the primacy of the pope, as ordered by the Polish Catholic king.
Beliefs
Aside from holding to the primary theological doctrines of Roman Catholicism (see above), the Eastern Rite Catholic Church emphasizes five theological distinctives.
1. A belief in the call of the Christian to be “divinized,” being united to Christ and indwelt by the Holy Spirit. Believers are invited to live the very life of God.
2. Union with God through the Holy Mysteries (the sacraments). These sacraments are viewed as actual encounters with God.
3. A public life of worship, fellowship, and service.
4. A secret life of prayer, fasting, and mutual sharing of goods. In one’s secret life of prayer, one can speak honestly with God.
5. The need for spiritual warfare (for example, learning to submit believers’ weaknesses to the divinizing power of the Holy Spirit at work within them).
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Founded: 1871
Members: More than 600,000
Congregations: Unknown
Beginnings
Many Swiss, German, and Austrian priests were excommunicated from the Roman Catholic Church in 1871 because they refused to accept the “new” doctrine of papal infallibility instituted at the First Vatican Council (1870). One of the outstanding Roman Catholic scholars of the time, church historian J.J.I. von Döllinger of the University of Munich, was a formidable opponent of this doctrine. Though he himself did not form any separatist churches, his extensive influence laid the groundwork for the emergence of Old Catholic churches in Germany, Switzerland, Austria, and elsewhere. These churches sought a restoration of the “old ways.”
Less than two decades later, in 1889, the Declaration of Utrecht was published as the doctrinal statement of Old Catholics. Catholic distinctives up to the year AD 1000 were affirmed in this declaration. They accepted the Apostles’ and Nicene creeds, as well as the dogmatic decisions of the first seven ecumenical councils. Newer doctrines—including papal infallibility, celibacy of the priesthood, the necessity of confession to God in the presence of a priest, and the immaculate conception of Mary—were rejected.
The movement eventually made its way to the United States via Joseph René Vilatte (1854–1929), who was responsible for founding a few Old Catholic parishes in Wisconsin. The movement grew from there. Since then, however, the Old Catholics have split into a number of bodies, including the Old Roman Catholic Church of North America, the North American Old Catholic Church, and the North American Old Roman Catholic Church.
God. The one true God is Almighty and infinite in perfections. He is the Maker of heaven and earth and is triune.
Jesus Christ. Jesus is the Son of God, the second person of the Trinity, and of one substance with the Father. In the Incarnation, He was born of a virgin, was crucified for our sins, was buried, rose again on the third day, and ascended into heaven. He is now at the right hand of the Father.
The Holy Spirit. The Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father and is the Giver of life. Along with the Father and the Son, He is worshipped and glorified. He spoke through all the prophets of biblical times.
Sin and salvation. As a result of Adam’s fall, sin and death came upon all humanity. We all share in the effects of Adam’s sin and are alienated from God. Jesus died on the cross to redeem human beings from sin and death.
The church. The church is a divinely instituted community of believers united by the Catholic faith, the law of God, and the sacraments. Jesus is the head of the church.
The sacraments. There are seven sacraments: baptism, confirmation, the Eucharist, penance, holy orders, matrimony, and anointing of the sick. Each sacrament is a holy act through which grace works supernaturally on man.
The end times. Jesus will one day return again in glory. Those who have done good will experience a resurrection of life, while those who have done evil will experience a resurrection of damnation. All humans will face Jesus at the judgment.
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POLISH NATIONAL CATHOLIC CHURCH OF AMERICA
Founded: 1897
Members: 60,000
Congregations: 125
Beginnings
Once Polish immigrants arrived on American soil in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, they found themselves dissatisfied with the Roman Catholic Church. One bone of contention was the absence of a bishop of Polish birth or descent in the American hierarchy. Another was the 1884 ruling that gave Roman Catholic bishops the title to all diocesan properties, including churches.
The Polish congregation of Sacred Hearts of Jesus and Mary parish in Scranton, Pennsylvania, had desired to retain ownership of its new church building. The Roman Catholic bishop, however, instructed that the deed be handed over to the diocese. This did not sit well with these Polish believers, so they began construction of another independent church, Saint Stanislaus (1897). Francis Hodur (1866–1953), former curate and fellow native Pole, was called to be priest. Some 250 families formally united with the new parish. Their new constitution claimed the right for them to control their own properties, with elected administrators overseeing them. The constitution also stipulated that no non-Polish pastor could be appointed by a bishop without the consent of the parishioners.
The Roman Catholic Church promptly excommunicated Hodur and his new parish, but the parish quickly became the nucleus of a movement that would eventually become a synod in 1904. Some 147 delegates met in Scranton from two dozen parishes scattered across Pennsylvania, Maryland, Massachusetts, and New Jersey. Hodur was elected bishop, and a new constitution was adopted.
In the early decades of the denomination, the Mass was celebrated in the Polish language. During the 1960s, however, English Masses became increasingly accepted among member churches. In 1922, the denomination abolished the requirement for celibacy among the clergy. As well, the denomination abolished the requirement of private confession for adults, allowing general confession for those who prefer it.
Beliefs
God. The one God includes three divine persons—the Father (the Creator of all things), the Son (who died for the sins of humankind and rose from the dead), and the Holy Spirit (who regenerates and sanctifies souls).
Jesus Christ. Jesus is the Son of God and is the second person of the Trinity. He is of the same divine substance as the Father. As Savior, He became a man to die for the sins of humankind. He resurrected from the dead on the third day. One of His ministries is that of Spiritual Regenerator of the world.
The Holy Spirit. The Holy Spirit is the third person of the Trinity. He is the Ruler of the world and is the source of grace. He regenerates and sanctifies the souls of believers. He abides in the church to teach, govern, and sanctify its members.
Sin and salvation. There is no original sin (that is, the sin of humankind’s first parents does not pass to succeeding generations). Yet individual human beings do sin and are in need of redemption. Jesus died on the cross for our salvation.
The church. The church is the body of Christ. It is made up of baptized Christians who worship together, partake of the sacraments, and hear and obey God’s Word. The church is a steward of God’s grace and is a light unto salvation.
Each parish owns, controls, and administers its own property and can select its own pastor. Each parish can elect one delegate for every 50 members to attend the General Synod, which is the church’s main legislative body.
The sacraments. There are seven sacraments: baptism, penance, the Eucharist, confirmation, matrimony, holy orders, and the anointing of the sick. Each is said to convey grace to the participant. The Eucharist, or Mass, is considered by the church to be the central act of worship. The elements (the bread and wine) are administered by intinction, which involves the sacred Host (bread) being dipped into the consecrated wine and then being administered to church members at the altar. The Mass is celebrated in the language of the people.
The end times. A future judgment and immortality are affirmed by the denomination. There is life beyond the grave, and one’s perfection and happiness in the next life is contingent upon one’s present life—especially the state of the soul in the final hour before death.
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