Korea started growing cereals from the mid-Neolithic Age and rice from around 2000 BC. Beans were grown right from the beginning of Korean history, along with various cereals, including rice. As a result, rice, beans, and other cereals became the staples of the Korean diet. Among the various cereals, foxtail (Italian) millet, Chinese millet, and kaoliang (African millet) were grown from the cereal farming period. Barley was introduced only after rice farming began, and wheat much later, around the 1st or 2nd century.

Since the Korean Peninsula is surrounded by sea on three sides, with an intersection of cold and warm currents, and has plenty of large rivers, it is blessed with an abundant supply of seafood. Because of severe seasonal changes, skills in processing fermented food such as jeotgal (salted seafood) developed from early times. In addition, Koreans were skillful hunters and established a tradition, rarely seen in agrarian societies, of preparing meat dishes.

Under such circumstances, the ordinary, everyday diet of rice, soup, and shared side dishes evolved. The table setting showed a clear distinction between the main and the subsidiary dishes. It became customary to offer a table set with all sorts of appetizers—drinks, noodle soup flavored with soy sauce, cold noodles, rice cakes, honeyed pastries, and beverages—at rituals and festivals. With four clearly distinct seasons, the foods produced in each region varied greatly, as could be seen in the side dishes consumed on a daily basis. Processed food that could be preserved, such as soy sauce, kimchi, jeotgal, and pickled slices of radish and cucumber, was also consumed from ancient times.

Early on, the tradition of preparing special holiday food became popular. This tradition reminded people of holidays and of the need to devote themselves to farming in ordinary times. It also fostered solidarity and harmony between the village residents and family members through a spirit of cooperation.

All of this developed over time through a process of trial and error and finally refinement. The history of a dietary culture is, in many ways, the history of a people. And Korea’s dietary culture has certainly enjoyed a unique evolution.

Pottery unearthed in northwest Korea. This shows that in the Neolithic Age, life on the Korean Peninsula switched from hunting and gathering to agriculture.

PALEOLITHIC BEGINNINGS

There are archaeological artifacts from the Lower Paleolithic era (from about 600,000 years ago) at Jeongok-ri in Yeoncheon, Gyeonggi-do; Durubong in Cheongwon, Chungcheongbuk-do; and Simgok-ri in Myeongju, Gangwon-do. In addition, artifacts from the Middle and Upper Paleolithic ages can be found throughout Korea. The artifacts discovered include hand axes, chopping tools, scrapers, rock hammers, and stone knives, which show that early Koreans used fire to cook what they hunted or caught.

As stated previously, Korea began to farm cereals such as foxtail millet, Chinese millet, kaoliang, and barnyard millet from the mid-Neolithic Age and rice from about 2000 BC. Excavations at a historical relic site in the residential area of Jitap-ri, Bongsan-gun, Hwanghae-do, dating back to early 3000 BC, have yielded stone farming tools, foxtail millet and barnyard millet grains. From the peat bed of Gahyeon-ri, Gimpo-gun in Gyeonggi-do (2100 BC) and the residential area of the 31st Namgyeong Relic of Samseokguyeok in Pyongyang (3000 BC), rice grains have been excavated along with foxtail millet, confirming that rice was grown during this period.

Various grains produced in Korea (top to bottom, left to right): black rice, soybean, red bean, sorghum, Job's tears, and foxtail millet.

Prehistoric Period on the Korean Peninsula

As Korea is situated in the monsoon region of the Temperate Zone, the amount of sun and annual precipitation was just right for rice farming. So rice became the staple of the Korean diet. Though small in area, the Korean Peninsula has an extremely varied climate, so in the regions not quite suited to rice farming, cereals appropriate to the region were grown. This brought about the development of a dietary culture based on the mixing of rice and other cereals.

In order for farming to flourish, there had to be a development in farming tools. In Korea, the Iron Age took place from about 300 to 100 BC, and stone farming tools were replaced by ironware during that period. Tools made of iron have been excavated from Gujeongri in Gyeongju-gun, Gyeongsangbuk-do; Yaean-ri in Gimhae, Gyeongsangnam-do; and Wiwon-myeon in Pyeonganbuk -do.

THREE KINGDOMS PERIOD

It was only during the Three Kingdoms period that rice became a staple of the Korean diet. The three kingdoms of Goguryeo (37 BC-AD 668), Baekje (18 BC-AD 660), and Silla (57 BC-AD 935) all engaged in land reformation, expanded irrigation systems, and actively promoted the use of iron farming tools. Rice finally became a staple when the necessary requirements for rice farming (such as cows for tilling) became available and thus contributed to the increase in rice production.

Three Kingdoms Period (5th Century)

Among the three countries, Baekje had the most ideal climate for rice farming, while Silla grew barley and Goguryeo foxtail millet along with rice. It was only in the Unified Silla period (618-935), with the development of tools and the land and the subsequent general increase in rice production, that rice became the main cereal consumed.

Aside from rice, other grains that were grown included barley, wheat, foxtail millet, Chinese millet, beans, red beans, mung beans, African millet, and buckwheat. It was during the middle of the era that Zhang Qian took wheat to China from the western region on the country’s border. Around the 4th century, it was introduced to Japan from Korea. Thus it seems likely that wheat was first introduced to Korea around the 1st century with the coming of the Iron Age.

Rice and barley

Barley is thought to have been introduced to Korea earlier than wheat, though the exact date is unknown. After barley was introduced, it was mostly harvested in the southeastern region, and it came to be consumed as a staple together with rice. Though areas such as Pyeongan-do had a relatively ideal climate for growing wheat, it was not produced on a large scale; mostly, it was for family consumption. In the 1930s, the area for wheat farming amounted to only half that of barley nationwide. Wheat has never been consumed as a staple.

Other Developments

There are records showing that Koreans of the Three Kingdoms period raised cows, pigs, chickens, sheep, goats, and ducks and ate eggs. There are even records showing that Baekje people who went to Japan presented the Japanese emperor with milk.

In the 3rd and 4th centuries, Koreans learned to make boats. They built large boats, allowing them to fish in the far-off seas and eat a diversity of fish and sea products. Cooking methods also developed gradually: Koreans could now store wine, sauce, kimchi, and jeotgal for a long time, and they diversified their food culture by using syrup, honey, and oil to flavor their food. The typical Korean table setting—with a main dish of grain and vegetables, meat, and fish as side dishes—developed during this period. Due to the development of a royal government, major differences arose in the lifestyles of the ruling class and common folk; accordingly, class differences appeared in eating culture.

GORYEO PERIOD

Food

Goryeo, from the beginning of its foundation, actively implemented farming promotion policies such as distributing land according to rank and giving tax benefits on land newly cleared for farm use. The quantity of rice reserves for emergencies and the price of grains were regulated, too, in order to increase rice production. Naturally, skills in making wine, rice cakes, and rice pastries became highly developed, and making rice wine became a popular custom.

Steamed chestnut rice cakes, steamed mugwort rice cakes, pancakes made with glutinous rice and kaoliang, tteok sudan and yaksik (glutinous rice mixed with honey, jujubes, and chestnuts) were some of the rice cakes enjoyed during the Goryeo Dynasty. It was during this period that the custom of making red bean porridge on the winter solstice and sharing it with the whole village became popular.

Yaksik

Radish, turnips, lotus roots, taro, leeks, dropwort, lettuce, hollyhock, green onions, water shields, garlic, shallots, cucumbers, and eggplants were cultivated as vegetables during the Goryeo period. Mountain greens and wild mushrooms were consumed as well. High-quality radishes and pears were grown to be made into chimchae, or water vegetable kimchi; chimchae was fresher than, and the nutrient composition of its vegetables superior to, the fermented vegetables enjoyed during the Three Kingdoms period, and the preservation method was very scientific. Fragrant vegetables, such as lettuce and small green onions, were used for ssam (rice or meat wrapped with vegetable leaves), which is one of the simplest, most well-balanced dishes in Korean cuisine.

In the initial period of Goryeo, everyone from the commoners to the king refrained from eating meat due to the influence of Buddhism. The system used for cow slaughtering was very crude, and at one time it was even banned. Therefore, meat dishes were not enjoyed until the mid-Goryeo Dynasty when high-quality cattle were raised on Jeju Island ranches; meat dishes were then restored and developed. Among the famous meat dishes of the Goryeo Dynasty were seolya myeokjeok (roasted prime ribs) and seolleongtang (bone and tripe soup). In addition to beef, other meats that were consumed included pork, lamb, chicken, pheasant, and swan.

Drinks and Sweets

During the Goryeo Dynasty, the culture of tea reached its peak. A tea village was formed near Mt. Jirisan to grow tea leaves, and high-quality tea was imported from Song China. There was a tea chamber at the court for brewing tea, and during national ceremonies such as Yeondeunghoe (a light festival on the 15th of the first lunar month, where one offers one’s wishes to the Buddha) and Palgwanhoe (ritual ceremonies held for local gods), tea rituals were performed and refreshments prepared.

Along with the tea culture, pastries became highly developed. Pastries can be largely divided into yumilgwa (fried honey cookies), yugwa (fried cookies made from glutinous rice), dasik (small cakes eaten with green tea), jeonggwa (candied fruit), and gwapyeon (jellied fruit) (see more). Among these various types, yumilgwa was most popular during the Goryeo Dynasty. Yumilgwa were served at wedding feasts, and tea with yumilgwa was used for entertaining guests. Noodles developed into a food for festive occasions, and sanghwa—steamed wheat-flour buns—were first brought from China during the Yuan Dynasty and subsequently became very popular.

The rice wine enjoyed during the Goryeo Dynasty can be divided into cheongju (clear strained rice wine) and beopju (wine made according to certain rules). When soju was introduced during the late Goryeo Dynasty, distilled drinks began to gain popularity. Breweries developed during this period, and countless varieties of rice wine, such as podoju (grape wine), changpoju (iris wine), hwanggukju (chrysanthemum wine), jukyeopju (bamboo leaf wine), and ogapiju (root bark wine), were consumed.

Goryeo porcelain wine bottle

The Coming of the Mongols and the Return of Meat

In the latter part of the Goryeo era, the military grew more powerful than the monks; with the resulting change in social mores, meat came back into fashion. The invasion of the Mongols and resulting cultural exchange with the Yuan Dynasty brought to Korea imports like sugar, black pepper, and grape wine. During the period of Mongol domination in the later Goryeo era, Koreans learned slaughtering practices and meat preparation. In fact, Korea’s meat culture owes a lot to influence from the Yuan Dynasty. Dishes like gomtang, pyeonyuk (see more), and sundae are nearly identical to similar dishes from the Yuan Dynasty.

Gaeseong Cuisine

The Goryeo capital of Gaeseong was the economic and cultural capital of Korea and developed a unique, splendid palace cuisine. To this day, Gaeseong is renowned for having one of Korea’s top three regional cuisines, along with Seoul and the Jeolla-do region. Representative dishes include bossam kimchi (wrapped kimchi), pyeonsu (summer mandu in a square shape), sinseollo (royal casserole), seolleongtang (beef tripe soup), chueotang (mudfish soup), joraengi tteokguk (rice cake soup), umegi (tteok covered with syrup), and gyeongdan (ball-shaped tteok).

From the records on cuisine from the period, we can see that its elite had a highly developed culinary culture. The Goryeo era was when Korean cooking came into its own, with food and seasonings diversifying.

Seolleongtang

JOSEON PERIOD

In the early Joseon era, there was little change in the food culture from the Goryeo era. From the 16th century, however, Confucian culture matured and yangban culture took root, which would have a major impact on the culinary culture. Due to the impact of Confucianism, a patriarchal social system was established, with an emphasis on rites. Based on the teachings of the Chinese philosopher Zhu Xi, rites like marriage, funerals, and ancestral ceremonies were codified and strictly kept. Among Korea, China, and Japan, only Korea continues to adhere to the practice of using chopsticks and a spoon. This was because they used a spoon in the time of Confucius, and Korea’s Confucianists kept the practice to the end.

The food culture of Joseon grew more diverse, and yangban homes produced books documenting cooking and brewing methods, while special foods were served during holidays. Regional cuisines developed during this period, too.

Agricultural Technique Development

From the Joseon Dynasty, agricultural techniques became more developed and the types of grains cultivated more varied. From the beginning of the Joseon Dynasty, practical farming textbooks such as Nongsa Jikseol were written. They contributed greatly to the development of farming techniques appropriate to Korea. From that time on, many farming books, such as Pangye Surok, were published, bringing agricultural development to the whole peninsula. From the mid-Joseon Dynasty, irrigation was extended, and rice planting methods were followed on a national scale. With this, the planting of rice and barley became easier, and cows began to be widely used in farming. Among the grains grown during this period were 69 kinds of rice, 15 kinds of foxtail millet, eight kinds of bean, seven kinds of red bean, and four kinds of barley, among others. Cowpeas, peas, buckwheat, and corn—which had been introduced in the 18th century—were also grown.

Foreign Foods Introduced

It was also during the Joseon Dynasty that chili peppers, pumpkins, potatoes, sweet potatoes, tomatoes, and other foreign foods were first introduced. Chili peppers and pumpkins are thought to have been brought in from Japan before or after the Japanese invasion of Korea in 1592, but in Japan there is a belief that the chili pepper was brought from Korea. In any event, the chili peppers grown on the Korean Peninsula, unlike the ones that were originally introduced, were uniquely sweet and hot (a mixture of chili and paprika), and this contributed greatly to the development of the particular taste that is most characteristic of Korea’s traditional food. In particular, with the use of red chili pepper and jeotgal in kimchi, the dish really came into its own as a tasty and nutritious fermented food.

Seafood and Meat

Fishing techniques were further refined, and due to the increase in sea produce during the Joseon Dynasty and the development of the barter economy, fisheries started to be managed on a large scale. As a result, the production of seafood showed a rapid increase. The principal catches of large-scale fishing during this period were croakers, herrings, codfish, and anchovies. After seaweed and sea tangle—popular local produce from antiquity—sea laver began to be cultivated as a major product as well. Laver was raised on Wan-do Island, Jeolla-do, from the mid-Joseon Dynasty. The sea produce was dried, processed in salt water or fermented, and supplied on a nationwide scale. The most famous sea produce is Alaskan pollack, which is considered to be of the best quality when it is dried in January. Around the 17th century, some 140 different kinds of jeotgal were consumed, including fermented croaker, salted dry croaker, salted oysters with chili pepper, and fermented flatfish with rice punch.

Myeongtae (pollack) is Korea’s most typical seafood product. Depending on how it is caught and processed, it is called by many names. Unfrozen, it is called saengtae; dried, it is called bugeo; half-dried, it is called kodari; caught in winter and frozen, it is called dongtae; caught in the breeding season and frozen and dried repeatedly, it is called hwangtae. Young myeongtae are called nogari, while myeongtae eggs are fermented to make myeongnanjeot.

Beef, pheasant, chicken, and pork were also widely eaten. The beef raised on Jeju-do was especially tasty and noted for its high quality. Also, roe deer, deer and bear’s feet were considered culinary delicacies. The usual way of preparing these meals was to make beef jerky, gui (roasts), jjim (steamed food), gomtang (beef soup), or jelly.

Food Culture in the Joseon Period

During the Joseon Dynasty, a strictly patriarchal and extended family structure began to take root in society, due to the influence of Confucianism, the political and moral standard of the time. Along with this, the norms of traditional rituals and ceremonial occasions (coming-of-age, marriages, funerals, and ancestral memorial ceremonies) were carefully observed. Naturally, the norms concerning food in each of these ceremonies were rigid and strict. And since the family structure was an extended one, with several generations living under the same roof, managing the food became a major affair.

The procurement of food and its processing, cooking, and distribution were the sole responsibility of the housewife. Not only that, but preparing breakfast at dawn for the elders, procuring home-brewed liquor, cooking side dishes, and stocking soy sauce, pastes, and fermented foods were considered very important. A unique tradition of making holiday and seasonal food to provide supplementary nutrition in each season, as well as to wish for a good harvest and consolidate harmony within the family and the village, came to be observed. Also developing during this period was palace cuisine, making use of high-quality ingredients brought together by palace cooks trained in the highest cooking methods. The late Joseon era was the golden age of Korean cuisine, when it experienced its greatest development.