¹ Originally there were three cities—Edinburgh, Glasgow, and Aberdeen. Dundee acquired that status in 1899. These are the cities considered in this chapter. Inverness acquired city status in 2001 and Stirling in 2002. The case of Perth is ambiguous. Though a royal burgh styling itself a ‘city’, it did not possess this status in a formal sense. Since 2009 it has pressed for city status.

² The Edinburgh Annual Register, January 1812, 1–3.

³ M. Gray, Scots on the Move: Scots Migrants 1750–1914 (Dundee, 1990).

⁴ W. H. Fraser, ‘Municipal Socialism and Social Policy’, in R. J. Morris and R. Rodger, eds., The Victorian City: A Reader in British Urban History (Harlow, 1993), 258–80.

⁵ R. J. Morris, ‘The Capitalist, the Professor and the Soldier: The Re-making of Edinburgh Castle, 1850–1900’, Planning Perspectives, 21 (2007), 55–78.

⁶ J. R. Kellett, The Impact of Railways on Victorian Cities (London, 1969), 208–43.

⁷ Parliamentary Papers [hereafter PP], 1874, lxxii, Owners of Lands and Heritages 1872–73, Part iii. The railway companies owned 582 acres within Glasgow’s boundaries in 1872 compared to 291 owned by the City Council.

⁸ These environmental impacts on the Scottish city deserve further research.

⁹ D. Reeder and R. Rodger, ‘Industrialisation and the City Economy’, in M. J. Daunton, ed., Cambridge Urban History of Britain, 3 vols. (Cambridge, 2000), vol. 3, 553–92.

¹⁰ R. Rodger, ‘Concentration and Fragmentation: Capital, Labor, and the Structure of mid-Victorian Scottish Industry’, Journal of Urban History, 14:2 (1988), 187–9, tables 1 and 2.

¹¹ Gazetteer for Scotland, Lochee, http://www.scottish-places.info/towns/townfirst407.html

¹² R. Rodger, The Transformation of Edinburgh: Land, Property and Trust in the Nineteenth Century (Cambridge, 2001), 114–17.

¹³ R. Rodger, ‘The Victorian Building Industry and the Housing of the Scottish Working Class’, in M. Doughty, ed., Building the Industrial City (Leicester, 1986), 151–206. The City of Glasgow bank failure resulted in 80 per cent of shareholders losing their money, and about two-thirds of Glasgow builders going out of business.

¹⁴ M. Glendinning, R. MacInnes, and A. MacKechnie, A History of Scottish Architecture: From the Renaissance to the Present Day (Edinburgh, 1996), 243–84.

¹⁵ M. Macnicol and M. Devlin, The Red Sandstone Buildings of Edinburgh (Grantown-on-Spey, 2009).

¹⁶ Wynds, vennels, pends, and closes were arrow alleys that gave access to the ‘backlands’ of tenements from which flats, commercial premises, and workshops were accessed.

¹⁷ D. G. Barrie, Police in the Age of Improvement: Police Development and the Civic Tradition in Scotland 1775–1865 (Cullompton, 2008), 33–7, 81. Between 1812 and 1854 twenty Edinburgh improvement acts with over eleven hundred sections were approved by Parliament.

¹⁸ Edinburgh Police Act 1817, 57 Geo. 3, cap. 33, sections 21, 26–30.

¹⁹ Barrie, Police, 284.

²⁰ P. Laxton and R. Rodger, Insanitary City: H. D. Littlejohn and the Report on the Sanitary Condition of Edinburgh (1865) (forthcoming).

²¹ R. Rodger, The Transformation of Edinburgh, 62–6.

²² Feuing is a form of land tenure, specific to Scotland, in which land is granted ‘in feu’ by the superior to the vassal on condition of the payment of an annual sum of money (feu-duty) and other occasional payments.

²³ PP 1884–85, xxx, Royal Commission on Housing of the Working Classes, Scotland, Evidence of Gowans, Q.18893.

²⁴ PP 1917–18, xiv, Royal Commission on the Housing of the Industrial Population of Scotland, Rural and Urban, Report, 2232.

²⁵ R. Rodger, ‘The “Invisible Hand”—Market Forces, Housing and the Urban Form in Victorian Cities’, in D. Fraser and A. Sutcliffe, eds., The Pursuit of Urban History (London, 1983), 190–211.

²⁶ W. P. Alison, Observations on the Management of the Poor in Scotland (Edinburgh, 1840), iv–v; C. Hamlin, ‘William Pulteney Alison, the Scottish Philosophy, and the Making of a Political Medicine’, Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences, 61 (2006), 144–86.

²⁷ S. J. Brown, Thomas Chalmers and the Godly Commonwealth in Scotland (Oxford, 1982), 91–151.

²⁸ A. Cameron, ‘The Establishment of Civil Registration in Scotland’, Historical Journal, 50 (2007), 378–95.

²⁹ C. M. Allan, ‘The Genesis of Urban Redevelopment with Reference to Glasgow’, Economic History Review, 18 (1965), 589–613; P. J. Smith, ‘Slum Clearance as an Instrument of Sanitary Reform: The Flawed Vision of Edinburgh’s First Slum Clearance Scheme’, Planning Perspectives, 9 (1994), 1–27.

³⁰ PP 1912–13, cxi, Census of England and Wales, 1911, vol. ii, tables xlvi and xlvii.

³¹ PP 1912–13, cxix, Census of Scotland, 1911, parts 1–4.

³² A. K. Chalmers, ‘The Death Rate in One-Apartment Houses: An Enquiry Based on the Census Returns of 1901’, Proceedings of the Royal Philosophical Society of Glasgow, 34 (1902–3), 131; PP 1917–18, xiv, Royal Commission, Report, para 658; Scottish Land Enquiry Committee, Report (Edinburgh, 1914), 371.

³³ PP 1917–18, xiv, Royal Commission, Report, 77.

³⁴ R. Rodger, ‘Wages, Employment and Poverty in the Scottish Cities 1841–1914’, in G. Gordon, ed., Perspectives of the Scottish City (Aberdeen, 1985), 25–63.

³⁵ J. B. Russell, ‘The Children of the City: What Can We Do For Them?’, Edinburgh Health Society Lectures (Edinburgh, 1886), 92–3.

³⁶ ‘The “Common Good” and Civic Promotion: Edinburgh 1860–1914’, in R. Colls and R. Rodger, eds., Cities of Ideas: Civil Society and Urban Governance in Britain 1800–2000 (Aldershot, 2004), 144–77.

³⁷ S. Gunn, The Public Culture of the Victorian Middle Class: Ritual and Authority and the English Industrial City, 1840–1914 (Manchester, 2000).

³⁸ J. Melling, Rent Strikes: People’s Struggle for Housing in West Scotland 1890–1916 (London, 1983), 18–26.

³⁹ M. Swenarton, Homes Fit for Heroes: The Politics and Architecture of Early State Housing in Britain (London, 1981), 78–9.

⁴⁰ S. Damer, From Moorepark to ‘Wine Alley’ (Edinburgh, 1989), 1–22; N. J. Morgan, ‘£8 “Cottages for Glasgow Citizens”: Innovations in Municipal Housebuilding in the Inter-war Years’, in R. Rodger, ed., Scottish Housing in the Twentieth Century (Leicester, 1989), 125–54.

⁴¹ This was in stark contrast to English boroughs where 70 per cent of interwar housing was built for owner-occupiers.

⁴² M. Glendinning and D. Watters, eds., Homebuilders: MacTaggart and Mickel and the Scottish Housebuilding Industry (Edinburgh, 1999).

⁴³ P. Abercrombie and R. H. Matthew, The Clyde Valley Regional Plan 1946 (Edinburgh, 1946); R. Lyle and G. Payne, The Tay Valley Plan (Dundee, 1950); P. Abercrombie and D. Plumstead, A Civic Survey and Plan for the City and Royal Burgh of Edinburgh (Edinburgh, 1949); W. D. Chapman, The City and Royal Burgh of Aberdeen: Survey and Plan (Aberdeen, 1949).

⁴⁴ Abercrombie and Matthew Clyde Valley Regional Plan, 340–4, recommendations 21, 35.

⁴⁵ New Towns were established at Glenrothes (1948), Cumbernauld (1955), Livingstone (1962), and Irvine (1966).

⁴⁶ M. Pacione, Glasgow: The Socio-Spatial Development of the City (Chichester, 1991); M. Keating, The City that Refused to Die (Aberdeen, 1988).

⁴⁷ R. Rodger and H. Al-Qaddo, ‘The Scottish Special Housing Association and the Implementation of Housing Policy 1937–87’, in R. Rodger, ed., Scottish Housing, 184–213.

⁴⁸ By 1954, 95 per cent of Glasgow Council’s new housing was in tenements.

⁴⁹ M. J. Miller, The Representation of Place: Urban Planning and Protest in France and Great Britain 1950–1980 (Aldershot, 2003), 189–98, 209–14.

⁵⁰ P. J. Bull, ‘The Effects of Redevelopment Schemes of Inner-City Manufacturing Activity in Glasgow’, Environment and Planning A, 13 (1981), 991–1,000.

⁵¹ M. Glendinning, Tenements and Towers: Glasgow Working-Class Housing 1890–1990 (Edinburgh, 1990), 48; M. Pacione, ‘Housing Policies in Glasgow since 1880’, Geographical Review, 69:4 (1979), 395–412.

⁵² J. Macinnes, ‘Why Nothing Much Has Changed’, Employment Relations, 9:1 (1987), 51.

⁵³ I. Turok and N. Edge, The Jobs Gap in Britain’s Cities: Employment Loss and Labour Market Consequences (Bristol, 1999), 43.

⁵⁴ U. Wannop, ‘The Glasgow Eastern Area Renewal (GEAR) Project: A Perspective on the Management of Urban Regeneration’, Town Planning Review, 61 (1990), 455–74; R. Leclerc and D. Draffan, ‘The Glasgow Eastern Area Renewal Project’, Town Planning Review, 55 (1984), 335–52.

⁵⁵ Keating, The City that Refused to Die.

⁵⁶ The Scottish Office, Progress in Partnership (HMSO, 1993).

⁵⁷ R. Rodger, ‘Urbanisation in Twentieth-Century Scotland’, in T. M. Devine and R. J. Finlay, eds., Scotland in the Twentieth Century (Edinburgh, 1996), 122–53.