INTRODUCTION
1. Ashley Montagu, Man’s Most Dangerous Myth: The Fallacy of Race (Walnut Creek, Calif.: AltaMira Press, 1997); Jacques Barzun, Race: A Study in Superstition (New York: Harper and Row, 1965); Barbara J. Fields, “Ideology and Race in American History,” in Region, Race, and Reconstruction: Essays in Honor of C. Vann Woodward, ed. J. Morgan Kousser and James M. McPherson, 143–77 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1982).
2. Bruce Dain, A Hideous Monster of the Mind: American Race Theory in the Early Republic (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2002), vii.
3. Daniel J. Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics: Genetics and the Uses of Human Heredity (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1995).
4. Karen E. Fields and Barbara J. Fields, Racecraft: The Soul of Inequality in American Life (New York: Verso, 2012), 18–19.
6. Thomas Jefferson, Notes on the State of Virginia, ed. William Peden (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1955), 138–140, 143.
7. Ashley Montagu, Statement on Race (New York: Oxford University Press, 1972), 9–13.
8. Jenny Reardon, Race to the Finish: Identity and Governance in an Age of Genomics (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2005), 22–23.
9. Ibid.; Lee D. Baker, From Savage to Negro: Anthropology and the Construction of Race, 1896–1954 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998); Gregory Dorr, Segregation’s Science: Eugenics and Society in Virginia (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2008).
10. Theodosius Dobzhansky, Mankind Evolving: The Evolution of the Human Species (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1962), 266.
12. Gerald Markowitz and David Rosner, Children, Race, and Power: Kenneth and Mamie Clark’s Northside Center (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1996), 90–94.
13. William Stanton, The Leopard’s Spots: Scientific Attitudes Toward Race in America, 1815–59 (Chicago: University Of Chicago Press, 1960), 25.
14. Mae M. Ngai, Impossible Subjects: Illegal Aliens and the Making of Modern America (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2004), 3–5.
15. Baker, From Savage to Negro, 3.
16. Charles E. Rosenberg, No Other Gods: On Science and Society and American Social Thought (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1961), 1.
17. K. Anthony Appiah and Amy Gutmann, Color Consciousness: The Political Morality of Race (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996), 41–42.
18. Brian D. Smedley et al., eds., Unequal Treatment: Confronting Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Health Care (Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press, 2003); John Yinger, Closed Doors, Opportunities Lost: The Continuing Costs of Housing Discrimination (New York: Sage, 1995).
1. A EUGENIC FOUNDATION
1. Charles Davenport Papers, American Philosophical Society, Folder, Davenport, Charles B. Lecture: “Racial Traits,” February 21, 1921.
2. Daniel J. Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics: Genetics and the Uses of Human Heredity (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1995), 46.
4. Mark Pittenger, American Socialists and Evolutionary Thought, 1870–1920, History of American Thought and Culture (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1993), 248.
5. Celeste Condit, The Meanings of the Gene (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1999), 27; Mark A. Largent, Breeding Contempt: The History of Coerced Sterilization in the United States (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 2011). 1.
6. Paul Popenoe and Roswell Hill Johnson, Applied Eugenics (New York: Macmillan, 1933), 141.
7. William Provine, “Genetics and Race,” American Zoologist 26 (1986): 857.
9. Charles Davenport Papers, American Philosophical Society, Folder, Davenport, Charles B. Lecture: “Do Races Differ in Mental Capacity?” March 1928.
10. Popenoe and Johnson, Applied Eugenics, 283–84.
11. Eugenics Record Office Papers, American Philosophical Society, Box 62, Folder A: 974x6#10, “Pedigree of W. E. B. Du Bois”; Mark Aldrich, “Progressive Economists and Scientific Racism: Walter Willcox and Black Americans, 1895–1910,” Phylon 40 (1979): 1–14.
12. See, for example, Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics; Peter Schrag, Not Fit for Our Society: Nativism and Immigration (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2010); Stefan Kühl, The Nazi Connection: Eugenics, American Racism, and German National Socialism (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002); Laura Briggs, Reproducing Empire: Race, Sex, Science, and U.S. Imperialism in Puerto Rico (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002); Largent, Breeding Contempt; Alexandra Minna Stern, Eugenic Nation: Faults and Frontiers of Better Breeding in Modern America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005).
13. Michael G. Kenny, “Toward a Racial Abyss: Eugenics, Wickliffe Draper, and the Origins of the Pioneer Fund,” Journal of History of the Behavioral Sciences 38 (summer 2002): 259–83.
14. Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics, 3.
15. Francis Galton, Memories of My Life (London: Methuen, 1908), 1:141.
16. Karl Pearson, The Life, Letters, and Labours of Francis Galton, Volume 2: Researches of Middle Life (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1924), 74.
17. Raymond E. Fancher, “Biographical Origins of Francis Galton’s Psychology,” Isis 74 (June 1983): 228–29.
19. Nicholas Wright Gillham, A Life of Sir Francis Galton: From African Exploration to the Birth of Eugenics (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), 26–27.
21. Fancher, “Biographical Origins,” 231.
23. Biographies and biographical articles on Galton include Gillham, Sir Francis Galton; Michael Bulmer, Francis Galton: Pioneer of Heredity and Biometry (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003); Ruth Schwartz Cowan, “Sir Francis Galton and the Study of Heredity in the Nineteenth Century” (Ph.D. diss., Johns Hopkins University, 1969); and Fancher, “Biographical Origins.”
24. Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics, 6.
25. Galton, Memories of My Life, 141.
26. Raymond Fancher, “Francis Galton’s African Ethnography and Its Role in the Development of His Psychology,” British Journal for the History of Science 16 (1983): 67–79.
27. Cowan, “Sir Francis Galton,” 25.
28. Macmillan’s Magazine, 1st Paper, June 1865, 2nd Paper, August 1865, vol. 12:157–66, 318–27.
30. Fancher, “Galton’s African Ethnography,” 67–79; Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics, 8.
31. Norma Myers, Reconstructing the Black Past: Blacks in Britain, 1780–1830 (London: Cass, 1996).
32. See Gretchen Gerzina, Black Victorians/Black Victoriana (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 2003), and James Walvin, Black and White: The Negro and English Society, 1555–1945 (London: Lane, 1973).
33. Michael Banton, White and Coloured: The Behavior of British People Towards Coloured Immigrants (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1960), 57.
35. John Stuart Mill, Principles of Political Economy (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1965), 319, quoted in Fancher, “Galton’s African Ethnography,” 68.
36. Cowan, “Sir Francis Galton,” 26.
37. Banton, White and Coloured, 60.
38. Francis Galton, “Letters of Henry Stanley from Equatorial Africa to the ‘Daily Telegraph.’ London: 1877,” Edinburgh Review 147 (January 1878): 177.
39. John C. Kenna, “Sir Francis Galton’s Contribution to Anthropology,” Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland 94 (July–December 1964): 85.
40. Francis Galton, Hereditary Genius: An Inquiry into Its Laws and Consequences (Gloucester, Mass.: Smith, 1972), 40.
41. Banton, White and Coloured, 59; Warwick Anderson, The Cultivation of Whiteness: Science, Health, and Racial Destiny in Australia (New York: Basic Books, 2003).
42. Francis Galton, Hereditary Genius: An Inquiry into Its Laws and Consequences (London: Macmillan, 1869), vi.
43. All the review quotes are in Gillham, Sir Francis Galton, 170.
44. William B. Provine, The Origins of Theoretical Population Genetics (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001), 24.
45. Garland Allen, “Genetics, Eugenics, and Society: Internalists and Externalists in Contemporary History of Science,” Social Studies of Science 6 (February 1976): 106.
46. Galton, Hereditary Genius (1869), 336.
51. Francis Galton, Inquiries into Human Faculty and Its Development (New York: Macmillan, 1883), 24.
55. “Galton’s Human Faculty,” unsigned review of Inquiries into Human Faculty and Its Development, by Francis Galton, Science 2 (July 20, 1883): 80.
56. Galton, Inquiries into Human Faculty, 305–7.
57. Cowan, “Sir Francis Galton,” 144, 200.
60. Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics, xiii.
61. Francis Galton, Essays in Eugenics (London: Eugenics Education Society, 1909), 35.
62. Ivan Hannaford, Race: The History of an Idea in the West (Washington, D.C.: Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 1996), 123.
63. Audrey Smedley, Race in North America: Origin and Evolution of a Worldview (Boulder: Westview Press, 1993), 164.
64. Arthur O. Lovejoy, The Great Chain of Being: A Study of the History of an Idea (New York: Harper and Row, 1960), 59.
65. Smedley, Race in North America, 164.
66. Ibid., 36–40; Hannaford, Race.
67. Smedley, Race in North America 165.
68. Georges Louis Leclerc, Natural History: Containing a Theory of the Earth, a General History of Man, of the Brute Creation, and of Vegetables, Minerals, &c. (London: Barr, 1792), 317–18.
69. Stephen Jay Gould, The Mismeasure of Man (New York: Norton, 1996), 403, 408.
70. Galton, Inquiries into Human Faculty, 331.
71. Galton, “Letters,” 189.
72. Galton, Inquiries into Human Faculty, 310–311.
75. Michael G. Kenny, “Toward a Racial Abyss: Eugenics, Wickliffe Draper, and the Origins of the Pioneer Fund,” Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 38 (2002): 261.
76. Galton, Essays in Eugenics, 25.
77. Susan Lindee, Moments of Truth in Genetic Medicine (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2005), 122.
78. Galton, Inquiries into Human Faculty, 217.
2. CHARLES DAVENPORT AND THE BIOLOGY OF BLACKNESS
1. Oscar Riddle, “Charles Benedict Davenport,” Science 99 (June 2, 1944): 441–42.
2. Edwin Black, War Against the Weak: Eugenics and America’s Campaign to Create a Master Race (New York: Four Walls Eight Windows, 2003), 32–33.
4. Daniel J. Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics: Genetics and the Uses of Human Heredity (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1995), 45.
5. Charles Davenport Papers, American Philosophical Society, Lectures H–M, File, Davenport, Charles B. Lecture: “Heredity and Eugenics,” 1920.
6. Thomas Kessner, The Golden Door: Italian and Jewish Immigrant Mobility in New York City, 1880–1915 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1977), 7–8.
7. Osborn to Johnson, May 2, 1924. Henry Fairfield Osborn Collection, File: Johnson; American Museum of Natural History Archives.
8. Osborn to Grant, December 23, 1919. Henry Fairfield Osborn Collection, File: Grant, Madison, Folder 39; American Museum of Natural History Archives.
9. Osborn to Johnson, December 19, 1922. Henry Fairfield Osborn Collection, File: Johnson; American Museum of Natural History Archives.
10. Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics, 102–3.
11. William H. Tucker, The Science and Politics of Racial Research (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1994), 95.
12. Ibid., 94–95; David A. Hollinger, “How Wide the Circle of the ‘We’? American Intellectuals and the Problems of the Ethnos since World War II,” in Scientific Authority and Twentieth-Century America, ed. Ronald G. Walters, 13–31 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1977).
13. Tucker, Science And Politics, 96.
14. Charles Davenport Papers, American Philosophical Society, Davenport to Johnson, December 24, 1923.
15. Charles Davenport Papers, American Philosophical Society, Johnson to Davenport, December 27, 1923.
16. Matthew Jacobson, Whiteness of a Different Color: European Immigrants and the Alchemy of Race (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1998), 93.
17. Mae Ngai, “The Architecture of Race in American Immigration Law: A Reexamination of the Immigration Act of 1924,” Journal of American History 86 (June 1999): 69–71.
18. Jacobson, Whiteness, 95.
20. Julie Novkov, “Racial Constructions: The Legal Regulation of Miscegenation in Alabama, 1890–1934,” Law and History Review 20 (summer 2002): 252.
21. C. Vann Woodward, The Strange Career of Jim Crow (New York: Oxford University Press, 1955), 6.
22. Gregory Dorr, Segregation’s Science: Eugenics and Society in Virginia (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2008).
23. Charles Davenport Papers, American Philosophical Society, Lectures A–H, File, Davenport, Charles B. Lecture: “A Biologist’s View of the Negro Problem,” n.d.
24. Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics, 46.
25. Charles Davenport Papers, American Philosophical Society, File, Hrdlička, Aleš: Davenport to Hrdlička, November 27, 1906.
26. Charles Davenport Papers, American Philosophical Society, File, Hrdlička, Aleš: Hrdlička to Davenport, November 28, 1906.
27. Gertrude C. Davenport and Charles B. Davenport, “Heredity of Skin Pigmentation in Man,” American Naturalist 44 (November 1910): 641–72. The second half of the article was published in vol. 44 (December 1910): 705–31.
28. Ibid., (November 1910): 672.
29. William B. Provine, “Geneticists and the Biology of Race Crossing,” Science 182 (November 23, 1973): 790–96.
30. Davenport and Davenport, “Heredity of Skin Pigmentation,” 668.
31. Paul Popenoe and Roswell Hill Johnson, Applied Eugenics (New York: Macmillan, 1933), 284, 294.
32. Charles Davenport Papers, American Philosophical Society, File, Popenoe, Paul, Folder 2: Davenport to Popenoe, July 13, 1914.
33. Dorr, Segregation’s Science, 2–3. See also Harvey Jordan, “The Biological Worth and Social Status of the Mulatto,” Popular Science Monthly 82 (June 1913): 573–82.
34. Charles Davenport Papers, American Philosophical Society, File, Jordan, H. E.: Jordan to Davenport, July 16, 1913.
35. Charles Davenport Papers, American Philosophical Society, File, Jordan, H. E.: Davenport to Jordan, August 7, 1913.
36. Charles Davenport Papers, American Philosophical Society, File, Jordan, H. E.: Jordan to Davenport, November 27, 1912, and Davenport to Jordan, November 30, 1912.
37. Davenport and Davenport, “Heredity of Skin Pigmentation,” 666.
38. Charles B. Davenport, Heredity of Skin Color in Negro-White Crosses (Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1913), 28–30.
39. Charles B. Davenport, “The Effects of Race Intermingling,” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 56 (1917): 364.
41. Peggy Pascoe, “Miscegenation Law, Court Cases, and Ideologies of ‘Race’ in Twentieth-Century America,” Journal of American History 83 (June 1996): 44–69; Dorr, Segregation’s Science.
42. Charles Davenport and Morris Steggerda, Race Crossing in Jamaica (Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1929), 477.
43. Lothrop Stoddard, The Rising Tide of Color Against White World-Supremacy (New York: Scribner, 1920), 301.
44. Stoddard to Osborn, January 23, 1923. Henry Fairfield Osborn Collection, American Museum of Natural History; Norman Hapgood, “The New Threat of the Ku Klux Klan,” Hearst’s International (January 1923): 8–12.
45. Charles Davenport Papers, American Philosophical Society, Folder, Davenport, Charles B. Lecture: “Racial Traits,” February 21, 1921.
3. EUGENICS IN THE PUBLIC’S EYE
1. Henry Fairfield Osborn, “Address of Welcome,” in Scientific Papers of the Second International Conference of Eugenics, vol. 1, Eugenics, Genetics, and the Family (Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins, 1923), 1.
3. Charles Davenport, “Research in Eugenics,” in Eugenics, Genetics, and the Family, 24.
5. William B. Provine, Sewall Wright and Evolutionary Biology (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986), 180.
6. Charles Davenport Papers, American Philosophical Society, File, Morgan, Thomas Hunt: Morgan to Davenport, January 18, 1915.
7. Garland Allen, Thomas Hunt Morgan: The Man and His Science (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978), 228.
8. American Museum of Natural History, Annual Report of the Trustees of the American Museum of Natural History for the Year (1921) (New York: American Museum of Natural History, 1921), 31.
10. Osborn to William Gregory, May 25, 1935. Henry Fairfield Osborn Collection, American Museum of Natural History Archives; Geoffrey Hellman Bankers, Bones and Beetles: The First Century of the American Museum of Natural History (Garden City, N.Y.: Natural History Press, 1969), 194; John Michael Kennedy, “Philanthropy and Science in New York City: The American Museum of Natural History, 1868–1968” (Ph.D. diss., Yale University, 1968), 208–9.
11. Elazar Barkan, The Retreat of Scientific Racism: Changing Concepts of Race in Britain and the United States Between the World Wars (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 67.
12. Franz Boas, “The Problem of the American Negro,” Yale Review 10 (January 1921): 384–95.
15. Franz Boas Papers, American Philosophical Society, File, White, Walter: Walter White to Franz Boas, March 15, 1921.
16. Franz Boas Papers, American Philosophical Society, File, Boas Lectures: “The Races of Man,” 1896.
17. Franz Boas Papers, American Philosophical Society, File, Boas Lectures: “Commencement Address at Atlanta University,” May 31, 1906. See also Julia E. Liss et al., “Diasporic Identities: The Science and Politics of Race in the Work of Franz Boas and W. E. B. Du Bois, 1894–1919,” Cultural Anthropology 13 (May 1998): 127–66.
18. Lee D. Baker, From Savage to Negro: Anthropology and the Construction of Race, 1896–1954 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998), 119.
19. Harry Laughlin, The Second International Exhibition of Eugenics Held September 22 to October 22, 1921, in Connection with the Second International Congress of Eugenics in the American Museum of Natural History, New York: An Account of the Organization of the Exhibition, the Classification of the Exhibits, the List of Exhibitors, and a Catalog and Description of the Exhibit (Baltimore: Wilkins and Wilkins, 1923), 13, 20.
28. Kennedy, “Philanthropy and Science,” 208.
29. William H. Tucker, The Science and Politics of Racial Research (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1994), 88.
30. Kennedy, “Philanthropy and Science,” 208.
31. Laughlin, Second International Exhibition, 40.
32. Daniel J. Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics: Genetics and the Uses of Human Heredity (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1995), 75.
33. Grant, Passing of the Great Race, 53.
39. Barkan, Retreat of Scientific Racism, 70.
40. Gregory Michael Dorr, “Segregation’s Science: The American Eugenics Movement and Virginia, 1900–1980” (Ph.D. diss., University of Virginia, 2000), 250.
41. Gregory Dorr, Segregation’s Science: Eugenics and Society in Virginia (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2008), 79.
42. Dorr, “Segregation’s Science,” 253.
44. R. Bennett Bean, “Notes on the Body Form of Man,” in Scientific Papers of the Second International Conference of Eugenics, vol. 2, Eugenics in Race and State (Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins, 1923), 17.
45. Ernest A. Hooton, “Observations and Queries as to the Effect of Race Mixture on Certain Physical Characteristics,” in Eugenics in Race and State, 64–74.
46. W. F. Willcox, “Distribution and Increase of Negroes in the United States,” in Eugenics in Race and State, 171.
48. W. E. B. Du Bois, “Race Traits and Tendencies of the American Negro,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 9 (January 1897): 127–33.
49. Frederick L. Hoffman, “The Problem of Negro-White Intermixture and Intermarriage,” in Eugenics in Race and State, 175–188.
50. Osborn, “Address of Welcome,” 2.
51. Committee on Racial Problems, Joint with SSRC: Institutionalization of Infants for Controlled Data Accumulation, Letter from Knight Dunlap to Members of the Executive Committee, March 28, 1929, in National Academy of Sciences–National Research Council Archives, Division of Anthropology and Psychology Records Group.
4. THE NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL AND THE SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF RACE
1. Committee on Racial Problems: 1928–1932, “Final Report,” April 1931, in National Academy of Sciences–National Research Council Archives, Division of Anthropology and Psychology Records Group.
2. Barbara Tizard, “IQ and Race,” Nature 247 (February 1, 1974): 316.
3. Committee on Race Characters: 1921–1922. Open letter to the Committee from Clark Wissler, Chairman, NRC Division of Anthropology and Psychology, March 24, 1921, in National Academy of Sciences–National Research Council Archives, Division of Anthropology and Psychology Records Group.
4. Committee on Racial Problems, Joint with SSRC: Institutionalization of Infants for Controlled Data Accumulation, Letter from Knight Dunlap to Members of the Executive Committee, March 28, 1929, in National Academy of Sciences–National Research Council Archives, Division of Anthropology and Psychology Records Group.
5. Daryl Michael Scott, Contempt and Pity: Social Policy and the Image of the Damaged Black Psyche, 1880–1996 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997), xi.
6. Philip Dray, At the Hands of Persons Unknown: The Lynching of Black America (New York: Random House, 2002), 190; Kevin Gaines, Uplifting the Race: Black Leadership, Politics, and Culture in the Twentieth Century (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996), 66–99.
7. August Meier, Negro Thought in America, 1880–1915 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1968).
8. Kelly Miller, Race Adjustment: Essays on the Negro in America (New York: Neale, 1909), 44.
9. Rayford W. Logan, The Negro in the United States: A Brief History (Princeton: Van Nostrand, 1957).
10. W. E. B. Du Bois, Darkwater: Voices from within the Veil (New York: Washington Square Press, 2004), 36.
11. C. Vann Woodward, The Strange Career of Jim Crow (New York: Oxford University Press, 1974). See also C. Vann Woodward, Origins of the New South: 1877–1913 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1971).
12. Nicolas Lemann, The Promised Land: The Great Black Migration and How It Changed America (New York: Knopf, 1991).
13. Joe W. Trotter, The Great Migration in Historical Perspective: New Dimensions of Race, Class, and Gender (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991).
14. Mark R. Schneider, “We Return Fighting”: The Civil Rights Movement in the Jazz Age (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 2002), 20.
15. Committee on Scientific Problems of Human Migration, “Report to the Committee on Scientific Problems of Human Migration,” March 8, 1923, in National Academy of Sciences–National Research Council Archives, Division of Anthropology and Psychology Records Group: appendix I, 4.
16. National Research Council, A History of the National Research Council, 1919–1933 (Wilmington, Del., Scholarly Resources, 1974), 7.
17. National Research Council, “The National Research Council: Organization of the National Research Council,” Science 49 (May 16, 1919): 458.
18. National Research Council, History of the National Research Council, 9–10.
19. Daniel J. Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics: Genetics and the Uses of Human Heredity (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1995), 208–10; Ellen Condliffe Lagemann, The Politics of Knowledge: The Carnegie Corporation, Philanthropy, and Public Policy (Middletown, Conn.: Wesleyan University Press, 1989).
20. Roger L. Geiger, To Advance Knowledge: The Growth of American Research Universities, 1900–1940 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), 99.
22. Cole’s January 8, 1914, talk at the conference was later published as Leon J. Cole, “Biological Eugenics: Relation of Philanthropy and Medicine to Race Betterment,” Journal of Heredity 5 (1914): 305–12.
24. Garland E. Allen, “The Eugenics Record Office at Cold Spring Harbor, 1910–1940: An Essay in Institutional History,” Osiris 2 (1986): 225–64.
25. Charles B. Davenport, Heredity of Skin Color in Negro-White Crosses (Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1913).
26. Allen, “Eugenics Record Office,” 225–64.
28. Lagemann, Politics of Knowledge, 4.
30. Judith Sealander, “Curing Evils at Their Source: The Arrival of Scientific Giving,” in Charity, Philanthropy, and Civility in American History, ed. Lawrence J. Friedman and Mark D. McGarvie (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 229.
31. Merle Curti, “American Philanthropy and the National Character,” American Quarterly 10 (winter 1958): 436.
32. Lagemann, Politics of Knowledge, 81.
34. Ibid., 48; Geiger, To Advance Knowledge, 146.
36. National Research Council, History of the National Research Council, 34–38.
37. Committee on Race Characters: 1923–1926, A. E. Jenks to Robert M. Yerkes, September 17, 1923, in National Academy of Sciences–National Research Council Archives, Division of Anthropology and Psychology Records Group; Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics, 80–81.
38. Daniel Kevles, “Testing the Army’s Intelligence: Psychologists and the Military in World War I,” Journal of American History 55 (December 1968): 565–81; Stephen Jay Gould, The Mismeasure of Man (New York: Norton, 1996), 222–63.
39. Gould, Mismeasure of Man, 260–62.
40. Committee on Race Characters: 1923–1926, Jenks to Yerkes, September 17, 1923.
41. Committee on Race Characters: 1923–1926, “Research Outline from the Division of Anthropology and Psychology,” National Research Council, December 10, 1923, in National Academy of Sciences–National Research Council Archives, Division of Anthropology and Psychology Records Group: 2
43. Committee on Race Characters: 1923–1926, Jenks to Yerkes, October 23, 1923, in National Academy of Sciences–National Research Council Archives, Division of Anthropology and Psychology Records Group.
44. Committee on Race Characters: 1923–1926, “Research Outline from the Division of Anthropology and Psychology,” December 10, 1923.
49. Lee D. Baker, From Savage to Negro: Anthropology and the Construction of Race, 1896–1954 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998), 5, 93–94; See also Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics, and Nancy Stepan, The Idea of Race in Science: Great Britain, 1800–1960 (Hamden, Conn.: Archon Books, 1982).
50. Committee on Scientific Problems of Human Migration, “Report to the Committee on Scientific Problems of Human Migration,” March 8, 1923, appendix I, 1.
51. Committee on Scientific Problems of Human Migration, Clark Wissler, Final Report of the Committee on Scientific Problems of Human Migration, Reprint and Circular Series of the National Research Council (Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press, 1929), 7–8.
52. Committee on Scientific Problems of Human Migration, “Report to the Committee on Scientific Problems of Human Migration,” March 8, 1923, 2.
53. Madison Grant, The Passing of the Great Race: The Racial Basis of European History (New York: Scribner, 1916); Lothrop Stoddard, The Rising Tide of Color Against White World-Supremacy (New York: Scribner, 1920).
54. Committee on Scientific Problems of Human Migration, “Conference on Racial Intermixture,” February 17, 1923, in National Academy of Sciences–National Research Council Archives, Division of Anthropology and Psychology Records Group: 4–5, 8, 15.
55. Committee on Scientific Problems of Human Migration, “Report to the Committee on Scientific Problems of Human Migration,” March 8, 1923, 2–3.
56. Committee on Scientific Problems of Human Migration, “Conference on Racial Intermixture,” February 17, 1923, 7.
57. Charles B. Davenport, “The Effects of Race Intermingling,” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 56 (1917): 364.
58. Committee on Scientific Problems of Human Migration, “Report to the Committee on Scientific Problems of Human Migration,” March 8, 1923, appendix I, 5.
61. Committee on Scientific Problems of Human Migration, “Conference on Racial Intermixture,” February 17, 1923, 8.
62. Charles Davenport and Morris Steggerda, Race Crossing in Jamaica (Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1929).
63. Raymond Pearl Papers, American Philosophical Society, File, National Research Council, Yerkes to Pearl, May 16, 1923.
64. Committee on Scientific Problems of Human Migration, Annual Reports, “Report and Recommendations of the Committee on Scientific Problems of Human Migrations,” April 5, 1926, in National Academy of Sciences–National Research Council Archives, Division of Anthropology and Psychology Records Group: 6; Raymond Pearl, “On the Pathological Relations Between Cancer and Tuberculosis,” Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 26 (1928): 55–73; Raymond Pearl and Agnes Latimer Bacon, “New Data on Alcohol and Duration of Life,” Nature 121 (1928): 15–16; and Raymond Pearl and Agnes Latimer Bacon, “Biometrical Studies in Pathology, V: The Racial and Age Incidence of Cancer and Other Malignant Tumors,” Archives of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine 3 (1927): 963–92.
65. Edwin Black, War Against the Weak: Eugenics and America’s Campaign to Create a Master Race (New York: Four Walls Eight Windows, 2003), 412.
66. Raymond Pearl Papers, American Philosophical Society, File, NAACP, #2, Correspondence between Walter White and Raymond Pearl.
67. Elazar Barkan, The Retreat of Scientific Racism: Changing Concepts of Race in Britain and the United States Between the World Wars (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 212–20.
68. Raymond Pearl Papers, American Philosophical Society, File, National Research Council, Yerkes to Pearl, November 25, 1922; Davenport, “Effects of Race Intermingling,” 364–68.
69. Ibid., Pearl to Yerkes, November 28, 1922.
70. Ibid., Yerkes to Pearl, November 29, 1922.
71. Quoted in William H. Tucker, The Science and Politics of Racial Research (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1994), 71.
72. Raymond Pearl and Agnes Latimer Bacon, “Biometrical Studies in Pathology, VI: The Primary Site of Cancers and Other Malignant Tumors,” Archives of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine 6 (1928): 67–89.
74. Pearl and Bacon, “Biometrical Studies in Pathology, V,” 963–92.
75. Ibid., “Biometrical Studies in Pathology, VI,” 80–81.
76. Transcript of the “Conference on Racial Differences,” February 1928, 23, in National Academy of Sciences–National Research Council Archives, Division of Anthropology and Psychology Records Group.
77. Raymond Pearl, “Evolution and Mortality,” Quarterly Review of Biology 3 (June 1928): 271–80.
79. Committee on Scientific Problems of Human Migration, “Report to the Committee on Scientific Problems of Human Migration,” March 8, 1923, appendix I, 8.
80. Wissler, Final Report, 15.
81. Ibid., 9, 10, 14; Committee on Scientific Problems of Human Migration, Annual Reports, “Report and Recommendations of the Committee on Scientific Problems of Human Migrations,” April 5, 1926, 6.
82. Edmund Ramsden, “Social Demography and Eugenics in the Interwar United States,” Population and Development Review 29 (December 2003): 548.
83. Wissler, Final Report, 17–21.
1. Committee on the Study of the American Negro, 1926–1929, “Committee on the American Negro: Proposals for the Organization of Investigations on the American Negro,” n.d., in National Academy of Sciences–National Research Council Archives, Division of Anthropology and Psychology Records Group.
2. Robert J. Terry. “The American Negro,” Science 69 (March 29, 1929): 337–41.
3. Committee on the Study of the American Negro, 1926–1929, R. M. Terry to G. M. Stratton, October 20, 1925.
4. Ibid., Letter from A. E. Jenks to G. M. Stratton, January 27, 1926.
5. Ibid., “Report of Progress, Committee on the American Negro, 1926–1927, appendix K,” in National Academy of Sciences–National Research Council Archives, Division of Anthropology and Psychology Records Group.
6. Ibid., “Committee on the American Negro: Proposals for the Organization of Investigations on the American Negro.”
7. Ibid., “Report of Progress, Committee on the American Negro, 1928–1929, appendix G.”
8. Ibid., “Report of Progress, Committee on the American Negro, 1926–1927, appendix K.”
9. Ibid., “A&P Annual Meeting: 1928.”
10. Ibid., “Report of Progress, Committee on the American Negro, 1928–1929, appendix G.”
11. Transcript of the “Conference on Racial Differences,” February 1928, in National Academy of Sciences–National Research Council Archives, Division of Anthropology and Psychology Records Group: 3.
14. Fred Eggan, “Fay-Cooper Cole, 1881–1961,” American Anthropologist 65 (June 1963): 641–48.
15. Transcript of the “Conference on Racial Differences,” February 1928, 9.
16. Franz Boas, “Changes in the Bodily Form of Descendants of Immigrants,” American Anthropologist 14 (July–September, 1912): 530–62.
17. Audrey Smedley, Race in North America: Origin and Evolution of a Worldview (Boulder: Westview Press, 1993), 276.
19. Transcript of the “Conference on Racial Differences,” February 1928, 16–17.
23. Ernst Mayr, “Darwin’s Impact on Modern Thought,” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 139 (December 1995): 317–25.
24. Transcript of the “Conference on Racial Differences,” February 1928, 19–20.
25. William B. Provine, The Origins of Theoretical Population Genetics (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001).
26. Kenneth Ludmerer, “American Geneticists and the Eugenics Movement, 1905–1935,” Journal of the History of Biology 2 (September 1969): 347–48, 350–51.
27. Joan Fisher Box, R. A. Fisher: The Life of a Scientist (New York: Wiley, 1978), 268, as quoted in Elazar Barkan, The Retreat of Scientific Racism: Changing Concepts of Race in Britain and the United States Between the World Wars (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 222; R. A. Fisher, The Genetic Theory of Natural Selection (New York: Oxford University Press, 1930), 258.
28. Edward East, Mankind at the Crossroads (New York: Scribner’s, 1923), 133.
29. Bentley Glass, “Geneticists Embattled: Their Stand Against Rampant Eugenics and Racism in America During the 1920s and 1930s,” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 30 (1986): 135.
30. Transcript of the “Conference on Racial Differences,” February 1928, 31.
32. Melville J. Herskovits, The American Negro: A Study in Race Crossing (New York: Knopf, 1928), 67, 82.
33. Transcript of the “Conference on Racial Differences,” February 1928, 22.
35. Wayne C. Richard, “Joseph Peterson: Scientist and Teacher,” Peabody Journal of Education 46 (July 1968): 3–8.
36. Joseph Peterson, The Comparative Abilities of White and Negro Children (Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins, 1923).
37. Joseph Peterson, “Methods of Investigating Comparative Abilities in Races,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 140 (November 1928): 178–85.
38. Charles H. Thompson, “The Conclusions of Scientists Relative to Racial Differences,” Journal of Negro Education 3 (July 1934): 498.
39. Transcript of the “Conference on Racial Differences,” February 1928, 36–41.
41. Committee on Racial Problems, 1928–1931, Joint with SSRC, “Memo,” March 26, 1928, in National Academy of Sciences–National Research Council Archives, Division of Anthropology and Psychology Records Group.
42. Transcript of the “Conference on Racial Differences,” February 1928, in National Academy of Sciences–National Research Council Archives, Division of Anthropology and Psychology Records Group: 77–80.
43. Committee on Racial Problems, 1928–1931, Joint with SSRC, “Minutes of the Meeting Held January 12, 1929,” January 12, 1929, in National Academy of Sciences–National Research Council Archives, Division of Anthropology and Psychology Records Group.
44. Ibid., “Final Report,” April, 1931, in National Academy of Sciences–National Research Council Archives, Division of Anthropology and Psychology Records Group.
45. Ibid., Memorandum to the Members of the Conference of Directors, May 12, 1930, in National Academy of Sciences–National Research Council Archives, Division of Anthropology and Psychology Records Group.
46. Roy M. Dorcus, “Knight Dunlap: 1875–1949,” American Journal of Psychology 63 (January 1950): 114–19.
47. Mary Ann Mason, From Father’s Property to Children’s Rights: The History of Child Custody in the United States (New York: Columbia University Press, 1994); Matthew A. Crenson, Building the Invisible Orphanage: A Prehistory of the American Welfare System (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1998).
48. Committee on Racial Problems, 1928–1931, Joint with SSRC, Fay-Cooper Cole to Knight Dunlap, September 17, 1928, in National Academy of Sciences–National Research Council Archives, Division of Anthropology and Psychology Records Group.
49. Ibid., Franz Boas to Knight Dunlap, April 1, 1929, in National Academy of Sciences–National Research Council Archives, Division of Anthropology and Psychology Records Group.
50. Ibid., “Report Made to the SSRC Committee on Problems and Policy, August 1930, in National Academy of Sciences–National Research Council Archives, Division of Anthropology and Psychology Records Group, 1–2.
52. Ibid., “Joint Committee on Racial Matters of the Social Science Research Council and the National Research Council,” 6.
53. Ibid., “Final Report,” April 31.
54. Susan Reverby, Examining Tuskegee: The Infamous Syphilis Study and Its Legacy (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2009), 24–26.
55. Charles Davenport Papers, American Philosophical Society, File, Kidder, Alfred: Davenport to Kidder, October 21, 1926.
56. Ibid., November 3, 1926.
57. Ibid., Committee on the American Negro: Davenport to Terry, January 4, 1927.
58. Ibid., November 12, 1928.
59. Ibid., March 4, 1929.
60. Ibid., File, W. P. Draper, Folder 2, 1929–1932: Davenport to Draper, July 16, 1929; W. P. Draper, Folder 1, 1923–1928: Davenport to Draper, May 25, 1928.
61. Ibid., Folder 1, 1923–1928: Draper to Davenport, March 20, 1923.
62. Ibid., February 5, 1926.
63. Ibid., Davenport to Draper, February 6, 1926.
64. Ibid., March 15, 1926.
65. Ibid., File, Todd, T. Wingate: Davenport to Todd, October 27, 1928.
66. William H. Tucker, The Funding of Scientific Racism: Wickliffe Draper and the Pioneer Fund (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2002), 30–33.
67. Charles B. Davenport, “Race Crossing in Jamaica,” Scientific Monthly 27 (September 1928): 225–38.
68. Charles Davenport and Morris Steggerda, Race Crossing in Jamaica (Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1929), 477.
69. Frank H. Hankins, “Heredity and Environment,” Social Forces 9 (June 1931): 587–88.
70. Karl Pearson, review of Race Crossing in Jamaica, by Charles Davenport and Morris Steggerda, Nature 126 (1930): 427.
71. Glass, “Geneticists Embattled,” 130–54.
72. William B. Provine, “Geneticists and the Biology of Race Crossing,” Science 182 (November 23, 1973): 790–96.
73. William E. Castle, “Race Mixture and Physical Disharmonies,” Science 71 (June 13, 1930): 605.
75. Charles Davenport Papers, American Philosophical Society, File, Davenport, Charles B. Lectures: “Do Races Differ in Mental Capacity, March 1924” [The date on this file must be incorrect since the lecture discusses research being carried out in Jamaica by Steggerda, research that did not begin until 1926], “Racial Traits, February 1921,” and “Heredity and Race Eugenics, 1927.”
76. Davenport, “Race Crossing in Jamaica.”
77. Peggy Pascoe, “Miscegenation Law, Court Cases, and Ideologies of ‘Race’ in Twentieth-Century America,” Journal of American History 83 (June 1996): 44–69.
78. Gregory Michael Dorr, “Segregation’s Science: The American Eugenics Movement and Virginia, 1900–1980” (Ph.D. diss., University of Virginia, 2000), 515.
79. Robert R. Hurwitz, “Constitutional Law: Equal Protection of the Laws, California Anti-Miscegenation Laws Declared Unconstitutional,” California Law Review 37 (March 1949): 127n28.
80. Tucker, Funding of Scientific Racism, 33–38; E. S. Cox, White America (Richmond, Va.: White America Society, 1923).
81. John P. Jackson Jr., Science for Segregation: Race, Law, and the Case Against Brown v. Board of Education (New York: New York University Press, 2005), 34–35.
6. BIOLOGY AND THE PROBLEM OF THE COLOR LINE
1. W. E. B. Du Bois, ed., The Health and Physique of the Negro American (Atlanta: Atlanta University Press, 1906).
2. Lee D. Baker, From Savage to Negro: Anthropology and the Construction of Race, 1896–1954 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998), 115.
4. W. E. B. Du Bois, The Souls of Black Folk: Essays and Sketches (Chicago: McClurg, 1903), vii.
5. W. E. B. Du Bois, Elijah Anderson, and Isabel Eaton, The Philadelphia Negro: A Social Study (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1996).
6. W. E. B. Du Bois, Dusk of Dawn: An Essay Toward an Autobiography of a Race Concept (Piscataway, N.J.: Transaction, 1983), 58.
8. Wissler to Du Bois, November 31, 1905, in The Correspondence of W. E. B. Du Bois, Volume 1: Selections, 1877–1934, ed. Herbert Aptheker (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1977), 115.
9. Joseph Deniker, The Races of Man: An Outline of Anthropology and Ethnology (Freeport, N.Y.: Books for Libraries Press, 1971), 2–3.
10. Du Bois to Carnegie, May 22, 1906, in Aptheker, Correspondence of W. E. B. Du Bois, 121–22.
11. Franz Boas Papers, American Philosophical Society, File, Du Bois, W. E. Burghardt: Du Bois to Boas, October 11, 1905, and Boas to Du Bois, October 14, 1905.
12. Ibid., Boas Lectures: Commencement Address at Atlanta University, May 31, 1906.
13. Du Bois, Health and Physique, 13.
22. Frederick L. Hoffman, Race Traits and Tendencies of the American Negro (New York: American Economic Association, 1896).
24. Megan J. Wolff, “The Myth of the Actuary: Life Insurance and Frederick L. Hoffman’s Race Traits and Tendencies of the American Negro,” Public Health Reports 121 (January–February, 2006): 86.
26. W. E. B. Du Bois, “Race Traits and Tendencies of the American Negro,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 9 (January 1897): 133.
28. Du Bois, Health and Physique, 89–90.
29. Baker, From Savage to Negro. See also Elazar Barkan, The Retreat of Scientific Racism: Changing Concepts of Race in Britain and the United States Between the World Wars (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992).
30. Du Bois, Dusk of Dawn, 100.
31. Dominic J. Capeci Jr. and Jack C. Knight, “Reckoning with Violence: W. E. B. Du Bois and the 1906 Atlanta Race Riot,” Journal of Southern History 62 (November 1996): 740; David Levering Lewis, W. E. B. Du Bois: Biography of a Race (New York: Holt, 1993).
32. David L. Lewis. “Atlanta Is Swept by Raging Mob: Over 16 Negroes Reported to Be Dead,” Atlanta Constitution, September 23, 1906, B1; David Fort Godshalk, Veiled Visions: The 1906 Atlanta Race Riot and the Reshaping of American Race Relations (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005).
33. Capeci and Knight, “Reckoning with Violence,” 749.
35. Lewis, W. E. B. Du Bois, 3.
36. W. E. B. Du Bois, Darkwater: Voices from within the Veil (New York: Washington Square Press, 2004), 54–55.
37. W. E. B. Du Bois, “Purity of Blood,” in Crisis: A Record of the Darker Races, Volumes 9–10, 1914–1915 (New York: Negro Universities Press, 1969) 276; Carol M. Taylor, “W. E. B. Du Bois’s Challenge to Scientific Racism,” Journal of Black Studies 11 (1981): 449–60.
38. W. E. B. Du Bois, “Races,” Crisis 2 (August 1911): 157.
39. David Levering Lewis, W. E. B. Du Bois: The Fight for Equality and the American Century, 1919–1963 (New York: Holt, 2000), 235–36.
41. Daylanne K. English, Unnatural Selections: Eugenics in American Modernism and the Harlem Renaissance (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004), 41.
42. Lewis, W. E. B. Du Bois: Fight for Equality, 455–56.
43. Anthony Appiah, “The Uncompleted Argument: Du Bois and the Illusion of Race,” Critical Inquiry 12 (autumn 1985): 4–5.
44. Jacques Barzun, Race: A Study in Modern Superstition (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1937), 1.
45. Ruth Benedict, Race: Science and Politics (New York: Viking, 1940), v–vi.
47. Ivan Hannaford, Race: The History of an Idea in the West (Washington, D.C.: Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 1996), 376–90.
48. Benedict, Race, 230–31.
50. Harvard Sitkoff, A New Deal for Blacks: The Emergence of Civil Rights as a National Issue; The Depression Decade (New York: Oxford University Press, 1981).
54. Columbia University Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Jacques Barzun Collection, Box 6, File, Race: A Study in Superstition (vol. II): Barzun to Oliver C. Cox, April 19, 1948.
55. Rosemary Firth, review of Race: A Study in Modern Superstition, by Jacques Barzun, Man 39 (May 1939): 38–39.
56. Barkan, Retreat of Scientific Racism, 109.
57. Clark Wissler, review of Race: A Study in Modern Superstition, by Jacques Barzun, American Historical Review 44 (October 1938): 62.
58. Columbia University Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Jacques Barzun Collection, Box 6, File: Race: A Study in Superstition (vol. II), Barzun to Editor, American Historical Review, December 1, 1938.
61. Madison Grant, The Passing of the Great Race: The Racial Basis of European History (New York: Scribner, 1916), 45.
62. William H. Tucker, The Science and Politics of Racial Research (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1994), 27.
63. Stefan Kühl, The Nazi Connection: Eugenics, American Racism, and German National Socialism (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002), 39.
64. Edwin Black, War Against the Weak: Eugenics and America’s Campaign to Create a Master Race (New York: Four Walls Eight Windows, 2003), 294–95, 312–14; Kühl, Nazi Connection, 48–49.
7. RACE AND THE EVOLUTIONARY SYNTHESIS
1. Stephen Jay Gould, introduction to Genetics and the Origin of Species, by Theodosius Dobzhansky (New York: Columbia University Press, 1982), xxi.
2. Ernst Mayr, The Growth of Biological Thought: Diversity, Evolution, and Inheritance (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press, 1982), 567; Jan Sapp, Genesis: The Evolution of Biology (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003), 143. Sapp’s and Mayr’s points are both based on the conclusions of Julian Huxley’s classic summary of the evolutionary synthesis titled Evolution: The Modern Synthesis (London: Allen and Unwin, 1942).
3. Ernst Mayr, “The Role of Systematics in the Evolutionary Synthesis,” in Systematics and the Origin of Species, ed. Ernst Mayr and William B. Provine (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1980), 123–24.
4. Mayr, Growth of Biological Thought, 570.
5. Theodosius Dobzhansky Papers, American Philosophical Society, Restricted File: Dobzhansky to R. C. Murphy, March 7, 1947.
6. Dobzhansky, Genetics and the Origin of Species; Huxley, Evolution; George G. Simpson, Tempo and Mode in Evolution (New York: Columbia University Press, 1944); Mayr, Systematics and the Origin of Species.
7. Ernst Mayr, “Prologue: Some Thoughts on the History of the Evolutionary Synthesis,” in The Evolutionary Synthesis: Perspective on the Unification of Biology, ed. Ernst Mayr and William B. Provine (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1980), 13.
9. Ernst Mayr, “Typological versus Population Thinking,” in Conceptual Issues in Evolutionary Biology, ed. Eliot Sober (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1994), 158; Eliot Sober, “Population Thinking, and Essentialism,” Philosophy of Science 47 (1980): 367–68.
10. Lisa Gannett and James R. Griesemer, “The Genetics of ABO Blood Groups,” in Classical Genetic Research and Its Legacy: The Mapping of Cultures of Twentieth-Century Genetics, ed. Hans-Jörg Rheinberger and Jean-Paul Gadillière (New York: Routledge, 2004), 161.
11. Kenneth Ludmerer, “American Geneticists and the Eugenics Movement, 1905–1935,” Journal of the History of Biology 2 (September 1969): 337–62.
12. Elazar Barkan, The Retreat of Scientific Racism: Changing Concepts of Race in Britain and the United States Between the World Wars (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 140.
13. Julian Huxley, “Letter to the Editor,” Eugenics Review 29 (1938), as quoted in William B. Provine, “Geneticists and the Biology of Race Crossing,” Science 182 (November 23, 1973): 790–96.
14. Gould, introduction, xxv.
15. Sophia Dobzhansky Coe, “Theodosius Dobzhansky: A Family Story,” in The Evolution of Theodosius Dobzhansky: Essays on His Life and Thought in Russia and America, ed. Mark Adams, 13–28 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994).
16. See chapters by Nikolai L. Kremenstov, Daniel A. Alexandrov, and Mikhail B. Konashev in Adams, Evolution of Theodosius Dobzhansky, 31–84.
17. Theodosius Dobzhansky, “Morgan and His School in the 1930s,” in Mayr and Provine, Evolutionary Synthesis, 445.
18. V. B. Smocovitis, Unifying Biology: The Evolutionary Synthesis and Evolutionary Biology (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996), 133.
19. Sewell Wright, review of Genetics and the Origin of Species, by Theodosius Dobzhansky, Botanical Gazette 99 (June 1938): 955–56; Theodosius Dobzhansky Papers, American Philosophical Society, File, Sewall Wright: Wright to Dobzhansky, October 22, 1937.
20. Gould, introduction, xxvi.
21. Barkan, Retreat of Scientific Racism.
22. William Provine, “Genetics and Race,” American Zoologist 26 (1986): 857–87.
23. Theodosius Dobzhansky and L. C. Dunn, Heredity, Race, and Society (New York: Penguin, 1947); Theodosius Dobzhansky, The Biological Basis of Human Freedom (New York: Columbia University Press, 1956); Bruce Wallace and Theodosius Dobzhansky, Radiation, Genes, and Man (New York: Holt, 1959); Theodosius Dobzhansky, The Biology of Ultimate Concern (New York: New American Library, 1967); Theodosius Dobzhansky, Genetic Diversity and Human Equality (New York: Basic Books, 1973).
25. Daniel A. Alexandrov, “Filipchenko and Dobzhansky: Issues in Evolutionary Genetics in the 1920s,” in Adams, Evolution of Theodosius Dobzhansky, 49–62; William B. Provine, “Origins of the GNP Series,” in Dobzhansky’s Genetics of Natural Populations: I–XLIII, ed. R. C. Lewontin, John Moore, and William B. Provine, and Bruce Wallace, 5–76 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1981).
26. Mark B. Adams, “Towards a Synthesis: Population Concepts in Russian Evolutionary Thought, 1925–1935,” Journal of the History of Biology 3 (spring 1970): 107–29.
27. Ernst Mayr Papers, American Philosphical Society, Transcript, May 23, 1974, Session II (B) Afternoon, 7.
28. Sewell Wright Papers, American Philosophical Society, File, 1943, Dobzhansky, Theodosius: Dobzhansky to Wright, September 28, 1943.
29. Theodosius Dobzhansky, “Geographical Variation in Lady-Beetles,” American Naturalist 67 (March–April 1933): 98–99.
30. Provine, “Origins of the GNP,” 59.
31. Mayr, Systematics and the Origin of Species.
32. Provine, “Origins of the GNP,” 11.
33. Leslie C. Dunn Papers, American Philosophical Society, File, Provine, William: “Reply from Dobzhansky.” Although there is no date on Dobzhansky’s letter to Provine, the original Provine solicitation was sent on August 5, 1971. All the responses to Provine from other scientists were dated in the second half of 1971.
34. Theodosius Dobzhansky Papers, American Philosophical Society, Notebooks, Box 1, 1953: Dobzhansky to Dunn, January 23, 1954 (letter taped into journal).
35. Audrey Smedley, Race in North America: Origin and Evolution of a Worldview (Boulder: Westview Press, 1993), 303–10.
36. Ralph Bunche, “What Is Race?” in Ralph Bunche: Selected Speeches and Writings, ed. Charles P. Henry, 207–20 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1995). Originally published in Ralph Bunche, A World View of Race (Washington, D.C.: Associates in Negro Folk Education, 1936).
40. Dobzhansky, Genetics and the Origin of Species, 47.
41. Ibid., 60–62. Emphasis added.
44. Theodosius Dobzhansky, “The Race Concept in Biology,” Scientific Monthly 52 (February 1941): 161.
45. Columbia University Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Jacques Barzun Collection, Box 6, File, Race: A Study in Superstition (vol. II): Dobzhansky to Barzun, December 18, 1942.
46. Dobzhansky, “Race Concept,” 161–62.
48. Mayr and Provine, Evolutionary Synthesis, 29.
49. Dobzhansky, “Race Concept,” 165.
50. Ashley Montagu Papers, American Philosophical Society, Box 12, Dobzhansky to Montagu, May 22, 1944.
51. Leslie C. Dunn Papers, American Philosophical Society, File, Dobzhansky, Theodosius—Dunn Correspondence #5, 1946–7: Dobzhansky to Dunn, March 10, 1947.
52. Mary F. Lyon, “L. C. Dunn and Mouse Genetic Mapping,” in Perspectives on Genetics: Anecdotal, Historical, and Critical Commentaries, 1987–1998, ed. James F. Crow and William F. Dove, 161–66 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2000); Melinda Gormley, “Geneticist L. C. Dunn: Politics, Activism, and Community” (Ph.D. diss., Oregon State University, 2006), 112–22.
53. Joe Cain, “Co-opting Colleagues: Appropriating Dobzhansky’s 1936 Lectures at Columbia,” Journal of the History of Biology 35 (summer 2002): 207–19.
54. Leslie C. Dunn Papers, American Philosophical Society, File, Dobzhansky, Theodosius—Dunn Correspondence #1, 1936–7: Dobzhansky to Dunn, May 27, 1936.
55. Ibid., Dunn to Dobzhansky, May 4, 1937.
56. Theodosius Dobzhansky, “Leslie Clarence Dunn, 1893–1974,” in A Biographical Memoir (Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Sciences, 1978). For more detailed information on Dunn’s life and work, see Gormley, “Geneticist L. C. Dunn”; and Dorothea Bennett, “L. C. Dunn and His Contribution to T-Locus Genetics,” Annual Review of Genetics 11 (1977): 1–12.
57. L. C. Dunn, “A Biological View of Race Mixture,” Proceedings of the American Sociological Society 19 (1925): 47.
58. L. C. Dunn, “An Anthropometric Study of Hawaiians of Pure and Mixed Blood,” Papers of the Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology 11 (1928): 91–211.
59. Gormley, “Geneticist L. C. Dunn,” 98–101.
60. Charles Davenport Papers, American Philosophical Society, L. C. Dunn Correspondence: Dunn to Merriam, July 3, 1935.
61. Garland E. Allen, “The Eugenics Record Office at Cold Spring Harbor, 1910–1940: An Institutional History,” Osiris 2 (1986): 225–64.
62. Dobzhansky, “Leslie Clarence Dunn,” 85.
63. Gormley, “Geneticist L. C. Dunn,” 491–96.
64. Bennett, “L. C. Dunn,” 1.
65. L. C. Dunn and Theodosius Dobzhansky, Heredity, Race, and Society (New York: Penguin, 1946), 6.
68. Robert Cook and Jay L. Lush, “Genetics for the Millions: An Unfinished Story,” Journal of Heredity 38 (October 1947): 299–305.
69. Dunn and Dobzhansky, Heredity, Race, and Society, 91–92.
73. Bentley Glass, review of Heredity, Race, and Society, by Theodosius Dobzhansky and L. C. Dunn, Quarterly Review of Biology 22 (June 1947): 152.
74. Cook and Lush, “Genetics for the Millions,” 303–4.
75. Ashley Montagu Papers, American Philosophical Society, Box, Dobzhansky: Dobzhansky to Montagu, March 9, 1948.
77. Leslie C. Dunn Papers, American Philosophical Society, File, Dobzhansky, Theodosius—Dunn Correspondence #5, 1946–7: Dobzhansky to Dunn, November 25, 1946.
78. See, for example, Carl L. Hubbs, “Concepts of Homology and Analogy,” American Naturalist 78 (July–August, 1944): 289–307; Roger Lewin, “When Does Homology Mean Something Else?” Science 237 (September 1987): 1570; N. Jardine, “The Concept of Homology in Biology,” British Journal for the Philosophy of Science 18 (1967): 125–39; and G. P. Wagner, “The Biological Homology Concept,” Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 20 (1989): 51–69.
79. Jonathan Marks, What It Means to be 98% Chimpanzee: Apes, People, and Their Genes (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002), 73–74.
80. Susan Sperling, “Ashley Montagu (1905–1999),” American Anthropologist 102 (September 2000): 583–88; Michelle Brattain, “Race, Racism, and Antiracism: UNESCO and the Politics of Presenting Science to the Postwar Public,” American Historical Review 112 (December 2007): 1393–94.
81. Ashley Montagu Papers, American Philosophical Society, File, Lieberman, Leonard: Lieberman to Montagu (with Montagu’s answers), August 22, 1994.
82. M. F. Ashley Montagu, “The Genetical Theory of Race, and Anthropological Method,” American Anthropologist 44 (July–September 1942): 370, 373.
85. Brattain, “Race, Racism, and Antiracism,” 1395.
86. Ashley Montagu Papers, Lieberman to Montagu, August 22, 1994.
87. Andrew P. Lyons, “The Neotenic Career of M. F. Ashley Montagu,” in Race and Other Misadventures: Essays in Honor of Ashley Montagu In His Ninetieth Year, ed. Larry T. Reynolds and Leonard Lieberman (Dix Hills, N.Y.: General Hall, 1996), 10–11.
88. Ashley Montagu Papers, American Philosophical Society, File, Dobzhansky, Theodosius: Montagu to Dobzhansky, May 23, 1944.
89. Ashley Montagu, Man’s Most Dangerous Myth: The Fallacy of Race (New York: Columbia University Press, 1945), 244.
91. Frank H. Hankins, review of Man’s Most Dangerous Myth: The Fallacy of Race, by Ashley Montagu, Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 227 (May 1943): 191–92.
92. Clyde Kluckhohn, review of Man’s Most Dangerous Myth: The Fallacy of Race, by Ashley Montagu, Isis 34 (summer 1943): 419.
93. Bentley Glass, review of Man’s Most Dangerous Myth: The Fallacy of Race, by Ashley Montagu, Quarterly Review of Biology 21 (March 1946): 128.
94. Aldous Huxley, foreword to Montagu, Man’s Most Dangerous Myth, vii.
95. See, for example, M. F. Ashley Montagu, “The African Origins of the American Negro and His Ethnic Composition,” Scientific Monthly 58 (January 1944): 58–65; M. F. Ashley Montagu, “Physical Characteristics of the American Negro,” Scientific Monthly 59 (July 1944): 56–62; M. F. Ashley Montagu, “Intelligence of Northern Negroes and Southern Whites in the First World War,” American Journal of Psychology 58 (April 1945): 161–88; M. F. Ashley Montagu, “Blood Group Factors and Ethnic Relationships,” Science 103 (March 1, 1946): 284; and Ashley Montagu and Benjamin Pasamanick, “Racial Intelligence,” Scientific Monthly 66 (January 1948): 81–82.
1. James T. Patterson,
Brown v. Board of Education: A Civil Rights Milestone and Its Troubled Legacy (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), 67; Michael J. Klarman,
Unfinished Business: Racial Equality in American History (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), 148.
2. Aldon D. Morris, “A Retrospective on the Civil Rights Movement: Political and Intellectual Landmarks,” Annual Review of Sociology 25 (1999): 517–39; Harvard Sitkoff, New Deal for Blacks: The Emergence of Civil Rights as a National Issue (New York: Oxford University Press, 1978); John Dittmer, Local People: The Struggle for Civil Rights in Mississippi (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1994); Charles W. Eagles, “Toward New Histories of the Civil Rights Era,” Journal of Southern History 66 (November 2000), 815–48; Richard M. Dalfiume, “The ‘Forgotten Years’ of the Negro Revolution,” Journal of American History 55 (June 1968): 90–106.
3. James T. Patterson, Grand Expectations: The United States, 1945–1974 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), 389–95.
4. C. Vann Woodward, The Strange Career of Jim Crow (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002), 146–47.
5. Argument: The Oral Argument Before the Supreme Court in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, 1952–55, ed. Leon Friedman (New York: Chelsea House, 1969), 330.
7. See, for example, Walter A. Jackson, Gunnar Myrdal and America’s Conscience: Social Engineering and Racial Liberalism, 1938–1987, Fred W. Morrison Series in Southern Studies (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1990); Oliver C. Cox, “The Modern Caste School of Race Relations,” Social Forces 21 (December 1942): 218–26.
8. Gunnar Myrdal, An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and American Democracy (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction, 1996). Regarding the Clarks’ studies, see, for example, Herbert Garfinkel, “Social Science Evidence and the School Segregation Cases,” Journal of Politics 21 (February 1958): 37–59; William H. Tucker, The Science and Politics of Racial Research (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1994), 138–53; Richard Kluger, Simple Justice: The History of Brown v. Board of Education and Black America’s Struggle for Equality (New York: Knopf, 1980), 315–45; Patterson, Brown v. Board of Education, 67–68.
9. Sanjay Mody, “Brown Footnote Eleven in Historical Context: Social Science and the Supreme Court’s Quest for Legitimacy,” Stanford Law Review 54 (April 2002): 795, 804, 806, 808, 814–29.
10. Myrdal, American Dilemma; David W. Southern, “An American Dilemma After Fifty Years: Putting the Myrdal Study and Black-White Relations in Perspective,” History Teacher 28 (February 1995): 227–53.
11. Myrdal, American Dilemma, 89.
13. Kluger, Simple Justice, 582–616; Patterson, Brown v. Board of Education, 46–69.
14. Frances Gaither, “Democracy: The Negro’s Hope,” New York Times, April 2, 1944, BR7.
15. W. E. B. Du Bois, review of An American Dilemma, by Gunnar Myrdal, Phylon 5 (2nd quarter 1944): 114–24.
16. Oscar Handlin, review of An American Dilemma, by Gunnar Myrdal, New York Times Book Review, April 21, 1963, 1, as quoted in Jackson, Gunnar Myrdal and America’s Conscience, 294.
18. John P. Jackson Jr., Science for Segregation: Race, Law, and the Case Against Brown v. Board of Education (New York: New York University Press, 2005), 41.
20. Curt Stern, “Model Estimates of the Frequency of White and Non-White Segregants in the American Negro,” Acta Genetica Basel 4 (1953): 281–98.
21. James V. Neel, “Curt Stern, 1902–1981,” Annual Review of Genetics 17 (1983): 1–10; James V. Neel, “The William Allan Memorial Award,” American Journal of Human Genetics 27 (1975): 135–39.
22. D. Peter Snustad and Michael J. Simmons, Principles of Genetics (New York: Wiley, 2003), 773.
23. Neel, “William Allan Memorial Award,” 136–37.
24. Neel, “Curt Stern,” 7.
25. Curt Stern Papers, American Philosophical Society, File, Lecture: “Why Do People Differ?”: Stern to NAACP, Rochester, February 11, 1946.
26. Ibid., File, Stern, C.: “The Biology of the Negro”: Leon Svirsky to Stern, August 20, 1954.
27. Curt Stern, “The Biology of the Negro,” Scientific American 191 (October 1954): 81.
29. Curt Stern Papers, Correspondence: undated and unsigned correspondence to Stern.
30. Ibid., “Crackpot Letters”: C. L Barnett to Stern, August 13, 1955; Mrs. John Lansdell Howerton to Stern, n.d.
31. Ibid., “The Biology of the Negro,” Correspondence: Marcus Julius Frogstein to Stern, October 11, 1954.
32. Ibid., H. J. Romm to Stern, September 29, 1954; Arndt to Stern, October 8, 1954.
33. Stern, “Biology of the Negro,” 82.
34. Ashley Montagu, Statement on Race: An Annotated Elaboration and Exposition of the Four Statements on Race Issued by the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (New York: Oxford University Press, 1972), 1.
35. Michelle Brattain, “Race, Racism, and Antiracism: UNESCO and the Politics of Presenting Science to the Postwar Public,” American Historical Review 112 (December 2007): 1386–1413.
36. International Eugenics Congress, Problems in Eugenics: Papers Communicated to the First International Eugenics Congress (London: Eugenics Education Society, 1912); Edwin Black, War Against the Weak: Eugenics and America’s Campaign to Create a Master Race (New York: Four Walls Eight Windows, 2003), 236, 245
37. Leslie C. Dunn Papers, American Philosophical Society, Series I, File, Boas, Franz: Boas to Dunn, October 25, 1937.
38. Ashley Montagu Papers, American Philosophical Society, Box 30, File, Lieberman, Leonard: undated interview of Montagu by Leonard Lieberman, Andrew Lyons, and Harriet Lyons. This interview was published by the authors in Current Anthropology 36 (December 1995): 841.
39. Montagu, Statement on Race, 4–6.
43. Ashley Montagu, “No Scientific Basis for Race Bias Found by World Panel of Experts,” New York Times, July 18, 1950, 1.
44. Ashley Montagu, “The Myth of Race,” New York Times, July 19, 1950, 30.
45. Ashley Montagu, “Let’s Forget About the Myth of Race,” Hartford Courant, July 20, 1950, 8.
46. Ashley Montagu Papers, American Philosophical Society, Box 7, File, Castle, W. E.: Castle to Montagu, April 21, 1951.
47. Ibid., Box 11, File, Dunn, L. C.: Dunn to Montagu, March 3, 1950.
48. Ibid., Box 12, File, Dobzhansky, T.: Dobzhansky to Montagu, October 16, 1950.
49. Ibid., Montagu to Dobzhansky, May 23, 1944.
50. Ibid., Dobzhansky to Montagu, January 26, 1951.
51. Ashley Montagu, “In Memoriam: Osman Hill,” Journal of Anatomy 120 (1975): 387–90.
52. Osman Hill, letter to the editor, Man 51 (January 1951): 16–17.
53. Ashley Montagu Papers, Box 12, File, Dobzhansky, T.: Dobzhansky to Montagu, January 26, 1951.
54. “UNESCO and Race,” Man 51 (May 1951): 64.
55. Ashley Montagu Papers, American Philosophical Society, Box 12, File, Dobzhansky, T.: Dobzhansky to Montagu, February 24, 1951.
56. Jackson, Science for Segregation, 61; Brattain, “Race, Racism, and Antiracism,” 1393–94.
57. Montagu, Statement on Race, 137–38.
58. Leslie C. Dunn Papers, American Philosophical Society, File, UNESCO, 1951: Alfred Métraux to Dunn, June 26, 1951.
59. Montagu, Statement on Race, 139.
63. Leslie C. Dunn Papers, File, UNESCO, 1951: Dunn to Métraux, February 26, 1952; Métraux to Dunn, April 18, 1952.
64. William Provine, “Genetics and Race,” American Zoologist 26 (1986): 877; UNESCO, The Race Concept: Results of an Inquiry (Paris: UNESCO, 1952).
65. Leslie C. Dunn Papers, File, UNESCO, 1951: R. A. Fisher to Métraux, October 3, 1951.
66. Ibid., S. E. Washburn to Métraux, October 15, 1951.
67. Ibid., File, Provine, William: Dobzhansky to Provine, undated; Wright to Provine, August 17, 1971; Dunn to Provine, November 17, 1971.
68. Ibid., Darlington to Provine, August 13, 1971; Stern to Provine, August, 18, 1971.
69. Elazar Barkan, The Retreat of Scientific Racism: Changing Concepts of Race in Britain and the United States Between the World Wars (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 341–42.
70. Elazar Barkan, “The Politics of the Science of Race: Ashley Montagu and UNESCO’s Anti-racist Declarations,” in Race and Other Misadventures: Essays in Honor of Ashley Montagu in His Ninetieth Year, ed. Larry T. Reynolds and Leonard Lieberman (Dix Hills, N.Y.: General Hall, 1996), 103–4.
72. Provine, “Genetics and Race,” 877.
73. Theodosius Dobzhansky Papers, American Philosophical Society, Notebooks Box 1: “June 14 Paris–Iceland,” 1951; Ashley Montagu Papers, Box 12, File, Dobzhansky, T.: Dobzhansky to Montagu, February 24, 1951.
74. Brattain, “Race, Racism, and Antiracism,” 1413.
75. Ibid., 1386–87, 1407–12.
77. Leslie C. Dunn Papers, File, UNESCO, 1951: R. A. Fisher to Métraux, October 3, 1951; Provine, “Genetics and Race,” 875.
78. UNESCO, Race Concept, 40–60.
79. L. C. Dunn, Race and Biology (Paris: UNESCO, 1965), 7.
80. UNESCO, Race Concept, 79–80.
81. Montagu, Statement on Race, 61,65.
82. See, for example, Lee D. Baker, From Savage to Negro: Anthropology and the Construction of Race, 1896–1954 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998); and Tucker, Science and Politics.
83. C. P. Snow, The Two Cultures (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 3, 4.
84. V. B. Smocovitis, Unifying Biology: The Evolutionary Synthesis and Evolutionary Biology (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996), 152–53, 167.
85. The Reminiscences of Leslie C. Dunn (1960), p. 886, in the Columbia Center for Oral History.
86. Ronald G. Walters, “Uncertainty, Science, and Reform in Twentieth-Century America,” in Scientific Authority and Twentieth-Century America, ed. Ronald G. Walters (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997), 6.
88. Paul Boyer, By the Bomb’s Early Light: American Thought and Culture at the Dawn of the Atomic Age (New York: Pantheon, 1985), 354; Margot A. Henriksen, Dr. Strangelove’s America: Society and Culture in the Atomic Age (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), 58.
89. Henriksen, Dr. Strangelove’s America, 54–56.
90. Michael Polanyi, “Scientific Outlook: Its Sickness and Cure,” Science 125 (March 15, 1957): 480.
91. Steve Fuller, “Being There with Thomas Kuhn: A Parable for Postmodern Times,” History and Theory 31 (October 1992): 261.
92. Thomas Borstelmann, The Cold War and the Color Line: American Race Relations in the Global Arena (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2001), 55.
93. Borstelmann, Cold War, 54–55; Mary L. Dudziak, Cold War Civil Rights: Race and the Image of American Democracy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000), 18–24.
94. Morris, “Retrospective on the Civil Rights Movement,” 518.
95. Dudziak, Cold War Civil Rights, 13.
96. Borstelmann, Cold War, 59–61.
97. Dudziak, Cold War Civil Rights, 25–26, 82.
98. Harry S. Truman, “Special Message to the Congress on Civil Rights,” February 2, 1948, Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: Harry S. Truman, 1948 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1964): 121–26, as quoted in Dudziak, Cold War Civil Rights, 82.
99. Brian Urquhart, Ralph Bunche: An American Life (New York: Norton, 1993), 230–32.
100. Ben Keppel, The Work of Democracy: Ralph Bunche, Kenneth B. Clark, Lorraine Hansberry, and the Cultural Politics of Race (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1995), 64.
101. Charles S. Johnson, “American Minorities and Civil Rights in 1950,” Journal of Negro Education 20 (summer 1951): 489.
9. CHALLENGES TO THE RACE CONCEPT
1. Carleton Coon, The Origin of Races (New York: Knopf, 1962).
2. Arthur Jensen, “How Much Can We Boost IQ and Scholastic Achievement?” Harvard Educational Review 39 (spring 1969): 1–123.
3. Richard E. Green et al., “A Draft Sequence of the Neanderthal Genome,” Science 310 (2010): 721; see also Alan R. Templeton, “Out of Africa Again and Again,” Nature 416 (2002): 45–51; Svante Pääbo, “The Mosaic That Is Our Genome,” Nature 421 (2003): 409–12.
4. Milford Wolpoff and Rachel Caspari, Race and Human Evolution (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1997).
5. Coon, Origin of Races, 656.
9. Ernst Mayr, review of The Origin of Races, by Carleton Coon, Science 138 (October 19, 1962): 420–22.
10. Frederick S. Hulse, review of The Origin of Races, by Carleton Coon, American Anthropologist 65 (June 1963): 685–87.
11. Malcolm F. Farmer, “Stepping Stone Toward an Understanding of Man’s Development,” Phylon 24 (2nd quarter 1963): 203.
12. Barbara Tuchman, “Reviewers’ Choice, 1962,” Chicago Daily Tribune, December 2, 1962, E8. Emphasis added.
13. Theodosius Dobzhansky Papers, American Philosophical Society, File, Ernst Mayr: Dobzhansky to Coon, October 23, 1962; John P. Jackson Jr., Science for Segregation: Race, Law, and the Case Against Brown v. Board of Education (New York: New York University Press, 2005), 162–170.
14. Michael Lerner Papers, American Philosophical Society, File, Dobzhansky, Theodosius #5: Dobzhansky to Lerner (address to colleague), December 17, 1962; Margaret Mead, “Scientist Reviewers Beware,” Science 141 (July 26, 1964): 312–13.
15. Theodosius Dobzhansky, “Possibility That Homo Sapiens Evolved Independently 5 Times Is Vanishingly Small,” Current Anthropology 4 (October 1963): 360–66.
16. Jackson, Science for Segregation, 187.
17. Carleton S. Coon, “Comments,” Current Anthropology 4 (October 1963): 366.
18. Jackson, Science for Segregation, 99–103, 189.
19. Theodosius Dobzhansky Papers, File, Mayr, Ernst 1962: Mayr to Dobzhansky, November 1, 1962.
20. Ibid., Dobzhansky to Simpson, Mayr, and Strauss, November 9, 1962.
21. Theodosius Dobzhansky, Mankind Evolving: The Evolution of the Human Species (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1962), 253.
27. Ashley Montagu, “What Is Remarkable About Varieties of Man Is Likeness, Not Differences,” Current Anthropology 4 (October 1963): 362.
28. Frank B. Livingstone and Theodosius Dobzhansky, “On the Non-Existence of Human Races,” Current Anthropology 3 (1962): 280.
29. Frank B. Livingstone. “Anthropological Implications of Sickle Cell Gene Distribution in West Africa,” American Anthropologist 60 (1958) 533–62.
30. Livingstone and Dobzhansky, “On the Non-Existence of Human Races.”
32. Jensen, “How Much Can We Boost IQ,” 3
35. See, for example, Thomas F. Jackson, From Civil Rights to Human Rights: Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Struggle for Economic Justice (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2006); Wesley C. Hogan, Many Minds, One Heart: SNCC’s Dream for a New America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2007); Michael K. Honey, Going Down Jericho Road: The Memphis Strike, Martin Luther King’s Last Campaign (New York: Norton, 2007).
36. Harold M. Schmeck Jr., “Nobel Winner Urges Research on Racial Heredity,” New York Times, October 18, 1966, 9; “Possible Metallurgical and Astronomical Approaches to the Problem of Environment versus Ethnic Heredity,” in National Academy of Sciences–National Research Council Archives, Division of A Psychology Records Group.
37. File: Comments, Institutions: General, Stanford University News Service Press Release, October 17, 1966, in National Academy of Sciences–National Research Council Archives, Division of Anthropology and Psychology Records Group.
38. Press Release, Michigan State University, October 20, 1967, in National Academy of Sciences–National Research Council Archives, Central File: Committee on Science and Public Policy, Study on Gene Pool Deterioration: Proposed.
39. Shockley to Gardner, October 13, 1967, in National Academy of Sciences–National Research Council Archives, Central File: Committee on Science and Public Policy: Study on Gene Pool Deterioration: Proposed; Lee to Shockley, November 17, 1967.
40. Margaret Mead, “Introductory Remarks,” in Science and the Concept of Race, ed. Margaret Mead, Theodosius Dobzhansky, Ethel Tobach, and Robert E. Light, (New York: Columbia University Press, 1969): 3.
41. Ashley Montagu Papers, American Philosophical Society, Dobzhansky Box: Dobzhansky to Montagu, January 26, 1951.
10. NATURALIZING RACISM: THE CONTROVERSY OVER SOCIOBIOLOGY
1. E. B. Ford, “Theodosius Grigorievich Dobzhansky: 26 January 1900–18 December 1975,” Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society 23 (November 1977): 62.
2. Francisco J. Ayala, “Theodosius Dobzhansky, 1900–1975,” in A Biographical Memoir (Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Sciences, 1985), 166.
3. Richard Lewontin Papers, American Philosophical Society, File, Dobzhansky, Professor Theodosius, #IV: typed article of an obituary of Dobzhansky that would be published in the Egyptian Journal of Genetics and Cytology.
4. Theodosius Dobzhansky, “Leslie Clarence Dunn: November 2, 1893–March 19, 1974,” in A Biographical Memoir (Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Sciences), 86.
5. Theodosius Dobzhansky, “Leslie Dunn, Well-Known Geneticist,” Washington Post, March 23, 1974, D5.
6. Edward O. Wilson, Sociobiology: The New Synthesis (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press, 1975).
7. William M. Dugger, “Sociobiology for Social Scientists: A Critical Introduction to E. O. Wilson’s Evolutionary Paradigm,” Social Science Quarterly 62 (June 1981): 229; Richard Lewontin, interview by author, November 2, 1995, Cambridge, Mass.
8. V. B. Smocovitis, “Unifying Biology: The Evolutionary Synthesis and Evolutionary Biology,” Journal of the History of Biology 25 (March 1992): 1.
9. Wilson, Sociobiology: The New Synthesis, 4.
10. Edward O. Wilson, “What Is Sociobiology?” Society (September/October 1978): 10.
11. Wilson, Sociobiology: The New Synthesis, 5.
12. Edward O. Wilson, On Human Nature (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1978), 43. Wilson, Sociobiology: The New Synthesis, 585.
13. R. A. Fisher, The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1930), 256–65; Julian Huxley, Evolution: The Modern Synthesis (London: Harper, 1943), 572–78.
14. Desmond Morris, The Naked Ape: A Zoologist’s Study of the Human Animal (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1967); Robert Ardry, African Genesis: A Personal Investigation into the Animal Origins and Nature of Man (New York: Atheneum, 1961); Konrad Lorenz, Studies in Animal and Human Behavior (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1971); Richard Dawkins, The Selfish Gene (New York: Oxford University Press, 1976); David Barash, The Whisperings Within (New York: Harper and Row, 1979).
15. “A Genetic Defense of the Free Market,” BusinessWeek, April 10, 1978, 100; Maya Pines, “Is Sociobiology All Wet?” Psychology Today 11 (June 1978): 24.
16. Marshall Sahlins, “The Use and Abuse of Biology,” in The Sociobiology Debate: Readings on Ethical and Scientific Issues, ed. Arthur Caplan (New York: Harper and Row, 1978), 424–27.
17. John Pfeiffer, review of Sociobiology, by Edward O. Wilson, New York Times Book Review, July 27, 1975, 15–16.
18. Mary Jane West-Eberhard, “Born: Sociobiology,” Quarterly Review of Biology 51 (March 1976): 92.
19. David P. Barash, “Ethology, Ecology, and Evolution: Getting It Together,” Ecology 57 (March 1976): 399–400.
20. E. O. Wilson Papers, Library of Congress, Series 21765, Box 1, File, Material on Sociobiology/Letters on Sociobiology: Lorenz to Wilson, August 19, 1975; Darlington to Wilson, May 26, 1975.
21. Stephen Jay Gould, “Biological Potential vs. Biological Determinism,” in Ever Since Darwin: Reflections in Natural History, 251–59 (New York: Norton, 1977).
22. Henry Louis Gates Jr., “Critical Remarks,” in Anatomy of Racism, ed. David Theo Goldberg (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1990), 326.
23. Howard Winant and Michael Omi, Racial Formation in the United States: From the 1960s to the 1980s (New York: Routledge, 1986), 110.
25. Bruce J. Schulman, The Seventies: The Great Shift in American Culture, Society, and Politics (New York: Da Capo Press, 2002), 58–84; Michael Klarman, Unfinished Business: Racial Equality in American History (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), 183–198; Thomas Segrue, The Origins of the Urban Crisis: Race and Inequality in Post-War Detroit (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996).
26. Dorothy Nelkin and Susan M. Lindee, The DNA Mystique: The Gene as a Cultural Icon (New York: Freeman, 1995), 2, 194.
27. Troy Duster, Backdoor to Eugenics (New York: Routledge, 1990), 93.
28. Wilson, Sociobiology: The New Synthesis, 550; Richard Lewontin, “The Apportionment of Human Diversity,” Evolutionary Biology 6 (1972): 381–98.
29. Robert Lunbeck, “Anti-Racism Group Attacks Wilson’s ‘Sociobiology,’” Harvard Crimson, December 3, 1975.
30. Vernon Reynolds, “Sociobiology and Race Relations,” in The Sociobiology of Ethnocentrism: Evolutionary Dimensions of Xenophobia, Discrimination, Racism, and Nationalism, ed. Vernon Reynolds, Vincent Falger, and Ian Vine, 208–15 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1986), 212.
31. Daniel J. Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics: Genetics and the Uses of Human Heredity (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1995), 83; Arthur Jensen, “How Much Can We Boost IQ and Scholastic Achievement,” Harvard Educational Review 39 (spring 1969): 1–123; Arthur Jensen, “Race and the Genetics of Intelligence: A Reply to Lewontin,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 26 (May 1970): 17–23.
32. Wilson, “What Is Sociobiology?” 47–48.
33. Pierre van den Berghe, “Race and Ethnicity: A Sociobiological Perspective,” Ethnic and Racial Studies 1 (October 1978): 403.
34. Ibid, 402; Edward O. Wilson, Sociobiology: The Abridged Edition (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press, 1980), 314, 315; Reynolds, Falger, and Vine, Sociobiology of Ethnocentrism.
35. Wilson, Sociobiology: The New Synthesis, 286–87, 564–65.
36. Pierre van den Berghe, Race and Racism: A Comparative Perspective (New York: Wiley, 1967), 18.
37. Van den Berghe, “Race and Ethnicity,” 404.
38. David Barash, The Hare and the Tortoise (New York: Viking, 1986), 144.
39. David Barash, The Whisperings Within (New York: Harper and Row, 1979), 154, 232.
40. J. Philippe Rushton, “Comments,” Social Science and Medicine 31 (1990): 905–10; J. Philippe Rushton, “Genetic Similarity Theory: Intelligence and Human Mate Choice,” Ethology and Sociobiology 9 (1988): 45–57; J. Philippe Rushton, “Evidence for Genetic Similarity Detection in Human Marriage,” Ethology and Sociobiology 6 (1985): 183–87.
41. J. Philippe Rushton, Race, Evolution, and Behavior (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction, 1995), 113–46; Adolph Reed Jr. “Intellectual Brown Shirts,” in The Bell Curve Debate: History, Documents, and Opinions, ed. Russell Jacoby and Naomi Glauberman (New York: New York Times Books, 1995), 268.
42. Richard J. Herrnstein and Charles A. Murray, The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life (New York: Free Press, 1994), 642–43.
43. Adam Miller, “Professors of Hate,” Rolling Stone, October 20, 1994; William H. Tucker, The Science and Politics of Racial Research (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1994), 291–92.
44. Vernon Reynolds, Vincent Falger, and Ian Vine, “Introduction by the Editors,” and Robin I. M. Dunbar, “Sociobiological Explanations and the Evolution of Ethnocentrism,” in Reynolds, Falger, and Vine, Sociobiology of Ethnocentrism, xv–xx; 48–59.
45. E. O. Wilson Papers, Library of Congress, Series 20196, Box 6, File, Wilson, E. O. Defense of Sociobiology: Wilson to Frank M. Carpenter, December 9, 1975.
46. Richard Lewontin Papers, File, Wilson, E. O.: Lewontin to Wilson, October 28, 1975.
47. Edward O. Wilson, “What Is Sociobiology?” Society 15 (September–October 1978): 10.
48. Edward O. Wilson, Naturalist (Washington, D.C.: Island Press, 1994), 336.
49. Elizabeth Allen, Barbara Beckwith, Jon Beckwith, Steven Chorover, and David Culver, et al., “Against ‘Sociobiology,’” New York Review of Books, November 13, 1975.
50. Richard Lewontin Papers, File, Wilson, E. O.: Wilson to Robert B. Silvers, November 10, 1975.
51. Ibid., Wilson to Lewontin, December 17, 1975.
52. E. O. Wilson to Gould, November 10, 1975, Stephen Jay Gould Papers, Box 525, Correspondence, Incoming, M–Z, 1975–1979, M1437. Department of Special Collections, Stanford University Libraries, Stanford, Calif.
53. Garland Allen to Gould, February 23, 1977, Stephen Jay Gould Papers, Box 524, Correspondence, Incoming A–L, 1975–1979, M1437. Department of Special Collections, Stanford University Libraries, Stanford, Calif.
54. Edward. O. Wilson, “Academic Vigilantism and the Political Significance of Sociobiology,” BioScience 26 (March 1976): 183, 187–90.
55. “Report to Eastern Regional SftP Conference, April 15–17, 1977 at Voluntown,” Stephen Jay Gould Papers, Box 607, M1437. Department of Special Collections, Stanford University Libraries, Stanford, Calif.
56. Sociobiology Study Group, “Sociobiology: Tool for Social Oppression,” Science for the People 8 (March 1976): 7; Robin Marantz Henig, “10 Years Later…Science for the People: Revolution’s Evolution,” BioScience 29 (June 1979): 341–44.
57. Robin Marantz Henig, “Burning Darwin to Save Marx,” Harpers, December 1978, 31.
58. Sociobiology Study Group, “Sociobiology: Another Biological Determinism,” BioScience 26 (March 1976): 280.
59. Edward O. Wilson, “Human Decency Is Animal,” New York Times Magazine, October 12, 1975, 50; Barbara Chasin, “Sociobiology: A Sexist Synthesis,” Science for the People 9 (May–June 1977): 30.
60. Sociobiology Study Group, “Sociobiology: A New Biological Determinism,” in Caplan, Sociobiology Debate, 280.
61. Minutes of May 10, June 7, and November 8, 1977 meetings, Stephen Jay Gould Papers, Box 607, M1437. Department of Special Collections, Stanford University Libraries, Stanford, Calif.
62. Henig, “10 Years Later”; Richard C. Lewontin, “Science for the People,” BioScience 29 (September 1979): 509.
63. Ullica Segerstråle, Defenders of the Truth: The Battle for Science in the Sociobiology Debate and Beyond (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), 23.
64. Richard Lewontin Papers, File, Wilson, E. O.: Wilson to Silvers, November 19, 1975.
65. E. O. Wilson Papers, Library of Congress, Box 11, File, Le Monde: response to RL Interview, October 1980, Wilson to Editors at Le Monde, October 21, 1980.
66. Wilson, “What Is Sociobiology?” 191.
67. Neil Jumonville, “The Cultural Politics of the Sociobiology Debate,” Journal of the History of Biology 35 (2002): 569–93.
69. Charles J. Lumsden and Edward O. Wilson, Promethean Fire: Reflections on the Origin of Mind (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1983), 43.
70. E. O. Wilson Papers, Library of Congress, Series 20196, Box 6, File, Political Uses of Theory by New Right: Richard Lynn to Wilson, July 7, 1976.
71. Ibid., Wilmot Robertson to Wilson, August, 29, 1977.
72. Richard Lewontin Papers, Box 5, File: E. O. Wilson, Lewontin to Wilson, July 19, 1979.
74. Stephen Jay Gould Papers, Box 607, Minutes of June 26, 1979 meeting, Sociobiology Study Group, Science for the People. Department of Special Collections, Stanford University Libraries, Stanford, Calif.
75. E. O. Wilson Papers, Library of Congress, Series 20196, Box 6, File: Political Uses of Theory by New Right, undated note.
76. Henig, “10 Years Later,” 341.
77. Richard Lewontin Papers, File, Herrnstein, Professor R. J.: Herrnstein to Lewontin, June 29, 1973; Lewontin to Herrnstein, November 20, 1973.
78. Ibid., File, Shockley, William: Lewontin to Shockley, October 19, 1973.
79. Richard C. Lewontin and Jack L. Hubby, “A Molecular Approach to the Study of Genic Heterozygosity in Natural Populations. I. The Number of Alleles at Different Loci in Drosophila pseudoobscura,” Genetics 54 (1966): 546–95; Richard C. Lewontin and Jack L. Hubby, “A Molecular Approach to the Study of Genic Heterozygosity in Natural Populations. II. Amount of Variation and Degree of Heterozygosity in Natural Populations of Drosophila pseudoobscura,” Genetics 54 (1966): 595–609.
80. Jeffrey Powell, review of The Genetic Basis of Evolutionary Change, by Richard Lewontin, BioScience 25 (February, 1975): 118.
81. Lewontin, “Apportionment of Human Diversity,” 397
83. Maryellen Ruvolo and Mark Seielstad, “The Apportionment of Human Diversity 25 Years Later,” in Thinking About Evolution: Historical, Philosophical, and Political Perspectives, ed. Rama S. Singh, Costas B. Krimbas, Diane B. Paul, and John Beatty, 141–51 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001).
84. Wilson, Sociobiology: The New Synthesis, 550.
85. Guido Barbujani, Arianna Magagni, Eric Minch, L. Luca Cavalli-Sforza, “An Apportionment of Human DNA Diversity,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 94 (1997): 4518.
86. Richard Lewontin, The Genetic Basis of Evolutionary Change (New York: Columbia University Press, 1974).
87. Marcus W. Feldman, review of The Genetic Basis of Evolutionary Change, by Richard Lewontin, Quarterly Review of Biology 50 (September 1975), 293.
88. Powell, review of Genetic Basis, 118.
89. Michael Ruse, review of The Genetic Basis of Evolutionary Change, by Richard Lewontin, Philosophy of Science 43 (June 1976): 303.
90. Segerstråle, Defenders of the Truth, 36.
91. Ibid., 37; Wilson, Sociobiology: The New Synthesis, 70.
92. Edward O. Wilson, “In the Queendom of Ants: A Brief Autobiography,” in Studying Animal Behavior: Autobiographies of the Founders, edited by Donald A. Dewsbury (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989), 481.
11. RACE IN THE GENOMIC AGE
1. Oswald T. Avery, Colin M. MacLeod, and Maclyn McCarty, “Studies on the Chemical Nature of the Substance Inducing Transformation of Pneumococcal Types,” Journal of Experimental Medicine 79 (1944): 137–58.
2. Erwin Chargaff, “Preface to a Grammar of Biology: A Hundred Years of Nucleic Acid Research,” Science 172 (1971): 637–42
3. Brenda Maddox, Rosalind Franklin: The Dark Lady of DNA (New York: HarperCollins, 2002).
4. James Watson and Francis Crick, “Molecular Structure of Nucleic Acids: A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid,” Nature 171 (1953): 737–38.
5. Michael R. Dietrich, “Paradox and Persuasion: Negotiating the Place of Molecular Evolution within Evolutionary Biology,” Journal of the History of Biology 31 (1998): 85–111. See also Joel B. Hagen, “Naturalists, Molecular Biologists, and the Challenges of Molecular Evolution,” Journal of the History of Biology 32 (1999): 321–41; Ernst Mayr, The Growth of Biological Thought: Diversity, Evolution, and Inheritance (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press, 1982); Theodosius Dobzhansky, “Biology, Molecular and Organismic,” American Zoologist 4 (1964): 218–37.
6. Richard C. Lewontin and Jack L. Hubby, “A Molecular Approach to the Study of Genic Heterozygosity in Natural Populations. I. The Number of Alleles at Different Loci in Drosophila pseudoobscura,” Genetics 54 (1966): 546–95; Richard C. Lewontin and Jack L. Hubby, “A Molecular Approach to the Study of Genic Heterozygosity in Natural Populations. II. Amount of Variation and Degree of Heterozygosity in Natural Populations of Drosophila pseudoobscura,” Genetics 54 (1966): 595–609; Motoo Kimura, “Evolutionary Rate at the Molecular Level,” Nature 217 (1968): 624–26; Willi Hennig, Phylogenetic Systematics (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1966).
7. Michel Morange, A History of Molecular Biology (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1998), 249.
8. Committee on Mapping and Sequencing the Human Genome, National Research Council, Mapping and Sequencing the Human Genome (Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press, 1988), 5–6.
9. Daniel J. Kevles and Leroy Hood, Code of Codes: Scientific and Social Issues in the Human Genome Project (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1992).
10. Jenny Reardon, Race to the Finish: Identity and Governance in the Age of Genomics (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2005); J. S. Alper and J. Beckwith, “Is Racism a Central Problem for the Human Genome Diversity Project?” Politics and Life Science 18 (1999): 285–88.
11. Eric. T. Juengst, “The Human Genome Project and Bioethics,” Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal 1 (1991): 71–72.
12. Raja Mishra, “The Quest to Map the Human Genome Ends with a Truce,” Boston Globe, June 27, 2000, C5.
13. Rick Weiss and Justin Gillis, “Teams Finish Mapping Human DNA,” Washington Post, June 27, 2000, A1.
14. F. S. Collins and M. K. Mansoura, “The Human Genome Project: Revealing the Shared Inheritance of All Humankind,” Cancer 92 (2001): S221.
15. G. Barbujani, A. Magagni, E. Minch, L. L. Cavalli-Sforza, “An Apportionment of Human DNA Diversity,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 94 (1997): 4516–19; David Serre and Svante Pääbo, “Evidence for Gradients of Human Genetic Diversity Within and Among Continents,” Genome Research 14 (2004): 1679–85; J. P. A. Ioannidis, E. E. Ntzani, T. A. Trikalinos, “‘Racial’ Differences in Genetic Effects for Complex Diseases,” Nature Genetics 36 (2004): 1312–18; M. W. Foster and R. R. Sharp, “Race, Ethnicity, and Genomics: Social Classifications as Proxies of Biological Heterogeneity,” Genome Research 12 (2002): 844–50.
16. L. L. Cavalli-Sforza, P. Menozzi, and A. Piazza, The History and Geography of Human Genes (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993); M. Feldman, R. C. Lewontin, M. C. King, “A Genetic Melting Pot,” Nature 424 (2003): 374; Svante Pääbo, “The Mosaic That Is Our Genome,” Nature 421 (2003): 409–12.
17. William Stanton, The Leopard’s Spots: Scientific Attitudes Toward Race in America, 1815–59 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1960); George M. Fredrickson, Racism: A Short History (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2002); Audrey Smedley, Race in North America: Origin and Evolution of a Worldview (San Francisco: Westview Press, 1993); Stephen Jay Gould, The Mismeasure of Man (New York: Norton, 1996); Ashley Montagu, Man’s Most Dangerous Myth: The Fallacy of Race (Walnut Creek, Calif.: AltaMira Press, 1997); Daniel J. Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics: Genetics and the Uses of Human Heredity (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1995).
18. J. L. Mountain, N. Risch, “Assessing Genetic Contributions to Phenotypic Differences Among ‘Racial’ and ‘Ethnic’ Groups,” Nature Genetics 36 (2004): S48–S53; D. A. Hinds et al. “Whole-Genome Patterns of Common DNA Variation in Three Human Populations,” Science 307 (2005): 1072–79.
19. Reanne Frank, “What to Make of It? The (Re)emergence of a Biological Conceptualization of Race in Health Disparities Research,” Social Science and Medicine 64 (2007) 1977–83.
20. N. Risch, E. Burchard, E. Ziv, H. Tang, “Categorization of Humans in Biomedical Research: Genes, Race, and Disease,” Genome Biology 3 (2002): 2007.1–2007.12.
21. Robin M. Henig, “The Genome in Black and White (and Gray),” New York Times Magazine, October 10, 2004, 47.
22. Morris W. Foster, “Looking for Race in All the Wrong Places: Analyzing the Lack of Productivity in the Ongoing Debate About Race and Genetics,” Human Genetics 126 (2009): 355–62.
23. L. Luca Cavalli-Sforza, “The Human Genome Diversity Project: Past, Present, and Future,” Nature Reviews Genetics 6 (April 2005): 333–40.
24. Reardon, Race to the Finish, 4–6, 92–97.
26. Michael Dodson and Robert Williamson, “Indigenous Peoples and the Morality of the Human Genome Diversity Project,” Journal of Medical Ethics 25 (1999): 205.
27. Reardon, Race to the Finish, 159–60.
28. The International HapMap Consortium. “The International HapMap Project,” Nature 426 (2003): 789–96.
29. Jennifer A. Hamilton, “Revitalizing Difference in the HapMap: Race and Contemporary Human Genetic Variation Research,” Journal of Law, Medicine, and Ethics 36 (2008): 471–77.
32. Hamilton, Revitalizing Difference in the HapMap,” 474.
33. P. C, Ng, Q. Zhao, S. Levy, R. L. Strausberg, and J. C. Venter, “Individual Genomes Instead of Race for Personalized Medicine,” Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 84 (2008): 306–9.
34. David Jones, “How Personalized Medicine Became Genetic, and Racial: Werner Kalow and the Formations of Pharmacogenetics,” Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences 68 (2011): 1–48; H. Kim, R. Kim, A. J. Wood, C. M. Stein, “Molecular Basis of Ethnic Differences in Drug Disposition and Response,” Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology 41 (2001): 815, 850.
35. A. Bress, S. R. Patel, M. A. Perera, et al., “Effect of NQ01 and CYP4F2 Genotypes on Warfarin Dose Requirements in Hispanic-Americans and African-Americans,” Pharmacogenomics 13 (2012), 1925–35; D. Si, J. Wang, Y. Zhang, et al., “Distribution of CYP2C9*13 Allele in the Chinese Han and the Long-Range Haplotype Containing CYP2C9*13 and CYP2C19*2,” Biopharmaceuticals and Drug Disposition 33 (2012), 342–45; F. H. Hatta, A. Helldén, K. E. Hellgren, et al., “Search for the Molecular Basis of Ultra-Rapid CYP2C9-Catalysed Metabolism: Relationship Between SNP IVS8–109A>T and the Losartan Metabolism Phenotype in Swedes,” European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 68 (2012), 1033–42.
36. Ng, Zhao, Levy, Strausberg, and Venter, “Individual Genomes,” 307–8.
38. Understanding the Role of Genomics in Health Disparities: Toward a New Research Agenda. National Institutes of Health Meeting, September 24–26, 2008, University of Maryland.
39. Theodosius Dobzhansky, Mankind Evolving: The Evolution of the Human Species (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1962), 253.
42. Timothy R. Rebbeck and Pamela Sankar, “Ethnicity, Ancestry, and Race in Molecular Epidemiologic Research,” Cancer Epidemiology Biomarkers and Prevention 14 (2005): 2467–71.
EPILOGUE: DOBZHANSKY’S PARADOX AND THE FUTURE OF RACIAL RESEARCH
1. Mindy Thompson Fullilove, “Abandoning ‘Race’ as a Variable in Public Health Research: An Idea Whose Time Has Come,” American Journal of Public Health 88 (September 1998): 1297–98.
2. W. E. B. Du Bois, ed., The Health and Physique of the Negro American (Atlanta: Atlanta University Press, 1906).
3. Ashley Montagu, Man’s Most Dangerous Myth: The Fallacy of Race (Walnut Creek, Calif.: AltaMira Press, 1997).
4. Theodosius Dobzhansky, Mankind Evolving: The Evolution of the Human Species (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1962), 253.
5. Richard Lewontin, “The Apportionment of Human Diversity,” Evolutionary Biology 6 (1972): 397.
6. Esteban González Burchard, Elad Ziv, Natasha Coyle, et al., “The Importance of Race and Ethnic Background in Biomedical Research and Clinical Practice,” New England Journal of Medicine 348 (2003): 1170–75.
7. Nancy Krieger et al., “Race/Ethnicity, Gender, and Monitoring Socioeconomic Gradients in Health: A Comparison of Area-Based Socioeconomic Measures; The Public Health Disparities Geocoding Project,” American Journal of Public Health 93 (2003): 1655–71.
8. Ichiro Kawachi, Norman Daniels, and Dean E. Robinson, “Health Disparities by Race and Class: Why Both Matter,” Health Affairs 24 (2005): 343–52.
9. R. Dawn Comstock, Edward M. Castillo, and Suzanne P. Lindsay, “Four-Year Review of the Use of Race and Ethnicity in Epidemiologic and Public Health Research,” American Journal of Epidemiology 159 (2004): 619.
10. Camara Phyllis Jones, “Invited Commentary: ‘Race,’ Racism, and the Practice of Epidemiology,” American Journal of Epidemiology 154 (2001): 299–304; Camara Phyllis Jones, “Levels of Racism: A Theoretical Framework and a Gardener’s Tale,” American Journal of Public Health 90 (2000): 1212–15.
11. Noah A. Rosenberg et al., “Genetic Structure of Human Populations,” Science 298 (2002): 2381–85.
12. Sahotra Sarkar, Genetics and Reductionism (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 71.
13. S. S. Lee, “Pharmacogenomics and the Challenge of Health Disparities,” Public Health Genomics 12 (2009): 170.
14. Theodosius Dobzhansky, Genetics and the Origin of Species (New York: Columbia University Press, 1982), 61. Emphasis added.
17. Deborah A. Bolnick, Duana Fullwiley, Troy Duster, et al., “The Science and Business of Genetic Ancestry Testing,” Science 318 (October 19, 2007): 400.
18. Keith Wailoo, Alondra Nelson, and Catherine Lee, “Genetic Claims and the Unsettled Past,” in Genetics and the Unsettled Past: The Collision of DNA, Race, and History, ed. Keith Wailoo, Alondra Nelson, and Catherine Lee (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 2012), 2.
19. William Provine, “Genetics and Race,” American Zoologist 26 (1986): 857–87.
20. Du Bois, Health and Physique of the Negro American; P. C, Ng, Q. Zhao, S. Levy, R. L. Strausberg, and J. C. Venter, “Individual Genomes Instead of Race for Personalized Medicine,” Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 84 (2008): 306–9.
21. Theodosius Dobzhansky, Mankind Evolving: The Evolution of the Human Species (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1962), 266–67.
22. Ashley Montagu, Statement on Race: An Annotated Elaboration and Exposition of the Four Statements on Race Issued by the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (New York: Oxford University Press, 1972), 65.
23. David Levering Lewis, W. E. B. Du Bois: The Fight for Equality and the American Century, 1919–1963 (New York: Holt, 2000), 473.
24. W. E. B. Du Bois, Dusk of Dawn: An Essay Toward an Autobiography of a Race Concept (Piscataway, N.J.: Transaction, 1983), 326.
