NOTES

CHAPTER 1

1 Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research at the University of East Anglia; Geoffrey Cantor, Gowan Dawson, James Elwick, Bernard Lightman, and Michael S. Reidy, eds., The Correspondence of John Tyndall (London: Pickering and Chatto, 2014–); and Roland Jackson, The Ascent of John Tyndall: Victorian Scientist, Mountaineer, and Public Intellectual (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018).

2 Stephen Schneider, “Editorial for the First Issue of Climatic Change,” Climatic Change 1, no. 1 (1977): 3–4.

3 John Tyndall, The Forms of Water in Clouds and Rivers, Ice and Glaciers (London: King, 1872), 6.

4 Simon Schama, Landscape and Memory (London: HarperCollins, 1995), 7–9.

5 See, for example, Sheila Jasanoff, “Image and Imagination: The Formation of Global Environmental Consciousness,” in P. Edwards and C. Miller, eds., Changing the Atmosphere: Expert Knowledge and Environmental Governance (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2001), 309–337. For a longer history of global images, see Dennis Cosgrove, Apollo’s Eye: A Cartographic Genealogy of the Earth in the Western Imagination (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001); and Sebastian Grevsmühl, La Terre vue d’en haut: l’invention de l’environnement global (Paris: Editions du Seuil, 2014).

CHAPTER 2

1 See John Tyndall, “Winter Expedition to the Mer de Glace, 1859,” in The Glaciers of the Alps: being a narrative of excursions and ascents, an account of the origin and phenomena of glaciers and an exposition of the physical principles to which they are related (London: John Murray, 1860), 195–218. For this expedition, Tyndall employed Eduard Simond and Joseph Tairraz as guides, and four additional porters (199). See also the typescript journals of John Tyndall, vol. 3, section 8, 24–30 December 1859, 101–175, held by the Royal Institution; and Jackson, Tyndall, chapter 8, “Storms over Glaciers, 1858–1860,” 149–150.

2 Tyndall, Journals, vol. 3, 101.

3 Tyndall, Glaciers, 208.

4 Tyndall, Journals, vol. 3, 159.

5 For more on the dispute between Tyndall and Forbes, see J. S. Rowlinson, “The Theory of Glaciers,” Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London 26 (1971): 189–204; Bruce Hevly, “The Heroic Science of Glacier Motion,” Osiris 11 (1996): 66–86: and Jackson, Tyndall, chapter 8, “Storms over Glaciers, 1858–1860,” 132–151.

6 John Tyndall, “On the Physical Phenomena of Glaciers,” Philosophical Transactions 149 (1859): 261–278.

7 Martin Rudwick, Worlds Before Adam: The Reconstruction of Geohistory in the Age of Reform (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008); and Martin Rudwick, Earth’s Deep History: How It Was Discovered and Why It Matters (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2014).

8 Cited in Christopher Hamlin, “James Geikie, James Croll, and the Eventful Ice Age,” Annals of Science 39 (1982): 569.

9 Crosbie Smith and Norton Wise, Energy and Empire: A Biographical Study of Lord Kelvin (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 556.

10 Rudwick, Earth’s Deep History, 150.

11 William Hopkins, “On the Causes which may have produced changes in the Earth’s superficial temperature,” Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society 8 (1 February 1852): 88.

12 In 1851, Hopkins read a paper to the Geological Society, in which he quoted Poisson’s estimate that only about one-twentieth of a degree of the mean temperature of the earth was due to the so-called “primitive heat.” Not only was this percentage small, it was diminishing at such a slow rate that it would take “a hundred thousand millions of years” to reduce this fraction by half. Even for those geologists accustomed to requiring vast amounts of time for the changes of the earth, this was a long time. See Crosbie Smith, “William Hopkins and the Shaping of Dynamical Geology: 1830–1860,” British Journal for the History of Science 22, no. 1 (March 1989): 41.

13 Hopkins, “On the Causes,” 59. Hopkins noted that while previously geologists could only imagine “changes of climatal conditions” from a “higher to a lower general temperature on the earth’s surface,” more “accurate geological research” had shown that “these changes have been to a considerable extent of an oscillatory character,” and “so far as they may be thus characterized, they cannot of course be accounted for by the earth’s internal heat.”

14 From James Campbell Irons, Autobiographical Sketch of James Croll, with Memoir of his Life and Work (London: Edward Stanford, 1896), 32. For more on Croll, see James Fleming, “James Croll in Context: The Encounter between Climate Dynamics and Geology in the Second Half of the Nineteenth Century,” History of Meteorology 3 (2006): 43–54.

15 Irons, Croll, 35.

16 Irons, Croll, 228.

17 Cited in Fleming, “Croll,” 49.

18 Hamlin, “Geikie,” 580.

19 Herschel to Lyell, 6 February 1965; Herschel to Lyell, 15 February 1865, both in Herschel Papers.

20 Charles Darwin to James Croll, 19 September 1868, cited in Irons, Croll, 200.

21 James Geikie, The Great Ice Age and Its Relation to the Antiquity of Man (London: W. Isbister, 1874), 94.

22 Hamlin, “Geikie,” 578.

23 Geikie, Great Ice Age, 95.

24 Irons, Croll, 104.

25 John Tyndall to James Croll, 14 January 1865, cited in Irons, Croll, 104.

26 Tyndall, Forms, 7.

27 Tyndall, Forms, 14.

28 “Glacial Theories,” North American Review 96, no. 198 (January 1863): 2.

29 See Crosbie Smith, “William Thomson and the Creation of Thermodynamics: 1840–1855,” Archive for the Exact Sciences 16 (1977): 231–288.

30 William Hopkins, “On the Theory of the Motion of Glaciers,” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society 152 (1862): 677.

31 See Naomi Oreskes and Ronald Doel, “The Physics and Chemistry of the Earth,” in Mary Jo Nye, ed., The Cambridge History of Science (Cambridge: University of Cambridge Press, 2003), 544.

32 Hevly, “Heroic Science”; and Michael Reidy, “Mountaineering, Masculinity, and the Male Body in Victorian Britain,” in Robert Nye and Erika Milam, eds., “Scientific Masculinities,” Osiris 30 (November 2015): 158–181.

33 Tyndall, Glaciers.

34 Tyndall, Glaciers, v.

35 Tyndall, Glaciers, 116.

36 Cited in Daniel Brown, The Poetry of Victorian Scientists: Style, Science and Nonsense (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013), 110.

37 Cited in Brown, Poetry, 117.

38 Cited in Rowlinson, “Theory,” 194.

39 Tyndall, “The Bakerian Lecture: On the Absorption and Radiation of Heat by Gases and Vapours, and on the Physical Connexion of Radiation, Absorption and Conduction,” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society 151 (1861): 1.

40 The device and the challenges it posed are described in Tyndall, “Bakerian Lecture.”

41 Diary of John Tyndall, summer 1861, Royal Institution.

42 Diary of John Tyndall, 18 May 1859, Royal Institution.

43 At first, Tyndall hadn’t even bothered to test water vapor and carbon dioxide; since they existed in such small quantities in the atmosphere, he assumed that “their effect upon radiant heat must be quite inappreciable.” A. J. Meadows, “Tyndall as a Physicist,” in W. H. Brock, N. D. McMillan, and R. C. Mollan, eds., John Tyndall: Essays on a Natural Philosopher (Dublin: Royal Dublin Society, 2918), 88. Citation from John Tyndall, Heat Considered as a Mode of Motion (London: Longmans, Green and Company, 1863), 333.

44 Tyndall, “Bakerian Lecture,” 6.

45 Tyndall, “Bakerian Lecture,” 29.

46 Tyndall, “Bakerian Lecture,” 28.

47 On Tyndall and Magnus, see Jackson, Tyndall, 166–168.

48 John Tyndall, “On the Relation of Radiant Heat to Aqueous Vapour,” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 153 (1863): 1–12, at 10.

49 A. S. Eve and C. H. Creasey, Life and Work of John Tyndall (London: Macmillan, 1945).

50 Tyndall, Glaciers, 205.

51 Tyndall, Glaciers, 206.

52 Tyndall, Glaciers, 205.

CHAPTER 3

1 Charles Piazzi Smyth, Teneriffe, An Astronomer’s Experiment, Or, Specialties of a Residence Above the Clouds (London: Lovell Reeve, 1858).

2 Alexander von Humboldt and Aimé Bonpland, Personal Narrative of Travels to the Equinoctial Regions of the New Continent During the Years 1799–1804 (London: Longman Hurst, 1814), 110.

3 Charles Darwin, A Naturalist’s Voyage: Journal of Researches into the Natural History and Geology of the Countries Visited during the Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle Round the World: Under the Commands of Capt. Fitz Roy, R.N. (London: John Murray, 1889), 1.

4 Quoted in Kurt Badt, John Constable’s Clouds (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1950), 55.

5 For biographical information on Piazzi Smyth, see Hermann Brück and Mary Brück, The Peripatetic Astronomer: The Life of Charles Piazzi Smyth (Bristol and Philadelphia: Adam Hilger, 1988). For Piazzi Smyth’s role in the visual and popular culture of Victorian meteorology, see Katharine Anderson, Predicting the Weather: Victorians and the Science of Meteorology (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005), chapter 5; and Katharine Anderson, “Looking at the Sky: The Visual Context of Victorian Meteorology,” British Journal for the History of Science 36, no. 3 (2003): 301–332.

6 Agnes Clerke, A Popular History of Astronomy during the Nineteenth Century (London: Adam & Charles Black, 1893), 152.

7 Simon Schaffer, “Astronomers Mark Time: Discipline and the Personal Equation,” Science in Context 2, no. 1 (1988): 115–145.

8 Stephen Case, “Land-Marks of the Universe: John Herschel against the Background of Positional Astronomy,” Annals of Science 72, no. 4 (2015): 417–434.

9 Humboldt and Bonpland, Personal Narrative, 110.

10 Humboldt and Bonpland, Personal Narrative, 182–183.

11 Alexander von Humboldt, Cosmos: A Sketch of a Physical Description of the Universe, trans. E. C. Otte (New York: Harper, 1858), 26.

12 Humboldt, Cosmos, 37.

13 Alexander von Humboldt, “Beobachtungen über das Gesetz der Wärmeabnahme in den höhern Regionen der Atmosphäre, und über die untern Gränzen des ewigen Schnees,” Annalen der Physik 24 (1806): 1–2.

14 Michael Dettelbach, “The Face of Nature: Precise Measurement, Mapping, and Sensibility in the Work of Alexander von Humboldt,” Studies in the History and Philosophy of Science 30, no. 4 (1999): 473–504.

15 John Cawood, “The Magnetic Crusade: Science and Politics in Early Victorian Britain,” Isis 70, no. 4 (1979): 492–518.

16 Clerke, Popular History, 177.

17 Piazzi Smyth, Teneriffe, 77.

18 Piazzi Smyth, Teneriffe, 90.

19 Charles Piazzi Smyth, “The Ascent of Teneriffe,” Literary Gazette and Journal of Belles Lettres, Science, and Art, 17 April 1858 (London: Lovell Reed): 377.

20 Piazzi Smyth, Teneriffe, 108–109.

21 Charles Piazzi Smyth, Astronomical Observations Made at the Royal Observatory Edinburgh (Edinburgh: Neill and Company, 1863), 444.

22 Piazzi Smyth, Teneriffe, 274.

23 Piazzi Smyth, Teneriffe, 320.

24 Piazzi Smyth, Teneriffe, 288.

25 Charles Piazzi Smyth, “On Astronomical Drawing,” Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society 15 (1946): 75–76.

26 Charles Babbage, Reflexions on the Decline of Science in England (London: B. Fellowes, 1830), 210–211.

27 Charles Piazzi Smyth, Our Inheritance in the Great Pyramid (London: Alexander Strahan, 1864).

28 Brück and Brück, Peripatetic Astronomer, 119.

29 Brück and Brück, Peripatetic Astronomer, 177.

30 David Brewster and J. H. Gladstone, “On the Lines of the Solar Spectrum,” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh 150 (1860): 152.

31 See Anderson, Predicting, chapter 5, for a discussion of Piazzi Smyth’s rainband spectroscopy. Charles Piazzi Smyth, “Spectroscopic Weather Discussions,” Nature 26 (5 October 1882): 553.

32 F. W. Cory, “The Spectroscope as an Aid to Forecasting Weather,” Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society 9, no. 48 (1883): 285.

33 Piazzi Smyth, “Spectroscopic,” 553.

34 Charles Piazzi Smyth, “The Spectroscope and the Weather,” Popular Science 22 (1882): 242.

35 Piazzi Smyth, “Spectroscopic,” 552.

36 Robert Multhauf, “The Introduction of Self-Registering Meteorological Instruments,” Contributions from the Museum of History and Technology: Paper 23, United States National Museum Bulletin (Washington, DC: Smithsonian, 1961).

37 Robert H. Scott, Instructions for the Use of Meteorological Instruments (London: J. D. Potter, 1875), 9–10.

38 Robert Brain and M. Norton Wise, “Muscles and Engines: Indicator Diagrams and Helmholtz’s Graphical Methods,” in Universalgenie Helmholtz: Rückblick nach 100 Jahren, ed. Lorenz Krüger (Berlin: Akademie-Verlag, 1994), 124–145; and Lorraine Daston and Peter Galison, “The Image of Objectivity,” Representations 40 (1992): 81–128.

39 Lorraine Daston, “Cloud Physiognomy,” Representations 136, no. 1 (Summer 2016): 45–71; and Richard Hamblyn, The Invention of Clouds: How an Amateur Meteorologist Forged the Language of the Skies (London: Picador, 2001).

40 Ralph Abercromby, Seas and Skies in Many Latitudes, Or Wanderings in Search of Weather (London: Edward Stanford, 1888).

41 William Clement Ley, Cloudland: A Study on the Structure and Character of Clouds (London: Edward Stanford, 1894), vii.

42 “Manchester Photograpic Society,” British Journal of Photography (22 December 1876): 609.

43 Brück and Brück, Peripatetic Astronomer, 217.

44 Charles Piazzi Smyth, Cloud Forms That Have Been at Clova, Ripon, 1892–1895, 3 vols., Archives of the Royal Society.

45 H. H. Hildebrandsson and Teisserenc de Bort, International Cloud Atlas (Paris: 1896), 15.

46 Piazzi Smyth, introductory note, Cloud Forms, 5, 7.

CHAPTER 4

1 Biographical sources on Walker include S. K. Banerji, “Sir Gilbert Walker CSI, ScD, FRS,” Indian Journal of Meteorology and Geophysics 10, no. 1 (1959): 113–117; Geoffrey Taylor, “Gilbert Thomas Walker, 1868–1958,” Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society 8 (November 1962): 166–174; J. M. Walker, “Pen Portrait of Gilbert Walker, CSI, MA ScD, FRS,” Weather 52, no. 7 (1997): 217–220; and, on Walker’s work with the Indian Meteorological Department, D. R. Sikka, “The Role of the India Meteorological Department, 1875–1947,” in Uma Das Gupta, ed., Science and Modern India: An Institutional History, c. 1784–1947, 381–421, vol. 15, part 4, of D. P. Chattopadhyaya, ed., History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization (Delhi: Pearson-Longman). For a sustained treatment of Walker’s work on the Southern Oscillation, see Richard Grove and George Adamson, El Niño in World History (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2018), especially chapter 5, “The Discovery of ENSO,” 107–137; and Mike Davis, Late Victorian Holocausts: El Niño Famines and the Making of the Third World (London: Verso, 2002), especially part 3, “Decyphering El Niño,” 211–239.

2 The Queen’s Empire: A Pictorial and Descriptive Record, Illustrated from Photographs, vol. 2 (London: Cassell, 1897–1899), 120.

3 Frederik Nebeker, Calculating the Weather: Meteorology in the 20th Century (San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 1995), 197n21.

4 Nebeker, Calculating the Weather, 21.

5 Deborah Coen, “Climate and Circulation in Imperial Austria,” Journal of Modern History 82, no. 4 (2010): 846.

6 Julius von Hann, Handbook of Climatology, trans. Robert De Courcey Ward (New York: Macmillan, 1903), 2.

7 Climate scientists today still use these techniques, and the assumptions they share with Hann (that it is useful to consider some periods of climate as fundamentally stable) continue to shape the way we understand climate. See Mike Hulme, Suraje Dessai, Irene Lorenzoni, and Donald Nelson, “Unstable Climates: Exploring the Statistical and Social Constructions of ‘Normal’ Climate,” Geoforum 40 (2009): 197–206.

8 Hann, Handbook, 2.

9 See Coen, “Climate,” 846; and Deborah Coen, Climate in Motion: Science, Empire, and the Problem of Scale (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2018), 139–143.

10 “Notes from India,” Lancet 157, no. 4045 (15 June 1901): 1713.

11 Mike Davis, Late Victorian Holocausts: El Niño Famines and the Making of the Third World (London: Verso, 2002), 26.

12 Davis, Late Victorian Holocausts, 32.

13 Davis, Late Victorian Holocausts, 146.

14 Report of the Indian Famine Commission 1880, part 1 (Parliamentary Paper, c. 2591), vol. 52 (1881): 25.

15 Times of India, 11 June 1902.

16 Davis, Late Victorian Holocausts, 152–155.

17 Biographical material on Walker is from Geoffrey Taylor, “Gilbert Thomas Walker, 1868–1958,” Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society 8 (1962): 166–174; and Walker, “Pen Portrait.”

18 Cited in Taylor, “Walker,” 168.

19 Letter from Cleveland Abbe to Gilbert Walker, February 24, 1902, in Gilbert Walker Papers, Science Museum Library Archive, MS2012/39.

20 Frank Cundall, Reminiscences of the Colonial and Indian Exhibition (London: William Clowes & Sons, 1886), 116.

21 Katharine Anderson, Predicting the Weather: Victorians and the Science of Meteorology (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005), 260–261.

22 Norman Lockyer, “Sunspots and Famines,” Nineteenth Century 2, no. 9 (1877): 583–602.

23 Imperial Gazetteer of India, chapter 3, “Meteorology” (London: Clarendon Press, 1909), 104.

24 Norman Lockyer, “The Meteorology of the Future,” Nature 8 (12 December 1872): 99.

25 Cited in J. Norman Lockyer and W. W. Hunter, “Sunspots and Famine,” Nineteenth Century (1877): 591.

26 Clerke, Popular History, 176. See also Helge Kragh, “The Rise and Fall of Cosmical Physics: Notes for a History, c. 1850–1920,” https://arxiv.org/abs/1304.3890, accessed 17 December 2018.

27 Balfour Stewart and Norman Lockyer, “The Sun as a Type of the Material Universe,” Macmillan’s Magazine 18, no. 106 (August 1868): 319–327, at 327.

28 Lockyer and Hunter, “Sunspots and Famine,” 585.

29 Lockyer and Hunter, “Sunspots and Famine,” 602.

30 “Friday August 19, Subsection of Astronomy and Cosmical Physics, Chairman Sir John Eliot,” Report of the Seventy-Fourth Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science Held at Cambridge in August 1904 (London: John Murray, 1905), 456.

31 Report on the Administration of the Indian Meteorological Department from 1907–1908, 7.

32 Eliot, Report, 457.

33 Arnold Schuster, “Address to the Belfast Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science,” Report of the Seventy-Second Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science (London: John Murray, 1902), 519.

34 Cleveland Abbe, Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of Science 39 (1890): 77.

35 Nebeker, Calculating the Weather, 28.

36 Napier Shaw, Manual of Meteorology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1926–1931), 333.

37 Shaw, Manual of Meteorology, 333.

38 H. H. Hildebrandsson, “Quelques recherches sur les centres d’action de l’atmosphère,” Kungliga Svenska Vetenskapsakademiens Handlingar 29 (1897); Teisserenc de Bort, “Etude sur les causes qui determinant la circulation de l’atmosphère”; and H. F. Blanford, “On the Barometric See-Saw between Russia and India in the Sun-Spot Cycle,” Nature 25 (1880): 447–482.

39 H. H. Hildebrandsson and Teisserenc de Bort, Atlas International des nuages: pub conformenent aux decisions du Comite meteorologique international (Paris: Gauthier-Villars, 1896).

40 Gilbert Walker, “World Weather,” Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society 54 (April 1928): 226.

41 Gilbert Walker, “Correlation in Seasonal Variation of Weather, VIII: A Preliminary Study of World Weather,” Memoirs of the Indian Meteorological Department 24 (1923): 75–131, 109.

42 Walker, “Correlation,” 109.

43 Gilbert Walker, “On Periods and Symmetry Points in Pressure as Aids to Forecasting,” Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society 72, no. 314 (1946): 265–283.

44 Eliot, Report, 453.

45 Gilbert Walker, “Seasonal Foreshadowing,” Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society 56 (237): 359–364.

46 Charles Daubeny, Climate: An Inquiry into the causes of its differences and into its influence on vegetable life, comprising the substance of four lectures delivered before the Natural History society, at the museum, Torquay, in February 1863 (London and Oxford: John Henry and James Parker, 1863).

47 As Normand, the man who headed the Met Office from 1927 to 1944, wrote, “On the whole, Walker’s world-wide survey ended by offering more promise for the prediction of events in other regions than in India.” Charles Normand, “Monsoon Seasonal Forecasting,” Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society 79 (October 1953): 469.

48 Gilbert Walker, “Presidential Address to the Fifth Indian Science Congress, Lahore, January 1918,” Journal and Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, New Series Vol. XIV, 1918 (Calcutta: Asiatic Society): lxxvii.

49 Nebeker, Calculating the Weather, 48.

50 From R. B. Montgomery, “Report on the Work of GT Walker,” Monthly Weather Review 39 (1940): supplement 1–22.

51 Sikka, “The Role,” 397.

52 Sikka, “The Role,” 401.

53 Sikka, “The Role,” 415.

54 Sikka, “The Role,” 401.

55 J. Bjerknes, “Atmospheric Teleconnections from the Equatorial Pacific,” Monthly Weather Review 97 (1969): 163–172.

CHAPTER 5

1 William Koelsch, “From Geo- to Physical Science: Meteorology and the American University, 1919–1945,” in Historical Essays on Meteorology, 1919–1995: The Diamond Anniversary History Volume of the American Meteorological Society, ed. James Fleming (Boston: American Meteorological Society, 1996), 541–556.

2 Cited in Robert Marc Friedman, “Constituting the Polar Front, 1919–1920,” Isis 73, no. 3 (September 1982): 355.

3 See Roger Turner, “Teaching the Weather Cadet Generation: Aviation, Pedagogy, and Aspirations to a Universal Meteorology in America, 1920–1950,” in Intimate Universality: Local and Global Themes in the History of Weather and Climate, ed. James R. Fleming, Vladimir Jankovic, and Deborah R. Coen (Sagamore Beach, MA: Science History Publications, 2006), 141–173.

4 Joanne Malkus, “Large-Scale Interactions,” in The Sea: Ideas and Observations on Progress in the Study of the Seas, vol. 1, Physical Oceanography, ed. M. N. Hill (New York: Wiley Interscience, 1962), 99.

5 W.-K. Tao, J. Halverson, M. LeMone, R. Adler, M. Garstang, R. House Jr., R. Pielke Sr., and W. Woodley, “The Research of Dr Joanne Simpson: Fifty Years Investigating Hurricanes, Tropical Clouds, and Cloud Systems,” AMS Meteorological Monographs 29, no. 15 (January 2003): 1.

6 Duncan Blanchard, “The Life and Science of Alfred H. Woodcock,” BAMS 65, no. 5 (1984): 460.

7 Bergeron later recognized the limits of his own experience, noting that “I then hardly had seen any weather or climate south of 50 degrees N (except the winter of 1928/29 on Malta).” On Bergeron, see Robert Marc Friedman, Appropriating the Weather: Vilhelm Bjerknes and the Construction of a Modern Meteorology (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1989); Roscoe Braham, “Formation of Rain: A Historical Perspective,” in Historical Essays on Meteorology, 1919–1995, 181–223; and Arnt Eliassen, “The Life and Science of Tor Bergeron,” Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 59, no. 4 (April 1978): 387–392.

8 Herbert Riehl, “Preface,” Tropical Meteorology (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1954).

9 Alfred Woodcock and J. Wyman, “Convective Motion in Air over the Sea,” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 48 (1947): 749–776.

10 Michael Garstang and David Fitzjarrald, Observations of Surface to Atmosphere Interactions in the Tropics (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 58.

11 “Interview with Joanne Simpson,” in The Bulletin Interviews, ed. Hessam Taba (Geneva: WMO, 1988), 271.

12 See Blanchard, “Woodcock,” 460; and “American Meteorological Society, University Corporation for Atmospheric Research, Tape Recorded Interview Project, Interview of Joanne Simpson, 6 September 1989, Interviewer Margaret LeMone” (hereafter Simpson Oral History), 21, in Papers of Joanne Simpson, 1890–2010, Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe Institute (hereafter Simpson Papers).

13 Simpson Papers, MC 779, Simpson 1.13, Family History Overview, Childhood, 2.

14 Simpson Oral History, 21.

15 Simpson Papers, MC 779, Simpson 1.8, Notes between Simpson and lover C, 1950s.

16 J. S. Malkus, “Some Results of a Trade-Cumulus Cloud Investigation,” Journal of Meteorology 11 (1954): 220–237.

17 Simpson Papers, MC 779, 1.4, Simpson letter re: self-hypnosis for migraines, January 1996.

18 Simpson Papers, MC 779, 1.4, Journal re: Simpson and lover “C” 1952–54, 1 of 2. Entry dated 16 October 1952.

19 Simpson Papers, MC 779, Simpson 2.10, Beginnings of a research career, 1953–1964.

20 J. S. Malkus, “Some Results,” 220–237.

21 Simpson Papers, MC 779, 2.10, Summary of the Meteorological Activities of Joanne S. Malkus year 1954–55, Clippings, Beginnings of a research career.

22 See Blanchard, “Woodcock,” 460.

23 Henry Stommel, “Entrainment of Air into a Cumulus Cloud,” Journal of Meteorology 4 (June 1947): 91–94.

24 Deborah Coen, “Big Is a Thing of the Past: Climate Change and Methodology in the History of Ideas,” Journal of the History of Ideas (April 2016): 305–321.

25 Victor Starr, “The Physical Basis for the General Circulation,” in Compendium of Meteorology, ed. Thomas Malone (American Meteorological Society, 1951), 541.

26 Robert Serafin, “The Evolution of Atmospheric Measurement Systems,” in Historical Essays on Meteorology, 1919–1995. During the war, some eighty of these were deployed daily across the United States, and the numbers continued to grow after the hostilities ended.

27 Carl-Gustaf Rossby, “The Scientific Basis of Modern Meteorology,” in Climate and Man, Yearbook of Agriculture (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1941), 599–655.

28 New York Times, 11 January 1946, 12.

29 Philip Thompson, “The Maturing of the Science,” Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 68, no. 6 (June 1987): 631–637.

30 “If the super-calculator could be built and operated successfully, weather experts said, it not only might lift the veil from previously undisclosed mysteries connected with the science of weather forecasting.” New York Times, 11 January 1946, 12.

31 “Weather to Order,” New York Times, 1 February 1947.

32 John von Neumann, “Can We Survive Technology?,” in Fabulous Future: America in 1980 (New York: Dutton, 1956), 152.

33 Von Neumann, “Can We,” 108, 152.

34 “Weather to Order.”

35 “Making Weather to Order,” New York Times, 20 July 1947.

36 “Weather to Order.”

37 See chapter 12, “The Unification of Meteorology,” in Nebeker, Calculating the Weather.

38 “Making Weather to Order.”

39 Jule Charney, “Impact of Computers on Meteorology,” Computer Physics Communications 3 (1972 Suppl.): 124.

40 See David Atlas and Margaret LeMone, “Joanne Simpson 1923–2010,” Memorial Tributes: National Academy of Engineering 15 (2011): 368–375; W.-K. Tao et al., “Research,” 4.

41 Nebeker, Calculating the Weather, 124; Jacob Bjerknes, “Practical Application of H. Jeffrey’s Theory of the General Circulation,” Résumé des Mémoires Réunion d’Oslo (1948): 13–14; and Victor Starr, “An Essay on the General Circulation of the Earth’s Atmosphere,” Journal of Meteorology 5 (1948): 39–43.

42 Herbert Riehl and Joanne Malkus, “On the Heat Balance in the Equatorial Trough Zone,” Geophysica 6, no. 3–4 (1958): 534.

43 They cautioned their readers to remember that “many of the quantities are to be based on calculation as residuals rather than independent measurement and are therefore subject to a considerable margin of error.” Riehl and Malkus, “On the Heat Balance,” 505.

44 Simpson Papers, MC779, Simpson 3.10, Joanne Simpson Notebooks on Research II: Second Set April 1957–July 1959, Evolution of hot towers hypothesis, 1.

45 Malkus, “Large-Scale Intentions,” 95.

46 “The gaps in at least our gross factual information are currently being removed rather rapidly.” Starr, “Physical Basis,” 541.

47 Malkus, “Some Results”; Joanne Starr Malkus and Claude Ronne, “On the Structure of Some Cumulonimbus Clouds Which Penetrated the High Tropical Atmosphere,” Tellus 6 (1954): 351–366; Joanne Starr Malkus, “On the Structure of the Trade-Wind Moist Layer,” Papers in Physical Oceanography And Meteorology 12, no. 2 (1958): 47.

48 See, for example, Herbert Riehl, “On the Role of the Tropics in the General Circulation,” Tellus 2 (1951): 1–17; Herbert Riehl, Tropical Meteorology (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1954), chapters 3 and 12; Herbert Riehl, “General Atmospheric Circulation of the Tropics,” Science 135 (1962): 13–22; and Riehl and Malkus, “On the Heat Balance.”

49 Starr, “Physical Basis,” 549.

50 For an early review of this work, see Herbert Riehl and Dave Fultz, “Jet Stream and Long Waves in a Steady Rotating-Dishpan Experiment: Structure of the Circulation,” Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society (April 1957): 215–231; and Oral History Interview with Dave Fultz, http://n2t.net/ark:/85065/d7ks6pzf.

51 H. E. Willoughby, D. P. Jorgensen, R. A. Black, and S. L. Rosenthal, “Project Stormfury: A Scientific Chronicle, 1962–1983,” Bulletin American Meteorological Society 66, no. 5 (May 1985): 505.

52 Roger Revelle and Hans Suess, “Carbon Dioxide Exchange Between Atmosphere and Ocean and the Question of an Increase of Atmospheric CO2 during the Past Decades,” Tellus 9, no. 1 (February 1957): 18–27.

53 Revelle and Suess, “Carbon Dioxide,” 20.

54 Richard Anthes, “Hot Towers and Hurricanes: Early Observations, Theories and Models,” in Wei-Kuo Tao, ed., Cloud Systems, Hurricanes and the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM): A Tribute to Joanne Simpson (Boston: American Meteorological Society, 2003), 139.

55 Simpson Oral History, 14.

56 Simpson Papers, MC 779, Simpson 3.10, Malkus-Riehl collaboration and Notebooks, 8–10, 10.

57 Joanne Malkus and Herbert Riehl, “On the Dynamics and Energy Transformations in Steady-State Hurricanes,” Tellus 12, no. 1 (1960): 1–20; and Herbert Riehl and Joanne Malkus, “Some Aspects of Hurricane Daisy, 1958,” Tellus B 12, no. 2 (May 1961): 181–213.

58 Simpson Papers, MC 779, Simpson 2.8, Scrapbook on clips, 1947–1973, “Head in clouds, mind on weather,” LA Times, 1961.

59 Simpson Oral History, 11.

60 Simpson Papers, MC 779, Simpson 3.12, Narrative The Miami Years, 1967–1974, 7; and Simpson Oral History, 15.

61 Simpson Papers, MC 779, Simpson 3.12, Stormfury Cumulus Seeding Experiments—Joanne’s model tests, Narrative The Miami Years, 1967–1974.

62 Simpson Papers, MC 779, Simpson 3.12, Decade of Weather Modification Experiments, 1964–1974, 8.

63 Simpson Papers, MC 779, Simpson 3.12, Narrative The Miami Years, 1967–1974.

64 Simpson Papers, MC 779, Simpson 3.12, Stormfury Cumulus Seeding Experiments—Joanne’s model tests, Narrative The Miami Years, 1967–1974, 9.

65 “We are now able to perform actual experiments in a full-scale atmospheric laboratory in order to evolve and test various modification hypotheses.” From Robert Simpson and Joanne Malkus, “Experiments in Hurricane Modification,” Scientific American 211, no. 6 (1964): 37; and “Seeded Clouds ‘Explode,’” Science News-Letter 86, no. 8 (1964): 115.

66 Simpson and Malkus, “Experiments,” 35.

67 John Walsh, “Weather Modification: NAS Panel Report and New Program Approved by Congress Reveal Split on Policy,” Science 147, no. 3655 (15 January 1965): 276; and “Weather and Climate Modification: Report of the Special Commission on Weather Modification,” National Science Foundation and Advisory Committee on Weather Control, Final Report I, 1957.

68 Cited in Arthur Schlesinger, A Thousand Days: John F. Kennedy in the White House (New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2002), 910.

69 Simpson Papers, MC 779, Simpson 3.12, Stormfury Cumulus Seeding Experiments—Joanne’s model tests, Narrative The Miami Years, 1967–1974, 9.

70 NAS Report on Weather and Climate Modification—Problems and Prospects, NAS-NRC 1350 (Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences–National Research Council, 1966), 6.

71 NAS Report, 8.

72 NAS Report, 9.

73 NAS Report, 10.

74 Simpson Papers, MC 779, Simpson 3.12, Stormfury Cumulus Seeding Experiments—Joanne’s model tests, Narrative The Miami Years, 1967–1974, 14.

75 Simpson Papers, MC 779, Simpson 4.9, Banquet talk, 4 October 1989, Joanne Simpson, AMS President, “The Weather Modification Paradox Rises Again.”

76 Simpson Papers, MC 779, Simpson 1.4, Simpson letter re: self-hypnosis for migraines, January 1996.

77 Simpson Papers, MC 779, Simpson 2.10, Clippings, “Woman Cloud Expert Has Time for Family,” 2 May 1953, Boston Evening Globe. See also “Scientist with Her Feet on Cloud 9,” LA Times, 20 December 1963.

78 “Woman Likes to Fly in Hurricane’s Eye,” Boston Globe, 1957.

79 “It was then as it is now that no article is published on the work of a female scientists without the details of her spouse, children and home being part of it. That is just fine with me; it is too bad that it is done so rarely when the work of male scientists is discussed in the media.” Simpson Papers, MC 779, Simpson 210, Clippings “Beginning of a research career,” 2.

80 Simpson Papers, MC 779, Simpson 1.14, Family history narrative, Personal memories January 1996 Re: difficult childhood, depression, referrals to photographs, 1 (unnumbered).

CHAPTER 6

1 George Veronis, “Henry Stommel,” Oceanus 35 (Special Issue, 1992): 5.

2 Henry Stommel, “The Westward Intensification of Wind-Driven Ocean Currents,” Transactions AGU 29, no. 2 (April 1948): 202–206.

3 Letter from Iselin to Stommel, 30 April 1950, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (WHOI), Papers of Henry Stommel, MC-6, Box 2, Correspondence, 1947–1954.

4 Henry Stommel, Autobiography, I-8, in The Collected Works of Henry Stommel (Boston: American Meteorological Society, 1995).

5 Stommel, Collected, I-9.

6 For biographical information on Stommel, see Arnold Arons, “The Scientific Work of Henry Stommel,” in Evolution of Physical Oceanography: Scientific Surveys in Honor of Henry Stommel, ed. Bruce A. Warren and Carl Wunsch (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1981); Carl Wunsch, “Henry Melson Stommel: September 27, 1920–January 17, 1992,” National Academy of Sciences Biographical Memoir 72 (1997): 331–350; and “A Tribute to Henry Stommel,” Oceanus 35 (Special Issue, 1992). See also Henry Stommel’s Autobiography in Collected Works.

7 Henry Stommel, “Why We Are Oceanographers,” Oceanography 2, no. 2 (1989): 48–54.

8 Henry Charnock, “Henry Stommel,” Oceanus 35 (Special Issue, 1992): 15–16.

9 Oliver Ashford, Prophet or Professor: The Life and Work of Lewis Fry Richardson (Bristol: Adam Hilger, 1985), 82–83.

10 Henry Stommel, “Response to the Award of the Ewing Medal, from AGU 1977,” Collected, I-205.

11 L. F. Richardson, “The Supply of Energy from and to Atmospheric Eddies,” Proceedings of the Royal Society A97 (1920): 354–73.

12 L. F. Richardson and Henry Stommel, “Note on Eddy Diffusion in the Sea,” Journal of Meteorology 5 (1948): 238–240.

13 Margaret Deacon, Scientists and the Sea, 1650–1900: A Study of Marine Science (Aldershot: Ashgate, 1997), 209.

14 Eric Mills, The Fluid Envelope of Our Planet: How the Study of Ocean Currents Became a Science (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2009), chapter 2; and Deacon, Scientists, chapters 14 and 15.

15 Mills, Fluid Envelope, 155–158.

16 K. F. Bowden, “The Direct Measurement of Sub-Surface Currents,” Deep Sea Research 2 (1954): 3–47.

17 B. Helland-Hansen and F. Nansen, The Norwegian Sea. Its Physical Oceanography Based upon the Norwegian Researches 1900–1904, Report on Norwegian Fishery and Marine Investigations, vol. 2, part 1 (Bergen: Fiskeridirektoratets, 1909).

18 L. F. Richardson, Weather Prediction by Numerical Process (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1922), 66.

19 See, for example: “Once the problem is viewed as a global structural problem in which the Gulf Stream is a limb of a strongly asymmetric circulation cell the problem changes its characters permanently and profoundly. The Gulf Stream is now part of the general circulation of the ocean and not a geographic curiosity.” Joe Pedlosky, introduction to chapter 1 of Stommel, Collected Works, II-7.

20 Philip Richardson, “WHOI and the Gulf Stream,” 2004, at https://www.whoi.edu/75th/book/whoi-richardson.pdf. For more biographical detail, see Jennifer Stone Gaines and Anne D. Halpin, “The Art, Music and Oceanography of Fritz Fuglister,” http://woodsholemuseum.org/oldpages/sprtsl/v25zn1-Fuglister.pdf; and “In Memoriam, Valentine Worthington,” http://www.whoi.edu/mr/obit/viewArticle.do?id=851&pid=851.

21 F. C. Fuglister and L. V. Worthington, “Some Results of a Multiple Ship Survey of the Gulf Stream,” Tellus 3 (1951): 1–14.

22 Henry Stommel, “Direct Measurement of Sub-Surface Currents,” Deep Sea Research 2, no. 4 (1953): 284–285.

23 For biographical information on John Swallow, see Henry Charnock, “John Crossley Swallow, 11 October 1923–3 December 1994,” Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society 43 (November 1997): 514–519.

24 Henry Stommel, “A Survey of Current Ocean Theory,” Deep Sea Research 4 (1957): 149–184.

25 John Swallow, “Variable Currents in Mid-Ocean,” Oceanus 19 (Spring 1976): 18–25.

26 J. C. Swallow and B. V. Hamon, “Some Measurements of Deep Currents in the Eastern North Atlantic,” Deep-Sea Research 6 (1960): 155–168.

27 J. C. Swallow, “Deep Currents in the Open Ocean,” Oceanus 7, no. 3 (1961): 2–8; and J. Crease, “Velocity Measurements in the Deep Water of the Western North Atlantic,” Journal of Geophysical Research 67 (1962): 3173–3176.

28 Stommel notes in his autobiography that by 1950 it was well known that the dynamics of the atmosphere was not linear, and that the possibility of similar dynamics was “always in our minds,” but dynamical eddies had not been observed in the ocean until the Aries expedition. See Stommel, Autobiography, I-39; and Carl Wunsch, “Towards the World Ocean Circulation Experiment and a Bit of Aftermath,” in Physical Oceanography: Developments Since 1950, ed. Markus Jochum and Raghu Murthugudde (Berlin: Springer, 2006), 182.

29 Henry Stommel, “Varieties of Oceanographic Experience,” Science 139, no. 3555 (15 February 1963): 575.

30 From Memo of 11 August 1969, by Henry Stommel, Correspondence 1958, 1969–1970, in Mid-Ocean Dynamics Experiment, AC 42 Box 2, Folder 92, MIT Archives.

31 From Memo of 11 August 1969, by Stommel.

32 Stommel, Collected Works, I-64.

33 Henry Stommel, “Future Prospects for Physical Oceanography,” Science 168 (26 June 1970): 1535.

34 Stommel, “Varieties,” 572.

35 For more on the Stommel diagram, see Tiffany Vance and Ronald Doel, “Graphical Methods and Cold War Scientific Practice: The Stommel Diagram’s Intriguing Journey from the Physical to the Biological Environmental Sciences,” Historical Studies in the Natural Sciences 40, no. 1 (2010): 1–47. Stommel, “Varieties,” 575.

36 They would eventually be joined in the effort by colleagues at Woods Hole, MIT, Harvard, Yale, AOML/NOAA, URI, JHU, Columbia, and Scripps.

37 Stommel, “Future Prospects,” 1536.

38 Jochum and Murthugudde, Physical Oceanography: Developments since 1950, 51.

39 B. J. Thompson, J. Crease, and John Gould, “The Origins, Development and Conduct of WOCE,” in Ocean Circulation and Climate: Observing and Modelling the Global Ocean, ed. Gerold Siedler, John Church, and John Gould (San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 2001), 32.

40 The Turbulent Ocean, Centre Films, 1974.

41 Allen Hammond, “Physical Oceanography: Big Science, New Technology,” Science 185, no. 4147 (19 July 1976): 246–247.

42 Hammond, “Physical Oceanography.”

43 Stommel, “Why We Are Oceanographers,” 50.

44 Henry Stommel, “Theoretical Physical Oceanography,” Collected, I-119.

45 Francis Bretherton, “Reminiscences of MODE,” in Physical Oceanography: Developments since 1950, 26.

46 Swallow, “Variable Currents,” 24.

47 Peter Rhines, “Physics of Ocean Eddies,” Oceanus 19, no. 3 (1976): 31.

48 Rhines, “Physics,” 35.

49 The Role of the Ocean in Predicting Climate: A Report of Workshops Conducted by the Study Panel on Ocean Atmosphere Interaction, Under the Auspices of the Ocean Science Committee of the Ocean Affairs Board, Commission on Natural Resources, National Research Council, December 1974 (National Academy of Sciences: Washington, DC, 1974), vi.

50 Stommel, Collected, I-217.

51 Stommel, Collected, I-72.

52 For a history of the development of CO2 measurements, see Maria Bohn, “Concentrating on CO2: The Scandinavian and Arctic Measurements,” Klima Osiris 26, no. 1 (2011): 165–179.

53 The Role of the Ocean, 1.

54 The Role of the Ocean, vi.

55 Wunsch, “Towards,” 183.

56 Erik Conway, “Drowning in Data: Satellite Oceanography and Information Overload in the Earth Sciences,” Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences 37, no. 1 (2006): 134.

57 Wunsch, “Towards,” 186–187.

58 “It was obvious that numerical models of the ocean were about to outstrip any observational capability for testing them.” In Wunsch, “Towards,” 187.

59 Geoff Holland and David Pugh, Troubled Waters: Ocean Science and Governance (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 107–108.

60 “The time was ripe to turn again to large-scale oceanography from the process studies which have dominated the attention of oceanographers in recent decades.” From foreword, John Mason and R. W. Stewart, vi, World Climate Research Programme, WOCE Scientific Steering Group, Scientific Plan for the World Ocean Circulation Experiment, WCRP Publications Series No. 6, WMO/TD-No. 122, July 1986.

61 J. D. Woods, “The World Ocean Circulation Experiment,” Nature 314, no. 11 (April 1985): 509.

62 Henry Stommel, “Numerical Models of Ocean Circulation,” in proceedings of a symposium held at Durham, NH, 17–20 October 1972, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, DC, 1975, in Stommel, Collected, I-202.

63 Woods, “The World,” 501.

64 Walter Munk and Carl Wunsch, “Observing the Ocean in the 1990s,” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A 307 (1982): 440.

65 Stommel, “Why We Are Oceanographers,” 52.

66 Stommel, “Why We Are Oceanographers,” 54.

67 Interview with Henry Stommel and Bill von Arx, 11 May 1989, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution Archives.

CHAPTER 7

1 Many of the following biographical details come from Willi Dansgaard’s memoir Frozen Annals: Greenland Ice Cap Research (Odder, Denmark: Narayana Press, 2004).

2 Willi Dansgaard, “The Abundance of 18O in Atmospheric Water and Water Vapour,” Tellus 5 (1953): 461–469.

3 Willi Dansgaard, “The 18O Abundance in Fresh Water,” Geochimica et Cosmochimica 6 (1954): 259.

4 Dansgaard, Frozen Annals, 16.

5 Jamie Woodward, The Ice Age: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014), 85. See successive editions of James Geikie’s The Great Ice Age in 1874 and 1877 for evidence of one prominent theorist’s shift from a marine to a land ice theory of glaciation.

6 W. B. Wright, The Quaternary Ice Age (London: Macmillan, 1937), 74.

7 Cited in James Fleming, Historical Perspectives on Climate Change (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), 53. For more on the changes in climate thinking, see Mattias Heymann, “The Evolution of Climate Ideas and Knowledge,” WIREs Climate Change 1, no. 1 (2010): 588.

8 Cited in John Imbrie and Katherine Palmer Imbrie, Ice Ages: Solving the Mystery (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1979), 117.

9 Dansgaard, “18O Abundance.”

10 On the history of the WMO and for a brief review of previous attempts at international meteorology, see Paul Edwards, “Meteorology as Infrastructural Globalism,” Osiris 21 (2006): 229–250.

11 On the history of the IAEA-WMO collaboration, see P. K. Aggarwal et al., “Global Hydrological Isotope Data and Data Networks,” in J. West, G. Bowen, T. Dawson, and K. Tu, eds., Isoscapes (Dordrecht: Springer, 2010), 33–50.

12 Willi Dansgaard, “Stable Isotopes in Precipitation,” Tellus 16 (1964): 437.

13 Roger Launius, James Fleming, and David DeVorkin, Globalizing Polar Science: Reconsidering the International Polar and Geophysical Years (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2011); and Ronald Doel, Robert Marc Friedman, Julia Lajus, Sverker Sörlin, and Urban Wråkberg, “Strategic Arctic Science: National Interests in Building Natural Knowledge through the Cold War,” Journal of Historical Geography 44 (2014): 60–80.

14 Cited in Janet Martin-Nielsen, “‘The Deepest and Most Rewarding Hole Ever Drilled: Ice Cores in the Cold War in Greenland,” Annals of Science 70 (2012): 56.

15 On Camp Century and ice-core drilling, see Edmund Wright, “CRREL’s First 25 Years, 1961–1986” (CRREL, 1986), 1–65; Chester Langway Jr., The History of Early Polar Ice Cores (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 2008); Martin-Nielsen, “‘The Deepest’”; and Kristian Nielsen, Henry Nielsen, and Janet Martin-Nielsen, “City under the Ice: The Closed World of Camp Century in Cold War Culture,” Science as Culture 23 (2014): 443–464. The most extensive treatment of Dansgaard’s ice-core research is Maiken Llock, Klima, kold krig og iskener (Aarhus: Aarhus University Press, 2006). For a contemporary description of Camp Century, see Walter Wager, Camp Century: City Under the Ice (Chilton Books, 1962).

16 See James Fleming, The Callendar Effect: The Life and Work of Guy Stewart Callendar (1898–1964) (Boston: American Meteorological Society, Springer, 2007); and Ed Hawkins and Phil Jones, “On Increasing Global Temperatures: 75 Years after Callendar,” Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society 139, no. 677 (2013): 1961–1963.

17 For a full account of the events described in this paragraph, see Spencer Weart, “The Discovery of Global Warming,” https://history.aip.org/climate/; for a much-condensed version of this annually updated online resource, see The Discovery of Global Warming, 2nd ed. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008).

18 Heymann, “The Evolution.”

19 Roger Revelle, “Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide,” in Restoring the Quality of Our Environment: Report of the Environmental Pollution Panel, President’s Science Advisory Committee (White House, 1965), 127.

20 Paul Edwards, “History of Climate Modeling,” WIREs Climate Change 2 (2011): 128–139.

21 Sam Randalls, “History of the 2 Degree Climate Target,” WIREs Climate Change 1 (2010): 598–605.

22 Paul Edwards, A Vast Machine: Computer Models, Climate Data, and the Politics of Global Warming (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2010), 287–322.

23 Mike Hulme, “Problems with Making and Governing Global Kinds of Knowledge,” Global Environmental Change 20, no. 4 (2010): 558–564.

24 Janet Martin-Nielsen, “Ways of Knowing Climate: Hubert H. Lamb and Climate Research in the UK,” WIREs Climate Change 6, no. 5 (2015): 465–477.

25 On the broader cultural history of forecasting in America, see Jamie Pietruska, Looking Forward: Prediction and Uncertainty in Modern America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2017).

26 On what the ice core revealed, see Willi Dansgaard, S. J. Johnsen, and C. C. Langway Jr., “One Thousand Centuries of Climatic Record from Camp Century on the Greenland Ice Sheet,” Science 166, no. 3903 (1969): 377–380; and Richard Alley, The Two-Mile Time Machine: Ice Cores, Abrupt Climate Change, and Our Future (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000).

27 Dansgaard, Johnsen, and Langway, “One Thousand Centuries,” 377–380.

28 On the history of paleoclimatology, see chapter 8 in Woodward, The Ice Ages; H. Le Treut, R. Somerville, U. Cubasch, Y. Ding, C. Mauritzen, A. Mokssit, T. Peterson, and M. Prather, “Historical Overview of Climate Change,” in Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis, Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, ed. S. Solomon, D. Qin, M. Manning, Z. Chen, M. Marquis, K. B. Averyt, M. Tignor, and H. L. Miller (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007); Chris Caseldine, “Conceptions of Time in (Paleo)Climate Science and Some Implications,” WIREs Climate Change 3 (2012): 329–338; R. W. Fairbridge, “History of Paleoclimatology,” in Encyclopedia of Paleoclimatology and Ancient Environments, ed. V. Gornitz (New York: Springer, 2009), 414–428; and Matthias Dörries, “Politics, Geological Past, and the Future of Earth,” Historical Social Research 40, no. 2 (2015): 22–36.

29 Dansgaard, Johnsen, and Langway, “One Thousand Centuries,” 380.

30 Spencer Weart, “The Rise of Interdisciplinary Climate Science,” PNAS 110 (2013): 3658.

31 Wallace Broecker, “Absolute Dating and the Astronomical Theory of Glaciation,” Science 151 (1966): 299–304.

32 Wallace Broecker, “The Carbon Cycle and Climate Change: Memoirs of My 60 Years in Science,” Geochemical Perspectives 1 (2012): 276–277; Wallace Broecker, “When Climate Change Predictions Are Right for the Wrong Reasons,” Climatic Change 142 (2017): 1–6; and Wallace Broecker, The Great Ocean Conveyor: Discovering the Trigger for Abrupt Climate Change (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2010), 19–25.

33 From George Kukla, R. K. Matthews, and J. M. Mitchell, “The End of the Present Interglacial,” Quaternary Research 2, no. 3 (1972): 261–269.

34 For the role played by Soviet climate scientists in the debate over the use of analogues, see Jonathan Oldfield, “Imagining Climates Past, Present and Future: Soviet Contributions to the Science of Anthropogenic Climate Change, 1953–1991,” Journal of Historical Geography 60 (2018): 41–51.

35 Barry Saltzman, Dynamical Paleoclimatology: Generalized Theory of Global Climate Change (San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 2002).

36 Alley, Two-Mile Time Machine, 21; and J. Jouzel, “A Brief History of Ice Core Science Over the Last 50 Years,” Climate of the Past Discussions 9 (3 July 2013): 3711–3767.

37 Author interview, 10 April 2015.

38 More recently, some have suggested other mechanisms to account for the D-O events, such as sea ice feedbacks or tropical processes, and Carl Wunsch has raised the possibility that they represent local or regional changes caused by windfield shifts owing to interaction with the ice sheet, rather than global change. Amy Clement and Larry Peterson, “Mechanisms of Abrupt Global Change of the Last Glacial Period,” Reviews of Geophysics 46 (2008): 1–39; and Carl Wunsch, “Abrupt Climate Change: An Alternative View,” Quaternary Research 65 (2006): 191–203.

39 Global Change: Impacts on Habitability: A Scientific Basis for Assessment: A Report by the Executive Committee of a Workshop held at Woods Hole, Massachusetts, June 21–26, 1982, submitted on behalf of the executive committee on 7 July 1982 by Richard Goody (Chairman), NASA and Jet Propulsion Lab. See also Earth Observations from Space: History, Promise, and Reality (Washington, DC: National Academies Press, 1995).

40 Global Change, 3–4.

41 Toward an Understanding of Global Change: Initial Priorities for US Contributions to the International Geosphere-Biosphere Program (Washington, DC: National Academies Press, 1988), v.

42 Earth System Science: A Closer View, Report of the Earth System Sciences Committee, NASA Advisory Council (Washington, DC: NASA, 1988), 12.

43 The diagram has come to be known as the Bretherton diagram but was developed by Berrien Moore, a future chair of IGBP, according to Sybil Seitzinger et al., “International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme and Earth System Science: Three Decades of Co-Evolution,” Anthropocene 12 (December 2015): 3–16. Quote from Moore in “Berrien Moore, Earth System Science at 20,” Oral History Project, Edited Oral History Transcript, Berrien Moore III, interviewed by Rebecca Wright, National Weather Center, Norman, OK, 4 April 2011.

44 Earth System Science, 19.

45 Gregory Good, “The Assembly of Geophysics: Scientific Disciplines as Frameworks of Consensus,” Studies in the History and Philosophy of Modern Physics 31, no. 3 (2000): 259–292.

46 Sybil P. Seitzinger, Owen Gaffney, Guy Brasseur, Wendy Broadgate, Phillipe Ciais, Martin Claussen, Jan Willem Erisman, Thorsten Kiefer, Christiane Lancelot, Paul S. Monks, Karen Smyth, James Syvitski, and Mitsuo Uematsu, “International Geosphere–Biosphere Programme and Earth System Science: Three Decades of Co-Evolution,” Anthropocene 12 (2015): 3–16.

47 Earth System Science, 1.

48 Earth System Science, 5.

49 Earth System Science, 15 and 10.

CHAPTER 8

1 Juergen Wiechselgartner and Roger Kasperson, “Barriers in the Science-Policy-Practice Interface: Toward a Knowledge-Action-System in Global Environmental Change Research,” Global Environmental Change 20 (May 2010): 276.

2 H. H. Lamb and M. J. Ingram, “Climate and History: Report on the International Conference on ‘Climate and History,’ Climatic Research Unit, University of East Anglia, Norwich, England, 8–14 July 1979,” Past & Present 88, no. 1 (1 August 1980): 137.

3 T. M. L. Wigley, M. J. Ingram, and G. Farmer, eds., Climate and History: Studies in Past Climates and Their Impact on Man (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 4.

4 Rudwick, Earth’s Deep History, 4.

5 Rudwick, Earth’s Deep History, 4.

6 The origins of this term and group of specialists can be dated by the creation of a journal named Climate Dynamics in 1986.

7 For the history of GFD, see George Veronis’s very useful informal history of the GFD program at http://www.whoi.edu/page.do?pid=110017.

8 In 1990, when the first IPCC report appeared, the spatial resolution (grid size) was around 500 square kilometers. The grid extends up into the atmosphere as well as horizontally across the earth. Because the atmosphere is so thin compared to the surface area of the planet, it is sliced even more thinly—usually into increments of one kilometer. By 1996, that number had halved, to 250 kilometers. By 2001, it was down to 180 kilometers, and in 2007 it stood at 110.

9 https://eo.ucar.edu/staff/rrussell/climate/modeling/climate_model_resolution.html.

10 Nadir Jeevanjee, “A Perspective on Climate Model Hierarchies,” Journal of Advances in Modeling Earth Systems 9, no. 4 (August 2017): 1760.

11 See, for example, David Ferreira, John Marshall, Paul O’Gorman, and Sara Seager, “Climate at High-Obliquity,” Icarus 243 (2014): 236–248.

12 Nadir Jeevanjee, Pedram Hassanzadeh, Spencer Hill, and Aditi Sheshadri, “A Perspective on Climate Model Hierarchies,” Journal of Advances in Modeling Earth Systems 9, no. 4 (2017): 1760–1771.

13 Caitlin De Silvey, Simon Naylor, and Colin Sackett, eds., Anticipatory History (Axminster, Devon: Uniform Books, 2011).

14 One example of this approach is Alessandro Antonello and Mark Carey, “Ice Cores and the Temporalities of the Global Environment,” Environmental Humanities 9, no. 2 (2017): 181–203.

15 See Mike Hulme, Suraje Dessai, Irene Lorenzoni, and Donald Nelson, “Unstable Climates: Exploring the Statistical and Social Constructions of ‘Normal’ Climate,” Geoforum 40 (2009): 197–206.

16 See, for example, Gisli Palsson, Bronislaw Szerszynski, Sverker Sörlin, John Marks, Bernard Avril, Carole Crumley, Heide Hackmann, Poul Holm, John Ingram, Alan Kirman, Mercedes Pardo Buendía, and Rifka Weehuizen, “Reconceptualizing the ‘Anthropos’ in the Anthropocene: Integrating the Social Sciences and Humanities in Global Environmental Change Research,” Environmental Science & Policy 28 (2013): 3–13.