1. Franklin, S. 2013. Biological Relatives: IVF, Stem Cells, and the Future of Kinship. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.
2. Gee, H. 2013. The Accidental Species: Misunderstandings of Human Evolution. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, p. 13.
3. Snow, C.P. 1959. The Two Cultures and the Scientific Revolution. London: Cambridge University Press.
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2. Schneider, D.M. 1968. American Kinship: A Cultural Account. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Franklin, S., and S. McKinnon, eds. 2001. Relative Values: Reconfiguring Kinship Studies. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. Carsten, J. 2004. After Kinship. New York: Cambridge University Press. Sahlins, M. 2011. “What Kinship Is, Part One.” Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 17:2–19.
3. Dundes, A. 1998. The Vampire: A Casebook. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.
4. Gobineau, A. 1853. Essai sur l’inégalité des races humaines. Vol. 1. Paris: Firmin Didot Fréres. Gobineau, A. 1915. The Inequality of Human Races. New York: G.P. Putnam’s Sons. Poliakov, L. 1974. The Aryan Myth. New York: Basic Books.
5. Kale, S. 2010. “Gobineau, Racism, and Legitimism: A Royalist Heretic in Nineteenth-Century France.” Modern Intellectual History 7:33–61.
6. Snow, C.P. 1959. The Two Cultures and the Scientific Revolution. London: Cambridge University Press. Franklin, S. 1995. “Science as Culture, Cultures of Science.” Annual Review of Anthropology 24:163–84. Marks, J. 2009. Why I Am Not a Scientist: Anthropology and Modern Knowledge. Berkeley: University of California Press.
7. Goldacre, B. 2009. Bad Science. London: Harper Perennial. Washington, H.A. 2012. Deadly Monopolies. New York: Random House. Kahn, J. 2012. Race in a Bottle: The Story of BiDil and Racialized Medicine in a Post-Genomic Age. New York: Columbia University Press.
8. Punnett, R.C. 1905. Mendelism. Cambridge: Macmillan and Bowes, p. 60.
9. Putnam, C. 1961. Race and Reason. Washington, DC: Public Affairs Press. Jackson, J.P., Jr. 2005. Science for Segregation. New York: NYU Press.
10. Dobzhansky, T. 1963. “Probability That Homo sapiens Evolved Independently 5 Times Is Vanishingly Small.” Current Anthropology 4:360, 364–66. Birdsell, J. 1963. Review of The Origin of Races, by C.S. Coon. Quarterly Review of Biology 38:178–85. Garn, S. 1963. Review of The Origin of Races, by C.S. Coon. American Sociological Review 28:637–38. Caspari, R. 2003. “From Types to Populations: A Century of Race, Physical Anthropology, and the American Anthropological Association.” American Anthropologist 105:65–76. Marks, J. 2008. “Race across the Physical-Cultural Divide in American Anthropology.” In A New History of Anthropology, ed. H. Kuklick. New York: Wiley-Blackwell, pp. 242–58.
11. Dobzhansky, T. 1962. “Genetics and Equality.” Science 137:112–15. Baker, L.D. 2010. Anthropology and the Racial Politics of Culture. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.
12. Cavalieri, P., and P. Singer, eds. 1993. The Great Ape Project. New York: St. Martin’s Press.
13. Hunt-Grubbe, C. 2007. “The Elementary DNA of Dr. Watson.” Sunday Times London, 14 October. Watson, J. 2007. Avoid Boring People. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
14. Marks, J. 2009. “Is Poverty Better Explained by History of Colonialism?” Nature 458:145–46.
15. By “scientific racism” I mean the act of justifying social inequalities between groups of people by recourse to inferred natural difference, usually in terms of innate intellectual aptitudes. The most infamous example in recent memory was The Bell Curve (1994), by the psychologist Richard Herrnstein and the political theorist Charles Murray. More recent examples include The 10,000 Year Explosion: How Civilization Accelerated Human Evolution (2009), by the physicist Gregory Cochran and anthropologist Henry Harpending, and A Troublesome Inheritance: Genes, Race and Human History (2014), by the science journalist Nicholas Wade.
16. “From so simple a beginning endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful have been, and are being, evolved.” Darwin, C. 1859. On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life. London: John Murray, p. 490. In this famous final sentence, Darwin intends not the modern sense of “differentiated” but the now-archaic sense of “developed” or “transmuted” from the simple to the complex. Unsurprisingly, the early decades of Darwinism commonly referred to it as “the development theory” or “transmutationism.”
17. My discussion of the history of philosophy is necessarily attenuated. For extensive parsing of relativism, see Krausz, M. 2010. Relativism: A Contemporary Anthropology. New York: Columbia University Press.
18. Exodus 22:18; Galatians 5:20.
19. Lovejoy, A.O. 1936. The Great Chain of Being. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
20. Rousseau, J.-J. 1755. Discours sur l’origine et les fondements de l’inégalité parmi les hommes. Amsterdam: Marc Michel Rey.
21. Nisbet, R. 1980. History of the Idea of Progress. New York: Basic Books.
22. Benedict, R. 1934. Patterns of Culture. New York: Houghton Mifflin. They also drew on a European philosophical tradition that included Wilhelm Dilthey, and increasingly began to root itself in anthropological data. Westermarck, E. 1932. Ethical Relativity. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner. The phrase “cultural relativity” appears for the first time in the American Anthropologist in 1939, and is not altered to “cultural relativism” until after World War II. Lesser, A. 1939. “Problems versus Subject Matter as Directives of Research.” American Anthropologist 41:574–82. Williams, E. 1947. “Anthropology for the Common Man.” American Anthropologist 49:84–90.
23. The Earl of Bridgewater commissioned a series of full-length scientific works in the 1830s that were intended to summarize the state of the natural sciences, whose facts were presumed to attest to the wisdom of creation. The treatises did not, however, age well, as the next generation saw them as little more than pietistic nonsense.
24. Radick, G. 2010. “Did Darwin Change His Mind about the Fuegians?” Endeavour 34:50–54. James, W. 2009. “Charles Darwin at the Cape.” Quest 5:3–6. Desmond, A.J., and J.R. Moore. 2009. Darwin’s Sacred Cause: How a Hatred of Slavery Shaped Darwin’s Views on Human Evolution. New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.
25. On the “American school” of craniology, see Hrdlička, A. 1918. “Physical Anthropology: Its Scope and Aims; Its History and Present Status in America.” American Journal of Physical Anthropology 1:133–82. Stanton, W.R. 1960. The Leopard’s Spots: Scientific Attitudes toward Race in America, 1815–59. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Odom, H.H. 1967. “Generalizations of Race in Nineteenth-Century Physical Anthropology.” Isis 58:5–18. Haller, J.S., Jr. 1970. “The Species Problem: Nineteenth-Century Concepts of Racial Inferiority in the Origin of Man Controversy.” American Anthropologist 72:1319–29. Brace, C.L. 2005. “Race” Is a Four-Letter Word: The Genesis of the Concept. New York: Oxford University Press. Franz Boas was recruited as a physical anthropologist by Columbia earlier than Hrdlička, but did not concentrate on that area.
26. Cunningham, D. 1908. “Anthropology in the Eighteenth Century.” Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland 38:10–35. Smith, G.E. 1935. “The Place of Thomas Henry Huxley in Anthropology.” Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland 65:199–204. Stocking G.W. 1971. “What’s in a Name? The Origins of the Royal Anthropological Institute 1837–71.” Man 63:369–90.
27. Zimmerman, A. 1999. “Anti-Semitism as Skill: Rudolf Virchow’s Schulstatistik and the Racial Composition of Germany.” Central European History 32:409–29. Manias, C. 2009. “The Race prussienne Controversy: Scientific Internationalism and the Nation.” Isis 100:733–57.
28. Köpping, K. 1983. Adolf Bastian and the Psychic Unity of Mankind. St. Lucia: University of Queensland Press.
29. Spencer, F. 1979. “Aleš Hrdlička, MD, 1869–1943: A Chronicle of the Life and Work of an American Physical Anthropologist.” PhD diss., University of Michigan. Marks, J. 2002. “Aleš Hrdlička.” In Celebrating a Century of the American Anthropological Association: Presidential Portraits, ed. R. Darnell and F. Gleach. Arlington, VA: American Anthropological Association; Omaha: University of Nebraska Press, pp. 45–48.
30. Hooton, E.A. 1936. “Plain Statements about Race.” Science 83:511–13. Barkan, E.A. 1993. The Retreat of Scientific Racism. New York: Cambridge University Press.
31. Anonymous. 1937. “‘Biological Purge’ Is Urged by Hooton. Harvard anthropologist says ‘sit-down strike’ in moron breeding is essential. Or unfit society will die. Howl of Roman mob for bread and circuses is re-echoing ominously, he declares.” New York Times, 21 February. Hooton, E.A. 1939. The American Criminal: An Anthropological Study. Vol. 1, The Native White Criminal of Native Parentage. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Giles, E. 2012. “Two Faces of Earnest A. Hooton.” Yearbook of Physical Anthropology 55:105–13.
32. Washburn, S.L. 1951. “The New Physical Anthropology.” Transactions of the New York Academy of Sciences, Series II, 13:298–304.
33. Weiner, J.S. 1957. “Physical Anthropology: An Appraisal.” American Scientist 45:79–87. Hulse, F.S. 1962. “Race as an Evolutionary Episode.” American Anthropologist 64:929–45. Livingstone, F.B. 1962. “On the Non-existence of Human Races.” Current Anthropology 3:279–81. Washburn, S.L. 1963. “The Study of Race.” American Anthropologist 65:521–31.
34. Dupré, J. 1993. The Disorder of Things: Metaphysical Foundations of the Disunity of Science. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
35. Malinowski, B. 1935. Coral Gardens and Their Magic. London: Allen and Unwin.
36. Bacon, F. 1597. Meditationes Sacrae. London: Hooper.
37. Whewell, W. 1840. The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences. London: John W. Parker.
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17. Plant cells and species on day three; animal cells and species on days five and six. The Bible makes no mention of microorganisms.
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21. As if they instinctively knew how to live there! This argument is often accompanied by the argument that all medical research on apes be stopped, despite the fact that diseases like Ebola are decimating the remaining wild ape populations.
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23. Shaw, G.B. 1921. Back to Methuselah: A Metabiological Pentateuch. New York: Brentano’s.
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25. Richards, R. 2008. The Tragic Sense of Life: Ernst Haeckel and the Struggle over Evolutionary Thought. Chicago: University Of Chicago Press.
26. Eddy, J.H., Jr. 1984. “Buffon, Organic Alterations, and Man.” Studies in the History of Biology 7:1–46.
27. The term came into wide use in the mid-twentieth century, as a retrospective label for a hodgepodge of late nineteenth-century works that tended to invoke Darwin as a justification for the avarice of the wealthy classes. Hofstadter, R. 1944. Social Darwinism in American Thought. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Hawkins, M. 1997. Social Darwinism in European and American Thought, 1860–1945: Nature as Model and Nature as Threat. New York: Cambridge University Press. Bannister, R. 2010. Social Darwinism: Science and Myth in Anglo-American Social Thought. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
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29. Notably, physicist William Shockley, psychologist Henry Garrett, and anatomist Wesley Critz George. Jackson, J.P., Jr. 2005. Science for Segregation. New York: NYU Press.
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31. Zevit, Z. 2013. What Really Happened in the Garden of Eden? New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
32. Hesiod, Theogony 520–25.
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35. Laughlin did not have a “real” doctorate, but was respected in the field. He published widely on genetics, including six papers on the subject in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
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40. Matthew 6:24; Luke 16:13.
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32. Kirk Douglas was formerly Isidore Demsky, and Ashley Montagu was formerly Israel Ehrenberg. The pianist Olga Samaroff renamed herself to sound more, and differently, ethnic; the journalist Henry Morton Stanley renamed himself to conceal his humble origins.
33. Candida Moss kindly points out that although both genealogies pass through David, their aims are slightly divergent. Matthew’s goal is to connect Jesus to Abraham, while Luke’s goal is to connect Jesus to Adam.
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37. One genome won’t work presumably because harmful recessive mutations would invariably be expressed in a haploid organism. But that doesn’t explain why three genomes won’t work either.
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1. “Les Anglois ne sont pas réduits comme nous à un seul nom pour désigner les singes; ils ont, comme les Grecs, deux noms différens, l’un pour les singes sans queue qu’ils appellent ape, et l’autre pour les singes à queue qu’ils appellent monkie.” Comte de Buffon. 1749. Histoire naturelle, générale et particulière. Vol. 14. Paris: Imprimerie Royale, pp. 66–67.
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19. The continuity can be seen by comparing the South African cranial material assigned to Australopithecus, notably, STS-5 from Sterkfontein and MH-1 from Malapa, with South African Paranthropus, such as DNH-7 from Drimolen, and early Homo, such as Stw-53 from Sterkfontein and ER-1813 from Kenya.
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21. James VanderKam kindly tells me that the non-canonical Book of Jubilees (3:27) has Adam burning some incense as an offering to God, which presumes that the first man had figured it out.
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23. There are still a few psychologists who maintain this. Actually, however, the correlation of IQ with brain size is far lower than the correlation of brain size with body size. In other words, big people tend to have big brains. If it were true that brain size were a significant determinant of intelligence, then the smartest people on earth would be football linemen.
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32. http://atlantablackstar.com/2012/10/29/dominican-republic-continues-racist-treatment-of-haitians-75-years-after-massacre/. A more recent story had Lebanese militias differentiating between the Lebanese and Palestinian pronunciations of the Arabic word for “tomato.” http://thenewinquiry.com/blogs/southsouth/pronunciation-as-death-sentence/.
33. There are other anatomical features as well, which are often not very successful without another person around, such as having the baby rotate in the birth canal, so that it emerges facing a different way than an ape baby does. Trevathan, W. 1987. Human Birth: An Evolutionary Perspective. Piscataway, NJ: Aldine Transaction. Rosenberg, K.R. 1992. “The Evolution of Modern Human Childbirth.” Yearbook of Physical Anthropology 35:89–124. Trevathan, W., and K.R. Rosenberg. 2000. “The Shoulders Follow the Head: Postcranial Constraints on Human Childbirth.” Journal of Human Evolution 39:583–86.
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1. Westermarck, E. 1906. The Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas. London: Macmillan. Gayon, J. 2006. “Are There Metaphysical Implications of Darwinian Evolutionary Biology?” In Darwinism and Philosophy, ed. Vittorio Hösle and Christian Illies. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, pp. 181–95.
2. The truth of this statement may be more literary than literal, given the epistemological problem associated with not being able to know what another species is actually thinking. The issue does generate a lot of heat. Some biologically sophisticated theologians have begun to grapple with the primate phylogenetic context of moral questions. Celia Deane-Drummond seeks to identify a middle ground of “intermorality” between those who insist that apes, say, are fully moral actors, like people, and those who insist that humans are literally completely different. Deane-Drummond, C. 2014. The Wisdom of the Liminal: Human Nature, Evolution, and Other Animals. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. Likewise, Wentzel van Huyssteen explores the meaning of human existence in a post-Darwinian universe in van Huyssteen, J. W. 2006. Alone in the World? Human Uniqueness in Science and Theology. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. See also Peters, K.E. 2007. “Toward an Evolutionary Christian Theology.” Zygon 42:49–64; and McGrath, A. 2011. Darwinism and the Divine. New York: Wiley-Blackwell.
3. Although the curse has also traditionally been taken to include painful parturition, which is certainly a part of the human condition, the curse on Eve is more likely about making her responsible for procreation itself. See Meyers, C. 2013. Rediscovering Eve: Ancient Israelite Women in Context. New York: Oxford University Press; Baden, J., and C.R. Moss. 2015. Reconceiving Infertility. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
4. Genesis 2 is about “the Lord God” making people, and Genesis 3 is about “God” introducing rule-governed behavior into human life. Another popular way of understanding the story is to follow Saint Augustine, and introduce Satan and original sin into the story, but that is not a literal reading, and is thus not germane to the discussion of what the story actually says.
5. This is of course not the origin of the Jewish prohibition on ham, which comes in Leviticus 11:7. The devil made me say that.
6. The Talmud suggests that Ham may have sodomized or even castrated Noah. Babylonian Talmud Sanhedrin 70a. Simply looking at another person’s genitalia may have been nearly tantamount to raping them in the ancient Near East, and raping your father visually would be a sign of considerable disrespect to your parent. The text is so weird that Genesis 9:24 specifies that the crime was committed by the youngest son, Ham, whose son is cursed on his account, but Genesis 6:10 and 7:13 imply that Japheth was the youngest. Whatever the “original” story may have said, those Bronze Age shepherds clearly were really into patriarchy, and hated the Canaanites. Goldenberg, D. 2005. “What Did Ham Do to Noah?” In “The Words of a Wise Man’s Mouth Are Gracious,” QOH 10,12: Festschrift for Günter Stemberger on the Occasion of His 65th Birthday, ed. M. Perani. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, pp. 257–65. Driver, S.R. 1916. The Book of Genesis. 10th ed. London: Methuen.
7. Other rivals, the Edomites, were ostensibly descended from Esau, who voluntarily surrendered his claim to the land of his brother Israel one day because he was really, really hungry.
8. Kuper, A. 2002. “Incest, Cousin Marriage, and the Origin of the Human Sciences in Nineteenth-Century England.” Present and Past 174:158–83. Bittles, A.H., and M.L. Black. 2010. “Consanguineous Marriage and Human Evolution.” Annual Review of Anthropology 39:193–207.
9. http://celebritybabies.people.com/2012/03/23/mad-men-january-jones-placenta-capsules-not-witch-crafty/.
10. The most famous example is brain consumption in New Guinea, which was found to be facilitating the transmission of a disease called kuru, and led to the discovery of prions. Lindenbaum, S. 2001. “Kuru, Prions, and Human Affairs: Thinking about Epidemics.” Annual Review of Anthropology 30:363–85. Anderson, W. 2008. The Collectors of Lost Souls: Turning Kuru Scientists into Whitemen. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
11. Iliad, book 22.
12. Cannabalism in non-starvation situations is no less powerfully symbolic for being well documented ethnographically. It is generally associated with special situations—such as war, mourning, or illness—and is generally magically charged, unlike consuming ordinary food. Consequently, practitioners of “corpse medicine” in the seventeenth century took considerable rhetorical pains to distinguish their cannibalistic treatments from cannibalism. Conklin, B. 2001. Consuming Grief: Compassionate Cannibalism in an Amazonian Society. Austin: University of Texas Press. Sugg, R. 2011. Mummies, Cannibals, and Vampires: The History of Corpse Medicine from the Renaissance to the Victorians. New York: Routledge.
13. Leviticus 20:11–21.
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