NOTES
Introduction
1. All known geographical writers are listed in EANS, pp. 999–1002.
2. James S. Romm, The Edges of the Earth in Ancient Thought (Princeton 1992).
3. Vitruvius 10.9.
Chapter 1 The Beginnings
1. Jean-Marie Kowalski, Navigation et géographie dans l'antiquité gréco-romaine (Paris 2012) 100.
2. Emily Vermeule, Greece in the Bronze Age (Chicago 1964) 10–12.
3. Homer, Odyssey 5.233–61.
4. The artifact is now in the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge (GR.18.1963); R. V. Nicholls, “Recent Acquisitions by the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge,” AR 12 (1965–6) 44–5; Lionel Casson, Ships and Seamanship in the Ancient World (Princeton 1971) 30–2.
5. M. Cary and E. H. Warmington, The Ancient Explorers (Baltimore 1963) 22–3.
6. Sites named Minoa are on the island of Amorgos, in the Megarid and the southeastern Peloponnesos, and on Sicily.
7. Herodotos 7.170; Diodoros 4.79.
8. Peter Green, The Argonautika: The Story of Jason and the Quest for the Golden Fleece (Berkeley 1997) 26–7, 41.
9. Pherekydes (BNJ #3) F111a (= Apollodoros, Biblikotheke 1.9.19).
10. Homer, Iliad 7.467–71, 21.40–1, 23.747.
11. Homer, Odyssey 12.69–72; 10.135–7; Hesiod, Theogony 956–62.
12. Herodotos 4.85; Eratosthenes, Geography F117; the islands are the modern Örektaşı.
13. Hesiod, Theogony 340, 961, 992–1002.
14. Pausanias 2.1.1, 2.3.10.
15. Hesiod, Catalogue F38.
16. Pomponius Mela 1.108.
17. Strabo 11.2.19; Pliny, Natural History 33.52; David Braund, Georgia in Antiquity (Oxford 1994) 21–5.
18. Stephanie West, “‘The Most Marvellous of All Seas’: The Greek Encounter with the Euxine,” G&R 50 (2003) 151–67; Herodotos 3.93, etc.
19. John Boardman, The Greeks Overseas: Their Early Colonies and Trade (new and enlarged edition, London 1980) 254; Braund, Georgia 96–103.
20. Strabo 1.2.39.
21. Strabo 11.2.17; Braund, Georgia 40–2.
22. Braund, Georgia 93.
23. Homer, Iliad 2.494–759, 815–77.
24. Georgia L. Irby, “Mapping the World: Greek Initiatives from Homer to Eratosthenes,” in Ancient Perspectives: Maps and their Place in Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece and Rome (ed. Richard J. A. Talbert, Chicago 2012) 85–6.
25. R. Hope Simpson and J. F. Lazenby, The Catalogue of Ships in Homer's Iliad (Oxford 1970).
26. For a good discussion of this issue, see Richmond Lattimore, The Iliad of Homer (Chicago 1951) 24–8.
27. Homer, Odyssey 3.188–90.
28. Apollodoros of Athens (FGrHist #244) F167 (= Strabo 6.1.3).
29. Boardman, Greeks Overseas 165–8.
30. Strabo 6.1.15, 5.2.5.
31. It was a four-day trip: Homer, Odyssey 3.180–2.
32. Lykophron, Alexandra 592–632; Strabo 5.1.9, 6.3.9.
33. Juba of Mauretania, Roman Archaeology F3 (= Pliny, Natural History 10.126–7).
34. Strabo 5.1.8.
35. Lord William Taylour, Mycenaean Pottery in Italy and Adjacent Areas (Cambridge 1955) 81–137.
36. Frank H. Stubbings, “The Recession of Mycenaean Civilization,” CAH 2.2 (3rd edn, Cambridge 1975) 356–8.
37. E D. Phillips, “Odysseus In Italy,” JHS 73 (1953) 53–67.
38. Homer, Odyssey 9.39–81.
39. Strabo 7 F18; Homer, Odyssey 9.193–215; Herodotos 7.59, 110.
40. Homer, Odyssey 9.82–104; Herodotos 4.177; Eratosthenes, Geography F105 (= Pliny, Natural History 5.41); Strabo 1.2.17, 17.3.17.
41. Bernhard Herzhoff, “Lotus,” BNP 7 (2005) 822–3.
42. Homer, Odyssey 9.105–51.
43. Kallimachos, Hymn 3.46–50; Vergil, Georgics 4.170–3.
44. Homer, Odyssey 10.1–75; Antiochos of Syracuse (FGrHist #555) F1 (= Pausanias 10.11.3); Thucydides 3.88; Strabo 6.2.10.
45. Homer, Odyssey 10.80–132; Hesiod, Catalogue F98.
46. Homer, Odyssey 10.133–574.
47. Theophrastos, Research on Plants 5.8.3, 9.15.1.
48. Strabo 5.3.6.
49. Homer, Odyssey 12.165–200; Strabo 1.2.12–13.
50. Homer, Odyssey 12.426–53; Thucydides 4.24.4.
51. Thucydides 6.2.
52. Homer, Odyssey 12.447–54; Kallimachos F413 (= Strabo 1.2.37).
53. Homer, Odyssey 5.272–7.
54. Homer, Odyssey 10.86; Krates (Cratete di Mallo, I frammenti, ed. Maria Broggiato, La Spezia 2001) F50.
55. Ruth Scodel, “The Paths of Day and Night,” Ordia Prima 2 (2003) 83–6.
56. Homer, Odyssey 11.14–19.
57. Homer, Iliad 18.483–9; see also 1.423, 8.485–6, 18.239–40, 23.205–7.
58. For example, Homer, Iliad 14.246; Odyssey 11.639, 20.65.
59. Homer, Iliad 7.422, 18.399; Odyssey 10.511, 19.434, 20.65.
60. On Greek attitudes to the Ocean, see Georgia L. Irby, “Hydrology: Ocean, Rivers and Other Waterways,” in Companion to Ancient Greek and Roman Science, Medicine, and Technology (ed. Georgia L. Irby, London, forthcoming).
61. Diodoros 5.20; J. Oliver Thomson, History of Ancient Geography (Cambridge 1948) 40–1; see further infra, pp. 23–4.
62. Cary and Warmington, Ancient Explorers 75–7.
63. Homer, Iliad 1.423, 9.381–4; Odyssey 1.22, 4.126–7.
64. Infra, pp. 23–4.
65. Homer, Iliad 6.288–95, 23.740–7.
66. Homer, Odyssey 4.561–9; Paul T. Keyser, “From Myth to Map: The Blessed Isles in the First Century BC,” AncW 24 (1993) 149–67.
67. Plutarch, Concerning the Face that Appears on the Globe of the Moon 26.
68. Strabo 3.2.13, 3.4.3–4; Andrew T. Fear, “Odysseus and Spain,” Prometheus 18 (1992) 19–26.
69. For example, Homer, Iliad 12.13–23; Odyssey 5.382–7.
70. 1 Kings 5:1–12, 9:26–8.
71. 2 Chronicles 9:21; Carolina López-Ruiz, “Tarshish and Tartessos Revisited: Textual Problems and Historical Implications,” in Colonial Encounters in Ancient Iberia (ed. Michael Dietler and Carolina López-Ruiz, Chicago 2009) 255–80.
72. Homer, Odyssey 15.415.
73. Casson, Ships 56–8.
74. Homer, Odyssey 15.415–16.
75. Herodotos 2.44, 6.46–7.
76. Rhys Carpenter, “Phoenicians In the West,” AJA 62 (1958) 35–53.
77. Velleius 1.2.3; Strabo 1.3.2; Pomponius Mela 3.46; Pliny, Natural History 16.216.
78. Michael Dietler, “Colonial Encounters in Iberia and the Western Mediterranean: An Exploratory Framework,” in Colonial Encounters in Ancient Iberia (ed. Michael Dietler and Carolina López-Ruiz, Chicago 2009) 3–48.
79. Timaios (BNJ #566) F60 (= Dionysios of Halikarnassos, Roman Antiquities 1.74.1).
80. See the excellent map in Hans Georg Niemeyer et al., “Phoenicians, Poeni,” BNP 11 (2007) 161–2; D. B. Harden, “The Phoenicians on the West Coast of Africa,” Antiquity 22 (1948) 141–50.
81. The Greek name for the continent is “Libya” (Homer, Odyssey 4.85, 14.295), probably originally an ethnym refering to peoples west of Egypt (e.g. Herodotos 4.181), which in time came to be applied to the entire continent except for Egypt and the Kyrenaika. “Africa” is the Roman term, originally the region around Carthage (Ennius, Annals F106; Satires F10; Sallust, Jugurtha 17.1), and again probably first an ethnym, but which also was expanded to mean the whole continent (Pomponius Mela 1.8). As is often the case, the Greek term “Libya” was widely used in Latin but the Latin term “Africa” was rarely used in Greek.
82. Herodotos 4.42; other reports are derivative.
83. Thomson, History 6–9.
84. Duane W. Roller, Through the Pillars of Herakles: Greco-Roman Exploration of the Atlantic (London 2006) 41.
85. Strabo 2.3.4–5.
86. Infra, pp. 141–2.
87. Poseidonios F49 (= Strabo 2.3.4).
88. Infra, p. 59.
89. Roller, Pillars 25–6.
90. Herodotos 2.161; Diodoros 1.68.1; Josephus, Against Apion 1.143.
91. Strabo 17.3.3.
92. Infra, p. 60.
93. Homer, Iliad 2.867–9; Ephoros (BNJ #70) F127 (= Strabo 14.1.6); Vanessa B. Gorman, Miletos: The Ornament of Ionia (Ann Arbor 2001) 14–31.
94. Pliny, Natural History 5.112.
95. Boardman, Greeks Overseas 240–3.
96. Diogenes Laertios 1.22–7, 37–8; Daniel W. Graham, The Texts of Early Greek Philosophy (Cambridge 2010) vol. 1, pp. 17–44.
97. Aristotle, On the Heavens 2.13 (294a).
98. Seneca, Natural Questions 3.14.1.
99. Aristotle, Metaphysics 1.3.5.
100. Diogenes Laertios 2.1–2; see also Eusebios, Preparation for the Gospel 10.14.11; Suda, “Anaximandros”; Graham, Texts, vol. 1, pp. 45–71.
101. Hippolytos, Refutation 1.6.3.
102. Diogenes Laertios 2.1; Duane W. Roller, “Columns in Stone: Anaximandros’ Conception of the World,” AntCl 53 (1989) 185–9; Robert Hahn, Anaximander and the Architects: The Contributions of Egyptian and Greek Architectural Technologies to the Origins of Greek Philosophy (Albany 2001) 177–218.
103. Eratosthenes, Geography F12 (= Strabo 1.1.11).
104. Agathemeros 1; for his text and translation, with commentary, see Aubrey Diller, “Agathemerus: Sketch of Geography,” GRBS 16 (1975) 59–76.
105. Herodotos 4.36.
106. Homer, Iliad 6.169; Odyssey 1.141, 12.67.
107. Herodotos 5.49.
108. Aetius, Placita 3.3.1; Seneca, Natural Questions 2.18.
109. Seneca, Natural Questions 2.17; Diogenes Laertios 2.3; Aetius, Placita 2.19.2, 2.22.2, 3.3.2, 3.4.1; Pseudo-Plutarch, Miscellanies 3; Graham, Texts, vol. 1, pp. 72–94.
110. Aristotle, Meteorologika 2.1, 7; Hippolytos, Refutation 1.7.6.
111. Diogenes Laertios 8.48; see also 9.21.
112. Plato, Phaidon 58 (108b–110b); see also Aristotle, On the Heavens 2.13; Paul T. Keyser, “The Geographical Work of Dikaiarchos,” in Dicaearchus of Messana: Text, Translation, and Discussion (ed. William W. Fortenbaugh and Eckart Schütrumpf, New Brunswick 2001) 362–4. For further on Parmenides, see infra, pp. 73–4.
113. Plato, Phaidon 46; Eratosthenes, Geography F25 (= Strabo 1.4.1); Thomson, History 110–12.
114. Diogenes Laertios 9.18–20.
115. Clement of Alexandria, Miscellanies 7.22.
116. Aetius, Placita 2.24.4. Nevertheless the passage has often been interpreted as refering to an eclipse: see Xenophanes of Colophon, Fragments (ed. J. H. Lesher, Toronto 1992) 217.
117. Hippolytos, Refutation 1.14.5–6.
Chapter 2 The Expansion of the Greek Geographical Horizon
1. Hesiod, Theogony 339–41, 1014. The citation of the Etruscans has been questioned since late antiquity: see E. H. Bunbury, A History of Ancient Geography (London 1883) vol. 1, pp. 87–8.
2. David A. Lupher, Romans in a New World (Ann Arbor 2003), especially pp. 190–4.
3. A. J. Graham, “The Colonial Expansion of Greece,” CAH 3.3 (2nd edn 1982) 153–5.
4. Thucydides 1.38, 43.
5. Thucydides 1.15.1; Plato, Laws 4.708b, 5.740e.
6. Herodotos 4.151.
7. Strabo 6.3.2.
8. Herodotos 4.147–59.
9. Herodotos 4.152; infra, pp. 41–2.
10. Hesiod, Theogony 339–40.
11. Boardman, Greeks Overseas 240.
12. Herodotos 4.78–80.
13. Graham, “Colonial Expansion” 129.
14. Strabo 7.3.13.
15. Boardman, Greeks Overseas 247–50.
16. Herodotos 2.33, 4.49.
17. Boardman, Greeks Overseas 165–9.
18. Hekataios (FGrHist #1) F90; Strabo 5.1.7–8; Giovanni Colonna, “I Greci di Adria,” RSA 4 (1974) 1–21.
19. Livy 5.33.8; Dionysios of Halikarnassos, Roman Antiquities 1.18.3–5.
20. Grave IV of the Shaft Graves at Mykenai yielded 1,290 beads of Baltic amber: see Vermeule, Greece in the Bronze Age 89.
21. Herodotos 1.163.
22. Strabo 4.2.1; Barry Cunliffe, Facing the Ocean: The Atlantic and its Peoples, 8000 BC–AD 1500 (Oxford 2001) 334–5.
23. Herodotos 1.164–7.
24. The most important was Hemeroskopeion (Strabo 3.4.6), at modern Denia, a name reflecting an ancient temple of Artemis that eventually became one of Diana.
25. Rufus Festus Avienus, Ora maritima (ed. J. P. Murphy, Chicago 1977). Avienus may not have had direct access to these early sources, but rather used a composite one of the fourth century BC (John Hind, “Pyrene and the Date of the ‘Massaliot Sailing Manual’,” RSA 2 [1972] 39–52). See also Roller, Pillars 9–13 and, further, infra, p. 44.
26. Herodotos 4.147–59.
27. Herodotos 2.32; R. C. C. Law, “The Garamantes and Trans-Saharan Enterprise in Classical Times,” Journal of African History 8 (1967) 181–200.
28. Cary and Warmington, Ancient Explorers 218; John Ferguson, “Classical Contacts with West Africa,” in Africa in Classical Antiquity (ed. L. A. Thompson and John Ferguson, Ibadan 1969) 10–11.
29. Herodotos 4.43; infra, p. 59.
30. Homer, Iliad 3.6.
31. Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza, “Demographic Data,” in African Pygmies (ed. Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza, Orlando 1986) 24.
32. Herodotos 2.178; Strabo 17.1.18; Boardman, Greeks Overseas 117–34.
33. Diogenes Laertios 1.27.
34. Boardman, Greeks Overseas 38–54.
35. Herodotos 4.13–15.
36. Strabo 1.2.10.
37. J. D. P. Bolton, Aristeas of Proconnesus (Oxford 1962).
38. Timothy P. Bridgman, Hyperboreans: Myth and History in Celtic-Hellenic Contacts (New York 2005) 27–32.
39. Herodotos 1.201; Ptolemy, Geographical Guide 6.16.5.
40. John Ferguson, “China and Rome,” ANRW 2.9.2 (1978) 581–603.
41. Herodotos 4.152.
42. Herodotos 1.163.
43. Pliny, Natural History 7.197.
44. Homer, Iliad 11.25, etc.
45. Herodotos 3.115.
46. Strabo 2.5.15, 2.5.30, 3.2.9, 3.5.11.
47. Roller, Pillars 12–13.
48. James D. Muhly, “Sources of Tin and the Beginnings of Bronze Metallurgy,” AJA 89 (1985) 285–8.
49. Seneca, Natural Questions 4a.2.22; Roller, Pillars 15–19.
50. Aristides 36.85–95. If Euthymenes wrote a report, it was probably the first to mention crocodiles and hippopotami in Greek.
51. Infra, pp. 56–60.
52. Herodotos 1.84–6.
53. Ronald Syme, Anatolica: Studies in Strabo (ed. Anthony Birley, Oxford 1995) 1–23.
54. Herodotos 5.49–54.
55. Isidoros, Parthian Stations 1.
56. Herodotos 1.188–92.
57. Herodotos 1.205–14.
58. Herodotos 2.1.
59. Herodotos 3.17–25, 114.
60. Arrian, Indika 1.1–4; Behistun Inscription 6.
61. Herodotos 3.98.
62. Herodotos 4.44.
63. BNJ #709; Suda, “Skylax”; Aristotle, Politics 7.13.1; Athenaios 2.70bc; Philostratos, Life of Apollonios 3.47.
64. Herodotos 4.44; Scholia to Pseudo-Skylax, Periplous 1.
65. Strabo 14.2.20.
66. The extant text under the name of Skylax, generally known today as Pseudo-Skylax, is a work by an unknown author of the early 330s BC that was produced in the same geographical milieu that also yielded Dikaiarchos and Pytheas (Graham Shipley, Pseudo-Skylax's Periplous: The Circumnavigation of the Inhabited World [Exeter 2011] 6–8, 15–18). Sometime before the first century BC it became confused with the treatise of Skylax of Karyanda, which was probably already lost (Strabo 12.4.8, 13.1.4).
67. Herodotos 4.44; Jean-François Salles, “Achaemenid and Hellenistic Trade in the Indian Ocean,” in The Indian Ocean in Antiquity (ed. Julian Reade, London 1996) 253–7.
68. Hesiod, Catalogue F98 (= Strabo 7.3.7).
69. Herodotos 4.59–82.
70. Herodotos 1.203.
71. FGrHist #1; Lionel Pearson, Early Ionian Historians (Oxford 1939) 25–108.
72. Herodotos 2.143, 5.36; Diodoros 10.25.4; Eratosthenes, Geography F1 (= Strabo 1.1.1); Agathemeros 1.1.
73. As is often the case with fragmentary works, the titles are uncertain and are only documented much later (Strabo 12.3.22; Athenaios 2.70b).
74. Herodotos 2.143, 5.36, 125; Dionysios of Halikarnassos, On Thucydides 5; Strabo 1.2.6.
75. Eratosthenes, Geography F12 (= Strabo 1.1.11); Pearson, Early Ionian Historians 31–4.
76. Homer, Iliad 1.485; Aeschylus, Persians 718.
77. Herodotos 4.45.
78. Airs, Waters, and Places 13.
79. Hekataios F303–59.
80. Herodotos 4.42; Diogenes Laertios 8.25–6; Roller, Pillars 50–1.
81. Eratosthenes, Geography F33 (= Strabo 1.4.7).
82. Agathemeros 1.1; supra, p. 28.
83. Herodotos 4.36.
84. Pearson, Early Ionian Historians 28–9.
85. Aristotle, Meteorologika 3.5.
86. Herodotos 2.34.
87. Hekataios F38–89.
88. See also Herodotos 1.145; Strabo 6.1.4, 15.
89. Hekataios F90.
90. Hekataios F91–108; Strabo 6.2.4, 7.5.8.
91. Hekataios F109–37; Herodotos 6.137.
92. Strabo 7.7.1.
93. Hekataios F138–83.
94. Athenaios 10.447d; Andrew Dalby, Food in the Ancient World From A to Z (London 2003) 65.
95. Hekataios F184–92; Herodotos 4.59–82.
96. Pearson, Early Ionian Historians 65.
97. Hekataios F196–217; Strabo 12.3.22, 14.1.8.
98. Hekataios F218–80.
99. Hekataios F281–99.
100. Athenaios 2.70b.
101. Hekataios F300–24; Herodotos 2.143; Diodoros 1.37; Arrian, Anabasis 5.6.5.
102. Herodotos 2.143.
103. Hekataios F324–57; Herodotos 3.17–26.
104. Hekataios F1–35.
105. Demetrios, On Style 12.
106. It is reflected at Herodotos 1.1.
107. Strabo 1.1.1.
Chapter 3 The Spread of Geographical Knowledge and Scholarship in the Classical Period
1. Jerker Blomqvist, The Date and Origin of the Greek Version of Hanno's Periplus (Lund 1979); for the Greek text and English translation, see Roller, Pillars 129–32.
2. On Marvellous Things Heard 37; Herodotos 4.196. The arguments regarding the legitimacy of the voyage are summarized in Roller, Pillars 29–43.
3. Hanno, Periplous 1.
4. Pseudo-Skylax 112; Strabo 1.3.2.
5. Hanno, Periplous 14–15.
6. Pliny, Natural History 2.169; Arrian, Indika 43.11–12.
7. B. H. Warmington, Carthage (revised edition, New York 1969) 69–70.
8. Pliny, Natural History 2.169.
9. Avienus, Ora maritima 117–19, 380–3, 412–13.
10. Philip Freeman, Ireland and the Classical World (Austin 2001) 28–33.
11. Roller, Pillars 27–9.
12. Athenaios 2.44e.
13. Strabo 2.3.4.
14. Herodotos 4.43.
15. Eratosthenes, Geography F154 (= Strabo 17.1.19); Polybios 3.22.
16. Pseudo-Skylax 112; Shipley, Pseudo-Skylax's Periplous 201–9.
17. Pliny, Natural History 18.22–3; infra, pp. 137–9.
18. Pindar, Paean 2; Pythian 4; Olympian 1–6.
19. On this perennial problem, see Paul W. Wallace, Strabo's Description of Boiotia: A Commentary (Heidelberg 1979) 168–72.
20. Pindar, Olympian 3.44; Nemean 3.21–2; Isthmian 4.12.
21. Homeric Hymn to Dionysos 29.
22. Supra, pp. 40–1; Pindar, Olympian 3.16; Pythian 10.30; Isthmian 6.23; Paean 8.63.
23. Supra, pp. 19–21.
24. Herodotos 4.13, 32–6.
25. Pindar, Pythian 4.
26. Aeschylus, Agamemnon 281–316.
27. Aeschylus, Persians 480–514, 858–900.
28. Aeschylus, Prometheus Bound 707–41, 792–815.
29. Hekataios F203; Herodotos 1.28; Strabo 11.14.5, 14.5.24.
30. Aeschylus, F190–201; Strabo 1.2.27, 4.1.7; Arrian, Periplous of the Euxine Sea 19.2.
31. Aeschylus F199 (= Strabo 4.1.7).
32. Xanthos (FGrHist #765) F12 (= Eratosthenes, Geography F15= Strabo 1.3.4).
33. Hippolytos, Refutation 1.14.1–6.
34. Empedokles F91–105 Graham; Diogenes Laertios 8.63.
35. Xanthos F13 (= Strabo 12.8.19, 13.4.11).
36. Suda, “Herodotos”; Herodotos 9.73, etc.
37. Herodotos 1.181–5; 2.29, 44; 3.12; 4.81.
38. George Rawlinson, The History of Herodotus (New York 1860–2), vol. 1, pp. 7–8.
39. Herodotos 2.3, 44.
40. Herodotos 1.1.
41. Herodotos 2.23, 143, 156; 3.38; 4.44; 6.137.
42. For example, Herodotos 2.3–5.
43. Herodotos 2.33.
44. Herodotos 2.23, 32, 39; 3.97–104; 4.1–142.
45. Diogenes Laertios 9.21.
46. Suda, “Charon,” “Dionysios the Milesian.”
47. Ephoros (BNJ #70) F180 (= Athenaios 12.515e).
48. Herodotos 2.12; Xanthos F12 (= Strabo 1.3.4).
49. Herodotos 1.178–216; 2.2–182; 3.17–25; 4.5–82.
50. A good example is Herodotos 2.142, the 11,340 years of Egyptian history.
51. Herodotos 7.152.
52. Herodotos 4.42; supra, pp. 36–7.
53. Herodotos 2.33, 4.49.
54. Herodotos 2.19–27.
55. These were quoted by Diodoros (1.39.1–6), who seemed to accept the existence of the mountains but not any effect of them on the flow of the Nile.
56. Herodotos 2.12.
57. Herodotos 4.86; Casson, Ships 281–96.
58. Thucydides 2.15, 97; 6.2–6.
59. Thucydides 1.24.1, see also 1.46.1.
60. For Thucydides and geography, see Hans-Joachim Gehrke, “Thukydides und die Geographie,” Geographia antiqua 18 (2009) 133–43.
61. The toponym “Italy” originated in the south of the peninsula, modern Calabria and Basilicata. Thus Antiochos’ work was about this region and somewhat to the north, not the whole extent of what is Italy today (Strabo 6.1.4).
62. Antiochos (FGrHist #555) F3, 7–13.
63. Dionysios of Halikarnassos, Roman Antiquities 1.73.3–5; Strabo 5.4.3.
64. Diodoros 2.32.4; Lloyd Llewellyn-Jones and James Robson, Ctesias’ History of Persia (London 2010) 11–18.
65. J. M. Bigwood, “Ctesias As Historian of the Persian Wars,” Phoenix 32 (1978) 36.
66. Photius, Bibliotheke 72 (= Ktesias [FGrHist #688] F45); Herodotos 3.98–105.
67. Klaus Karttunen, India in Early Greek Literature (Helsinki 1989) 83–4.
68. This may, in part, reflect existing popular culture: shortly before Ktesias went to the Persian court, Aristophanes (Birds 1553) had mentioned the Skiapodes.
69. Xenophon, Anabasis 1.2.20.
70. Xenophon, Anabasis 1.2.23–6.
71. Xenophon, Anabasis 1.4.6. Myriandos is at modern Ada Tepe on the Turkish coast.
72. Xenophon, Anabasis 1.4.11; Eratosthenes, Geography F52 (= Strabo 2.1.39).
73. Xenophon, Anabasis 1.8.26–9, 2.2.6.
74. Xenophon, Anabasis 4.7.24.
75. Xenophon, Anabasis 4.1.8–11, 4.4.18, 4.8.20, 5.4.
76. Herodotos 1.180.
77. Xenophon, Anabasis 4.5.1–6.
78. Strabo 1.1.1.
79. Jacques Jouanna, Hippocrate 2.2: Airs-Eaux-Lieux (Paris 2003) 8–10. The date of the treatise is disputed, and it may be Hellenistic but, if that were so, it would be even more anachronistic.
80. Diogenes Laertios 9.21–3.
81. The theory of zones was also attributed to Thales and the Pythagoreans, but this seems unlikely: Aetius 2.12; Karlhaus Abel, “Zone,” RE Supp. 14 (1974) 987–1188.
82. Poseidonios F49 (= Strabo 2.2.2); I. G. Kidd, Posidonius 2: The Commentary (Cambridge 1988) 221–2; Johannes Engels, “Geography and History,” in A Companion to Greek and Roman Historiography (ed. John Marincola, Malden, Mass. 2011) 541–2.
83. Homer, Odyssey 5.270–7.
84. The word is not cited in extant literature until Aristotle, Meteorologika 1.6 (343a).
85. Herodotos 2.29.
86. The term “antarctic,” however, did not appear in literature until perhaps the first century BC (Geminos 5.16, 28; see also the Aristotelian On the Cosmos 2 [392a]).
87. Agathemeros 2.
88. G. W. Bowersock, “The East-West Orientation of Mediterranean Studies and the Meaning of North and South in Antiquity,” in Rethinking the Mediterranean (ed. W. V. Harris, Oxford 2005) 167–78.
89. Plato, Phaidon 58 (109–10); Timaios 63a.
90. Anna-Dorothee von den Brinken, “Antipodes,” in Trade, Travel, and Exploration in the Middle Ages (ed. John Block Friedman et al., New York 2000) 27–9.
91. Horace, Ode 1.28.1–2: “terrae… mensorem… Archyta”; on Archytas, see Diogenes Laertios 8.79–80.
92. Diogenes Laertios 8.86–8.
93. Eudoxos F272–374; Agathemeros 2; Plutarch, On Isis and Osiris 6; François Lasserre, Die Fragmente des Eudoxos von Knidos (Berlin 1966) 96–127; Henry Mendell, “Eudoxos of Knidos,” EANS 310–13.
94. Strabo 1.1.1.
95. Eudoxos, F277–80, 286–302, 325; Strabo 17.1.29.
96. Eudoxos F276a (= Agathemeros 2).
97. Aristotle, On the Heavens 2.14 (298a); Meteorologika 2.5 (362b).
98. Aristotle, On the Heavens 2.14 (298b); the figure can be compared with Eratosthenes’ essentially accurate 252,000 stadia. For the various figures, see Aubrey Diller, “The Ancient Measurements of the Earth,” Isis 40 (1949) 6–9.
99. Aetius 4.1.7: this actually may be a Hellenistic interpolation into the corpus of Eudoxos: see Thomson, History 117–18.
100. Strabo 9.1.2.
101. For example, Eratosthenes, Geography F68 (= Strabo 2.1.20).
102. Germaine Aujac, “Les modes de representation du monde habité d'Aristote a Ptolémée,” AFM 16 (1983) 14–19.
103. Aristotle, Meteorologika 1.13; Aristotle, Meteorologica (trans. H. D. P. Lee, Cambridge, Mass., 1952) 102–5.
104. Aristotle, On the Heavens 2.14 (298a).
105. Aristotle, Meteorologika 1.13 (350b); Roller, Eratosthenes 218.
106. Aristotle, Meteorologika 2.5 (362b) and elsewhere in the treatise.
107. Demosthenes, On Halonnesos 35; On the Crown 48.
108. Pseudo-Skylax 112; Shipley, Pseudo-Skylax's Periplous 203–4.
109. Shipley, Pseudo-Skylax's Periplous 6–8.
110. Pseudo-Skylax 112; David W. J. Gill, “Silver Anchors and Cargoes of Oil: Some Observations on Phoenician Trade in the Western Mediterranean,” BSR 56 (1988) 1–12.
111. Timaios F164 (= Diodoros 5.19–20).
112. Roller, Pillars 45–50.
113. Cary and Warmington, Ancient Explorers 70–1.
114. Herodotos 2.33.
115. Caesar, Gallic War 1.1, etc.; see also Cicero, Against Piso 81.
116. Pomponius Mela 3.33; infra, pp. 88–9.
117. FHG vol. 4, pp. 519–20; Cary and Warmington, Ancient Explorers 138.
118. Aristotle, Meteorologika 1.13 (350b); Ptolemy, Geographical Guide 4.8.3.
119. Aristotle, History of Animals 7(8).12.
120. Herodotos 3.107.
121. G. L. Barber, The Historian Ephorus (Cambridge 1935) remains the most thorough study of the historian; the commentary by Victor Parker to BNJ #70 is useful but somewhat idiosyncratic.
122. Polybios 5.33.2; Diodoros 16.76.5; Suda, “Ephippos.”
123. Ephoros F42 (= Strabo 7.3.9).
124. Ephoros F43, 44a, 51 (= Stephanos of Byzantion, “Tibarania,” “Hydra”; Scholia to Apollonios of Rhodes, Argonautika 2.845).
125. Ephoros F30a (= Strabo 1.2.28).
126. Ephoros F42, 131–2 (= Strabo 4.4.6, 7.2.1, 7.3.9).
Chapter 4 Pytheas and Alexander
1. Quintus Curtius 4.4.18.
2. Diodoros 17.75; Plutarch, Alexander 44; Arrian, Anabasis 7.16.
3. Herodotos 1.203; Aristotle, Meteorologika 2.1 (354a).
4. Quintus Curtius 6.4.18–19; Arrian, Anabasis 3.29.2, 5.26.1–2, 7.16. By late Hellenistic times a connection between the Caspian and External Ocean was taken for granted (Strabo 2.5.18), an error that was not fully corrected until early modern times (Thomson, History 127–9).
5. Arrian, Anabasis 5.26.2–3.
6. Dikaiarchos F124 (= Strabo 2.4.1). Roller, Pillars 57–91 is a thorough report on Pytheas and his journey, with previous bibliography; the fragments of On the Ocean have been collected by Christina Horst Roseman, Pytheas of Massalia: On the Ocean (Chicago 1994). The title is known from Geminos 6.9, and Kosmas Indikopleustes, Christian Topography 149.
7. Polybios 3.59.7; Strabo 1.4.3–5.
8. Polybios 34.5.7 (= Strabo 2.4.2).
9. Barry Cunliffe, The Extraordinary Voyage of Pytheas the Greek (London 2001) 56–52.
10. Strabo 1.4.3, 5; 4.4.1.
11. Strabo 2.5.8–15, 4.2.1, who used the form “Prettanike” when citing Pytheas’ report. In the Roman period the Greek version of the name seems to have evolved to the more familiar “Brettanike,” which Strabo also cited (Roseman, Pytheas 45), the predecessor to the Latin “Britannia.” Yet modern editors of Strabo have not always been meticulous about the two variants. “Prettanike” and “Brettanike” are carefully distinguished in Duane W. Roller, The Geography of Strabo (Cambridge 2014).
12. Polybios 34.5.2 (= Strabo 2.4.1); Diodoros 5.21–2; Strabo 2.5.8.
13. Pliny, Natural History 4.103.
14. Diodoros 5.22; Strabo 2.1.18, 2.5.42; Pliny, Natural History 2.186–7.
15. Strabo 4.5.5; Pliny, Natural History 2.217–18.
16. Diodoros 5.32.3–4; Rhys Carpenter, Beyond the Pillars of Herakles (New York 1966) 171–2.
17. Strabo 1.4.2, 2.5.8; Pliny, Natural History 2.186–7. For his latitude calculations, see infra, p. 89.
18. The itinerary from the Faeroes to Iceland is in the Landnámabók, written around AD 900; see also Roseman, Pytheas 107. For an analysis of the issues of the location of Thule, see Roller, Pillars 78–87.
19. Polybios 34.5.1–4 (= Strabo 2.4.1–3); Strabo 1.4.2, 4.5.5; Pliny, Natural History 4.104; Scholia to Apollonios of Rhodes, Argonautika 4.761–5a.
20. Pliny, Natural History 4.94, 104.
21. Pomponius Mela 3.33.
22. Reinhard Wenskus, “Pytheas und der Bersteinhandel,” in Untersuchungen zu Handel und Verkehr der vor- und frühgeschlichtlichen Zeit in Mittel- und Nordeuropa 1 (ed. Klaus Düwel et al., Göttingen 1985) 84–108.
23. Strabo 2.4.1.
24. Strabo 2.1.18.
25. There is also at least one notable error: Massalia was said to be on the same latitude as Byzantion (Strabo 2.1.12), yet is more than 2° to the north.
26. Roseman, Pytheas 42–4.
27. Pliny, Natural History 2.217; the cubit is the Latin translation of the Greek pechys.
28. Aetius 3.17.2; see also Strabo 3.2.11.
29. Geminos 6.9; Pliny, Natural History 2.187, 4.104; Kleomedes, Meteora 1.4.208–10, 2.80.6–9; Martianus Capella 6.595.
30. Eudoxos of Knidos (F11) had assumed that there was a pole star, but in fact there was none in the fourth century BC; for the astronomy and a chart showing the location of the celestial pole at that time, see Pytheas, L'Oceano (ed. Serena Bianchetti, Pisa 1998) 109–10, 170. Today Pytheas’ tetragon circles Polaris (α Ursae Minoris).
31. Fridtjof Nansen, In Northern Mists: Arctic Exploration in Early Times (tr. Arthur G. Chater, New York 1911) vol. 1, p. 73; it is hardly unexpected that Nansen believed Thule was in Norway.
32. Diodoros 17.17–118; Strabo 15.1.10–2.11 and elsewhere. Strabo, although he wrote a Deeds of Alexander (Strabo 2.1.9), now lost, was highly selective in what he recorded about Alexander in his Geography, concentrating, as one might expect, on the more remote areas.
33. Plutarch, Alexander 76.1; Arrian, Anabasis 7.25.1.
34. Strabo 15.1.35; Waldmar Heckel, Who's Who in the Age of Alexander the Great (Oxford 2006) 95–9.
35. Strabo 15.1.2.
36. On the geographical aspect of the expedition, see Klaus Geus, “Space and Geography,” in A Companion to the Hellenistic World (ed. Andrew Erskine, Malden, Mass. 2005) 232–45.
37. Arrian, Anabasis 1, Preface. Ptolemy became King Ptolemy I of Egypt; Aristoboulos was a military engineer on the expedition: Heckel, Who's Who 46, 235–8.
38. Strabo 15.1.30.
39. Homer, Iliad 6.290; Odyssey 4.83, 618.
40. Diodoros 17.46–7; Quintus Curtius 4.1.16–23; Justin 11.10.8.
41. Strabo 17.1.6; Arrian, Anabasis 3.1.4–5; P. M. Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria (Oxford 1972) vol. 1, pp. 3–37.
42. Homer, Odyssey 4.354–9.
43. Quintus Curtius 4.8.5.
44. To be sure, some of these foundations are questionable and rely on uncertain late antique or medieval traditions. For a list, see P. M. Fraser, Cities of Alexander the Great (Oxford 1996) 239–43.
45. Fraser, Cities 101.
46. Thapsakos may be the Tipshah of 1 Kings 4:24; see also Michal Gawlikowski, “Thapsacus and Zeugma: The Crossing of the Euphrates in Antiquity,” Iraq 58 (1996) 123–33.
47. Eratosthenes, Geography F52, 80, 83, 84, 87, 94.
48. Herodotos 1.178–200; Eratosthenes, Geography F87 (= Strabo 16.1.21).
49. Eratosthenes, Geography F48 (= Strabo 11.12.4–5).
50. Strabo 11.12.1; Arrian, Anabasis 3.20.3.
51. Pliny, Natural History 6.43–4.
52. J. F. Standish, “The Caspian Gates,” G&R 17 (1970) 17–24; Eratosthenes, Geography F37, 48, 52, 55–6, 60, 62–4, 77–80, 83–6, 108.
53. Arrian, Anabasis 3.21.10.
54. Herodotos 1.201–10.
55. Arrian, Anabasis 4.2.2; for its possible location, see A. B. Bosworth, A Historical Commentary on Arrian's History of Alexander (Oxford 1980–), vol. 2, p. 19.
56. Thomson, History 126.
57. Arrian, Anabasis 4.22.4; for the reasons it was renamed, see infra, pp. 102–4.
58. Arrian, Anabasis 3.23.1; the mountains are the modern Elburz.
59. Eratosthenes, Geography F47, 69 (= Strabo 2.1.1, 15.1.11).
60. Herodotos 3.93, 4.204, 6.9.
61. Arrian, Anabasis 3.29.2; Bosworth, Historical Commentary, vol. 1, pp. 373–4.
62. It is remotely possible that the Aral Sea was known to Alexander's people, and the belief that the Oxos as well as the Iaxartes drained into the Caspian may have been a confusion of a barely known sea with a more familiar one: J. Lennart Berggren and Alexander Jones, Ptolemy's Geography: An Annotated Translation of the Theoretical Chapters (Princeton 2000) 173; J. R. Hamilton, “Alexander and the Aral,” CQ 21 (1971) 110–11.
63. Arrian, Anabasis 3.30.7; Bosworth, Historical Commentary, vol. 1, pp. 377–9.
64. Quintus Curtius 9.3.8, 9.4.18.
65. Diodoros 17.93; Quintus Curtius 9.2.2–3; Arrian, Anabasis 5.26.
66. Arrian, Anabasis 7.7.1–2.
67. Arrian, Anabasis 6.1.1–6.
68. Arrian, Anabasis 6.17–18.
69. Arrian, Anabasis 5.26.2.
70. Strabo 15.2.4.
71. Arrian, Anabasis 6.21.3.
72. Aristoboulos (FGrHist #139) F49 (= Arrian, Anabasis 6.22.4–8); Strabo 15.2.5–7; see also Lionel Pearson, The Lost Histories of Alexander the Great (New York 1960) 176–80.
73. Heckel, Who's Who 183–4.
74. Nearchos: FGrHist #133; Onesikritos: FGrHist #134; see also Pearson, Lost Histories 83–149.
75. Arrian, Indika 34–5.
76. Strabo 15.2.11–13; Arrian, Indika 30–1.
77. Onesikritos F28 (= Pliny, Natural History 6.96–100); Truesdell S. Brown, Onesicritus (Berkeley 1949).
78. Infra, pp. 141–2; Pearson, Lost Histories 147.
79. Juba II, On Arabia F5 (= Pliny, Natural History 6.96–106); Arrian, Indika 30–5; Duane W. Roller, Scholarly Kings: The Writings of Juba II of Mauretania, Archelaos of Kappadokia, Herod the Great, and the Emperor Claudius (Chicago 2004) 130–40.
80. Herodotos 3.8–9, 107–13.
81. Herodotos 4.44.
82. Euripides, Bacchants 16.
83. Pliny, Natural History 12.62; Plutarch, Sayings of Kings and Commanders 179ef; Gus W. Van Beek, “Frankincense and Myrrh in Ancient South Arabia,” JAOS 78 (1958) 141–51.
84. Arrian, Anabasis 5.26.2–3.
85. Arrian, Anabasis 7.20.7; Indika 18.3; Heckel, Who's Who 43.
86. BNJ #711; Strabo 16.3.2; Arrian, Indika 18.4.
87. For the location of these sites, see D. T. Potts, The Arabian Gulf in Antiquity 2: From Alexander the Great to the Coming of Islam (Oxford 1990) 154–96.
88. Arrian, Anabasis 7.20.7.
89. Theophrastos, Plant Explanations 2.5.5; Research on Plants 4.7.3, 5.4.7; Athenaios 3.93bc.
90. Eratosthenes, Geography F94 (= Strabo 16.3.2).
91. Arrian, Anabasis 7.20.7–10.
92. Arrian, Indika 43.6–7.
93. Eratosthenes, Geography F95 (= Strabo 16.2.4).
94. Theophrastos, Research on Plants 9.4.2–6.
95. Juba, On Arabia F1 (= Pliny, Natural History 6.136–56).
96. Herodotos 3.97.
97. Aeschylus, Prometheus Bound 422, 717–21.
98. Eratosthenes, Geography F23 (= Arrian, Anabasis 5.3.1–4); Diodoros 17.83.1; Bosworth, Historical Commentary, vol. 2, pp. 213–17.
99. Quintus Curtius 7.3.23. For its possible location and history see Fraser, Cities 148–51; W. W. Tarn, The Greeks in Bactria and India (revised 3rd edn, Chicago 1997) 460–2.
100. It is possible that the indigenous name may have suggested this (Thomson, History 126).
101. See further, infra, pp. 115–17.
102. Eratosthenes, Geography F23 (= Arrian, Anabasis 5.3.1–4).
103. Strabo 11.5.5.
104. Pliny, Natural History 6.30, 46–9.
105. Ptolemy, Geographical Guide 5.9.14, 5.10.4, 6.12.1; see also 6.12.4, 6.18.1.
106. Eratosthenes, Geography F24 (= Strabo 11.7.4).
107. Supra, pp. 50–1.
108. Arrian, Anabasis 3.30.6–9.
109. FGrHist #128; Heckel, Who's Who 225.
110. Ephoros F30a (= Strabo 1.2.28); Pearson, Lost Histories 12–16.
111. Eratosthenes, Geography F113 (= Strabo 11.2.15).
112. Strabo 11.7.4.
113. Roller, Eratosthenes 140.
Chapter 5 The Legacy of Alexander and Pytheas
1. M. Rostovtzeff, Social and Economic History of the Hellenistic World (Oxford 1941) 1035–41.
2. Dikaiarchos F116–27; Keyser, “Geographical Work,” 353–72.
3. Agathemeros 2, 5.
4. Eratosthenes, Geography F47 (= Strabo 2.1.1–3).
5. Dikaiarchos F124 (= Strabo 2.4.1–3).
6. Aeschylus, Prometheus Bound 719–23; Herodotos 1.203, 4.184; but see Aristotle, Meteorologika 1.13.
7. The technique is explained in detail by Keyser, “Geographical Work,” 354–61.
8. Euclid, Optics 18–19.
9. Dikaiarchos F118–19 (= Pliny, Natural History 2.162; Geminos 17.5); Keyser, “Geographical Work,” 357.
10. Kleomedes 1.7; Philoponos, Commentary on the Meteorologika of Aristotle 1.3.
11. Pliny, Natural History 2.162.
12. Dikaiarchos F121 (= Martianus Capella 6.590–1).
13. Archimedes, Sand Reckoner 1: his own suggestion was 3 million stadia.
14. Roller, Eratosthenes 142–3.
15. Kleomedes 1.5; Thomson, History 154.
16. Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria, vol. 1, p. 414.
17. Dikaiarchos F126–7.
18. Diogenes Laertios 5.59–60.
19. Xenophanes F59 Graham; Herodotos 2.12; Strabo 1.3.4–5.
20. Straton F54 (= Strabo 1.3.4).
21. Diodoros 5.47.4–5.
22. Roller, Eratosthenes 130–1.
23. Strabo 2.3.5; Diogenes Laertios 5.58; Roller, Eratosthenes 11–12.
24. Agatharchides F1, 57; Strabo 16.4.7, 17.1.5; Agatharchides, On the Erythraean Sea (trans. and ed. Stanley M. Burstein, London 1989) 4–6; Lionel Casson, “Ptolemy II and the Hunting of African Elephants,” TAPA 123 (1993) 247–60.
25. L. A. Thompson, “Eastern Africa and the Graeco-Roman World (to A. D. 641),” in Africa in Classical Antiquity (ed. L. A. Thompson and J. Ferguson, Ibadan 1969) 26–61.
26. Herodotos 2.29–30; Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria, vol. 1, pp. 521–2.
27. BNJ #666; Pliny, Natural History 6.183, 194.
28. Infra, p. 158; Stanley M. Burstein, Commentary to BNJ #666.
29. BNJ #667; Pliny, Natural History 5.59, 6.191.
30. Bion (BNJ #668) F1; Pliny, Natural History 6.177, 180, 191; Athenaios 13.566c.
31. BNJ #669; Pliny, Natural History 6.183.
32. Hipparchos, Against the “Geography” of Eratosthenes F17 (= Strabo 2.1.20); Stanley M. Burstein, Commentary to BNJ #670.
33. Agatharchides, ed. Burstein, p. 138; Strabo 2.1.20; Pliny, Natural History 37.108. An ancient topaz mine of the Ptolemaic era has been discovered on Zabargad Island: see James A. Harrell, “Discovery of the Red Sea Source of Topazos (Ancient Gem Periodot) on Zabargad Island, Egypt,” in Twelfth Annual Sikankas Symposium. Periodot and Uncommon Gem Minerals (ed. Lisbet Thoresen, Fallbrook, Cal. 2014) 16–30.
34. Diodoros 3.42.1.
35. Strabo 16.4.18–19.
36. Strabo 16.4.5.
37. Diodoros 3.18.4.
38. Pliny, Natural History 37.24; Aelian, Research on Animals 17.8–9; Athenaios 4.183f, 14.634a.
39. Pliny, Natural History 5.47; Agathemeros 7; Emil August Wagner, Die Erdbeschreibung des Timosthenes von Rhodus (Leipzig 1888); Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria vol. 1, pp. 522–3.
40. Eratosthenes, Geography F134 (= Strabo 2.1.40); Strabo 13.2.5, 17.3.6; Pliny, Natural History 6.15, 163, 183; Agathemeros 20.
41. Agatharchides, ed. Burstein; Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria vol. 1, pp. 539–50.
42. Steven E. Sidebotham, “Ports of the Red Sea and the Arabia-Indian Trade,” in The Eastern Frontier of the Roman Empire (ed. D. H. French and C. S. Lightfoot, BAR-IS 553, 1989) 485–513.
43. For an excellent and thorough account of the city, and the recent excavations at the site, see Steven E. Sidebotham, Berenike and the Ancient Maritime Spice Route (Berkeley 2011).
44. Pliny, Natural History 6.102–4.
45. Eratosthenes, Geography F34, 53, 57, 98.
46. Herodotos 3.111; J. Innes Miller, The Spice Trade of the Roman Empire (Oxford 1969) 153–72; Dalby, Food 87–8.
47. Strabo 15.1.22, but the passage is unclear.
48. Strabo 2.1.13. Taprobane (modern Sri Lanka) was actually farther south, but was erroneously located: see infra, pp. 118?19.
49. Eratosthenes F34 (= Strabo 2.5.7).
50. For other even more obscure Ptolemaic geographical writers, see Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria vol. 1, pp. 520–5.
51. Heckel, Who's Who 246–8.
52. BNJ #428; Pliny, Natural History 6.49; John R. Gardiner-Garden, “Greek Conceptions on Inner Asian Geography and Ethnography from Ephoros to Eratosthenes,” Papers On Inner Asia 9 (Bloomington, Ind. 1987) 44–8.
53. Herodotos 1.201.
54. For an analysis of the list, see Pliny, Histoire Naturelle 6, part 2 (ed. Jacques André and Jean Filliozat, Paris 2003) 66–9.
55. BNJ #712; Diodoros 19.100.5–6; Plutarch, Demetrios 47.3; Gardiner-Garden, “Greek Conceptions,” 39–44.
56. Arrian, Anabasis 7.16.3.
57. Strabo 2.1.6, 17; 11.7.1, 3; 11.11.6. The area of the Caspian is about 15 per cent less than that of the Black Sea.
58. For example, Strabo 11.6.1.
59. Pomponius Mela 3.38; Pliny, Natural History 6.36.
60. The direction of flow, from the Ocean to the Caspian, need not be a problem, as Euthymenes (supra, pp. 44?5) had suggested many years previously that the source of the Nile was an inflow from the Atlantic.
61. Ptolemy, Geographical Guide 5.9.12–21, 6.14.1–9.
62. Strabo 2.1.15, 11.7.3, 11.11.5. Patrokles’ use of Persian parasangs suggests that some of his information was gathered from existing Persian reports.
63. Eratosthenes, Geography F69, 73 (= Strabo 2.1.7, 15.1.11).
64. Hipparchos, Against the “Geography” of Eratosthenes F12 (= Strabo 2.1.4).
65. Klaus Karttunen, India and the Hellenistic World (Helsinki 1997) 257–64.
66. Plutarch, Alexander 62.4.
67. Strabo 15.2.9; Justin 15.4.12–21; Appian, Syriaka 55.
68. BNJ #715; Strabo 2.1.9; Arrian, Anabasis 5.6.2.
69. Heckel, Who's Who 248–9; A. B. Bosworth, “The Historical Setting of Megasthenes’ Indica,” CP 91 (1996) 113–27.
70. Strabo 15.1.11.
71. Josephus, Jewish Antiquities 10.227.
72. Karttunen, India in Early Greek Literature 96–9.
73. Strabo 15.1.58–60.
74. Strabo 15.1.36, 50–1; Arrian, Indika 10.5.7.
75. Diodoros 2.35.1–2; Strabo 15.1.11–12.
76. Strabo 2.1.19–20, 15.1.13; Pliny, Natural History 6.69; Arrian, Indika 4.2, 5.1.
77. Strabo 15.1.37.
78. Strabo 2.1.9, 15.1.56–7.
79. Pliny, Natural History 6.81.
80. Eratosthenes, Geography F74 (= Strabo 15.1.14).
81. Strabo 15.1.37; Ferguson, “China and Rome,” 582–5.
82. On the development of the silk trade, see Manfred G. Raschke, “New Studies in Roman Commerce with the East,” ANRW 2.9 (1978) 606–50.
83. BNJ #716; Strabo 2.1.9, 14, 17; 15.1.12; Athenaios 9.394e.
84. Eratosthenes, Geography F22, 67 (= Strabo 2.1.9, 19).
85. Karttunen, India in Early Greek Literature 100–1.
86. Karttunen, India and the Hellenistic World 264–71.
87. Roller, Pillars 50–1.
88. Eratosthenes, Geography F39 (= Strabo 1.1.18).
Chapter 6 Eratosthenes and the Invention of the Discipline of Geography
1. Roller, Eratosthenes 7–15; Klaus Geus, Eratosthenes von Kyrene (Munich 2002).
2. Suetonius, Grammarians 10.
3. Roller, Eratosthenes 263–7.
4. Heron of Alexandria, Dioptra 35; Galen, Institutes of Logic 26–7; Macrobius, Commentary on the Dream of Scipio 1.20.9.
5. Aristotle, On the Heavens 2.14 (298b).
6. The best ancient discussion of his technique is Kleomedes 1.7; see also Geminos 16.6–9; Macrobius, Commentary on the Dream of Scipio 2.6.2–5; Vitruvius 1.6.9; and Bernard R. Goldstein, “Eratosthenes on the ‘Measurement’ of the Earth,” Historica Mathematica 11 (1984) 411–16.
7. Martianus Capella 6.596–8.
8. Strabo 2.1.20.
9. There was also the story of a well at Syene whose bottom was illuminated by the sun at the solstice, but this is not documented until Roman times, when it became a tourist attraction (Pliny, Natural History 2.183).
10. Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria, vol. 1, pp. 414–15.
11. James Evans and J. Lennart Berggren, Geminos's Introduction to the Phenomena (Princeton 2006) 211–12.
12. Aubrey Diller, “Geographical Latitudes in Eratosthenes, Hipparchus and Posidonius,” Klio 27 (1934) 258–69.
13. Roller, Eratosthenes 271–3; Thomson, History 161–2.
14. Pliny, Natural History 2.247.
15. Arrian, Anabasis 5.3.1–4, 5.6.2–3; Indika 3.1–5.
16. Strabo 2.1.1, 2.5.24, 8.8.4.
17. O. A. W. Dilke, Greek and Roman Maps (Ithaca 1985) 33–5; Thomson, History 135, 142; Irby, “Mapping the World,” 101–4.
18. Eratosthenes, Geography F15, 25 (= Strabo 1.3.3–4, 1.4.1).
19. Eratosthenes, Geography F33 (= Strabo 1.4.6).
20. Eratosthenes, Geography F30 (= Strabo 2.5.5–6).
21. On the unusual geographical diction of Eratosthenes, see Klaus Geus, “Measuring the Earth and the Oikoumene: Zones, Meridians, Sphragides and Some Other Geographical Terms Used by Eratosthenes of Cyrene,” in Space in the Roman World (Antike Kultur und Geschichte 5, ed. Kai Brodersen, Münster 2004) 11–26.
22. Eratosthenes, Geography F30–1 (= Strabo 2.5.5–6, 13).
23. Eratosthenes, Geography F40–3 (= Strabo 2.1.20); Pliny, Natural History 2.183–5, 6.171; Ammianus Marcellinus 22.15.31.
24. Eratosthenes, Geography F47 (= Strabo 2.1.1–3).
25. Eratosthenes, Geography F131 (= Strabo 2.1.41).
26. Eratosthenes, Geography F56 (= Strabo 2.1.33).
27. Eratosthenes, Geography F34 (= Strabo 2.5.7–9).
28. Eratosthenes, Geography F37 (= Strabo 1.4.5).
29. Eratosthenes, Geography F66 (= Strabo 2.1.22); Roller, Eratosthenes 26.
30. Serena Bianchetti, “Il valore del racconto di viaggio nell'opera geografica di Eratosthene,” in Vermessing der Oikumene (ed. Klaus Geus and Michael Rathmann, Berlin 2013) 77–86; Katherine Clarke, Between Geography and History: Hellenistic Constructions of the Roman World (Oxford 1999) 207.
31. Roller, Eratosthenes 164–5.
32. Eratosthenes, Geography F92 (= Strabo 2.1.32).
33. The toponyms are listed in Roller, Eratosthenes 223–48.
34. Eratosthenes, Geography F108 (= Strabo 8.8.9).
35. Eratosthenes, Geography F110 (= Strabo 11.6.1).
36. Eratosthenes, Geography F98, 107 (= Strabo 17.1.2, 17.3.8.
37. Strabo 2.1.41.
38. Eratosthenes, Geography F60 (= Strabo 2.5.40).
39. Eratosthenes, Geography F155 (= Strabo 1.4.9).
40. Mention in this passage of the Romans and the excellence of their government, which Eratosthenes hardly knew about, is probably a gloss, even an unconscious one, by Strabo.
41. D. R. Dicks, The Geographical Fragments of Hipparchus (London 1960) 3–6.
42. Hipparchos, Against the “Geography” of Eratosthenes F34 (= Strabo 2.1.41).
43. Hipparchos, Against the “Geography” of Eratosthenes F12–15 (= Strabo 2.1.1–11).
44. Dicks, Geographical Fragments 32–3.
45. Hipparchos, Against the “Geography” of Eratosthenes F50 (= Strabo 2.5.39).
46. Hipparchos, Against the “Geography” of Eratosthenes F12–14 (= Strabo 2.1.4, 7, 11), F53–5 (= Strabo 1.4.4, 2.1.12, 2.5.8).
47. Hipparchos, Against the “Geography” of Eratosthenes F39, 43–61.
48. Hipparchos, Against the “Geography” of Eratosthenes F48 (= Strabo 2.5.38).
49. Hipparchos, Against the “Geography” of Eratosthenes F11 (= Strabo 1.1.12).
50. Eratosthenes, Geography F1 (= Strabo 1.1.1); Francesco Prontera, Geografia e storia nella Grecia antica (Florence 2011) 3–14.
51. Lionel Pearson, The Local Historians of Attica (Atlanta 1981) 31–2.
52. Suetonius, Grammarians 2; Strabo 1.1.7, 1.2.24, 31.
53. Strabo 1.2.31; see also Geminos 6.10–21.
54. Strabo 2.5.10. A drawing of the globe appears in Thomson, History 203.
55. Dilke, Greek and Roman Maps 36–7.
56. Tomislav Bilić, “Crates of Mallos and Pytheas of Massalia: Examples of Homeric Exegesis in Terms of Mathematical Geography,” TAPA 142 (2012) 295–328.
57. FGrHist #2013; Strabo 13.1.45.
58. Strabo 1.2.38.
59. FGrHist #244; Strabo 8.3.6.
60. Strabo 13.1.36.
61. Lawrence Kim, “The Portrait of Homer in Strabo's Geography,” CP 102 (2007) 363–8.
62. Bunbury, History, vol. 2, pp. 61–9; R. Stiehle, “Der Geograph Artemidoros von Ephesos,” Philologus 11 (1856) 193–244; Johannes Engels, “Artemidoros of Ephesos and Strabo of Amasia,” in Intorno al Papiro di Artemidoro 2: Geografia e Cartografia (ed. C. Gallazzi et al., Rome 2012) 139–55.
63. Infra, p. 213.
64. Strabo 15.1.72.
65. See Bunbury, History, vol. 2, pp. 65–6, for the calculations.
66. Strabo 1.1.8–9, 3.5.9; Duane W. Roller, “Seleukos of Seleukeia,” AntCl 74 (2005) 111–18.
67. Plutarch, Platonic Questions 8.1.
Chapter 7 The New Roman World
1. Pliny, Natural History 18.22–3.
2. Polybios 3.22; Strabo 17.1.19.
3. The earliest Greek reference to Rome, if authentic, seems to be by Damastes of Sigeion (Dionysios of Halikarnassos, Roman Antiquities 1.72). Aristotle certainly knew about the Romans (Plutarch, Camillus 22.3).
4. Boardman, Greeks Overseas 228–9; see also, for the first Greek literary reference to the Etruscans (although not undisputed), Hekataios F59 (= Stephanos of Byzantion, “Aithale: Tyrsenian island”).
5. Diodoros 14.93.3–4; Appian, Italika 8.1.
6. Robert K. Sherk, “Roman Geographical Exploration and Military Maps,” ANRW 2.1 (1974) 534–62; Susan P. Mattern, Rome and the Enemy: Imperial Strategy in the Principate (Berkeley 1999) 24–80.
7. Polybios 3.48.12; F. W. Walbank, Polybius (Berkeley 1972) 11.
8. Nevertheless, Herodotos (4.49) thought “Alpis” was the name of a river.
9. Eratosthenes, Geography F51, 147 (= Strabo 2.1.11); Stephanos of Byzantion, “Tauriskoi.”
10. Polybios 34.15.7; Marijean H. Eichel and Joan Markley Todd, “A Note on Polybius’ Voyage to Africa in 146 BC,” CP 71 (1976) 237–43.
11. Polybios 34.15.9; Strabo 1.3.2.
12. Pliny, Natural History 6.199–201.
13. Roller, Pillars 100–4.
14. Geminos 16.32.
15. Eratosthenes, Geography F45 (= Strabo 2.3.2); see also Strabo 2.5.7.
16. Polybios 34.1.7–18.
17. Polybios 34.10.6–7.
18. Strabo 4.2.1.
19. Polybios 12.28.1, 3.59.8.
20. The geographical section survives today only in quotation, mostly from Strabo and Pliny, which have been collected as Book 34 of the Histories; see also Strabo 8.1.1; F. W. Walbank, “The Geography of Polybius,” ClMed 9 (1947) 155–82.
21. Pausanias 8.30.8.
22. Strabo 17.3.2.
23. Polybios 3.95.5, 10.10.1–2; Livy 22.19.5.
24. Cicero, Letters to Friends 5.12.2.
25. Strabo 3.3.1. His data from Brutus’ report may have been obtained derivatively from Polybios or Poseidonios.
26. Periplous of the Erythraian Sea 26; Lionel Casson, The Periplus Maris Erythraei (Princeton 1989) 159.
27. Poseidonios F49 (= Strabo 2.3.4–5); there are derivative comments by Pomponius Mela (3.90) and Pliny (Natural History 2.169); see also J. H. Thiel, Eudoxus of Cyzicus (Groningen 1939); Kidd, Commentary 240–57; Roller, Pillars 107–11.
28. Aristotle, Meteorologika 2.5.
29. Thiel, Eudoxus 18; Casson, Periplus 224; James Beresford, The Ancient Sailing Season (Leiden 2013) 213–35.
30. Periplous of the Erythraian Sea 1; Casson, Periplus 13–14, 96.
31. Strabo 2.5.12.
32. Strabo 1.2.1.
33. BNJ #184; Strabo 11.5.1, 13.1.55; Pliny, Natural History 8.36, 37.61; see also Scholia to Apollonios, Argonautika 4.834.
34. Plutarch, Lucullus 23–32; Appian, Mithridateios 89–90.
35. Eratosthenes, Geography F87 (= Strabo 16.1.21–2).
36. The fragments of his writings are collected as BNJ #188.
37. Plutarch, Pompeius 33–6.
38. Theophanes F5 (= Strabo 11.14.4).
39. Theophanes F6 (= Strabo 11.14.1); see also Strabo 11.4.1–8.
40. Jacqueline Fabre-Serris, “Comment parler des Amazones? L'exemple de Diodore de Sicile et de Strabon,” CRIPEL 27 (2008) 46–8.
41. Appian, Mithridateios 103.
42. H. H. Scullard, From the Gracchi to Nero (4th edn, London 1976) 425.
43. Plutarch, Crassus 16.2.
44. I. G. Kidd, Posidonius 3: The Translation of the Fragments (Cambridge 1999) 3–5.
45. Poseidonios F49 (= Strabo 2.2.1–3.8); Kidd, Commentary 216–75; Clarke, Between Geography and History 139–54.
46. Strabo 1.1.1.
47. Aristotle, Meteorologika 2.5.
48. Seneca, Natural Questions 1, Preface 13.
49. For example, Poseidonios F269 (= Strabo 3.4.17).
50. Strabo 2.4.2.
51. J. J. Tierney, “The Celtic Ethnography of Posidonius,” Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy 60C5 (1960) 189–275.
52. Strabo 4.4.2–6; Athenaios 13.594de, 4.151e-152f, 154ac, 6.246cd (= Poseidonios F66–9).
53. Diodoros 5.25–32; Caesar, Gallic War 6.11–28.
54. Poseidonios F227 (= Strabo 5.2.11).
55. Poseidonios F202, 204 (= Kleomedes 1.7; Strabo 2.5.14).
56. Poseidonios F217–18 (= Strabo 1.1.7, 3.5.7–8).
57. Kleomedes 2.1, 3.
58. Poseidonios F221, 223, 246 (= Strabo 1.3.9, 3.5.5–6, 17.3.10).
59. Strabo 16.2.10.
60. Leandro Polverini, “Cesare e la geografia,” Semanas de estudios romanos 14 (2005) 59–72.
61. Caesar, Gallic War 6.24; Kidd, Commentary 308.
62. Caesar, Gallic War 1.37–43.
63. Poseidonios F219. The river is also named in the Aristotelian On Marvellous Things Heard (168), whose date is uncertain.
64. Caesar, Gallic War 3.9, 21; 4.10; 6.24.
65. Caesar, Gallic War 4.20–36, 5.7–23.
66. Caesar, Gallic War 4.20.
67. Caesar, Gallic War 5.13. The difference between the length of night at the summer solstice in London and Paris is 28 minutes.
68. Plutarch, Caesar 23.2.
69. Lucan 10.268–331; Suetonius, Divine Julius 52.1; Appian, Civil War 2.90.
70. Eratosthenes, Geography F34 (= Strabo 2.5.7).
71. Strabo 7.3.17.
72. Eratosthenes, Geography F34, 53, 58 (= Strabo 2.5.7, 2.5.14, 2.2.2).
73. Eratosthenes, Geography F30 (= Strabo 2.5.6).
74. Eratosthenes, Geography F33 (= Strabo 1.4.6).
75. Eratosthenes, Geography F30 (= Strabo 2.5.5).
76. Cicero, Republic 6.20–2; Pliny, Natural History 2.171–5.
77. Seneca, Medea 375–9.
78. Plutarch, Concerning the Face that Appears on the Globe of the Moon 26; Lucian, True Narrative 1.
79. Roller, Pillars 54–6.
80. R. Scheckley, “Romans in Rio?” Omni 5 (June 1983) 43; Frank J. Frost, “Voyages of the Imagination,” Archaeology 46.2 (March/April 1993) 47.
81. Casson, Periplus 123.
82. Dalby, Food 159.
83. Periplous of the Erythraian Sea 64; see also Casson, Periplus 238–41.
84. Lucan 10.142.
85. Thomson, History 178.
Chapter 8 Geography in the Augustan Period
1. Strabo 17.1.24–54; Pliny, Natural History 6.181–2; Dio 54.5.4–6.
2. For a complete study, see Duane W. Roller, The World of Juba II and Kleopatra Selene: Royal Scholarship on Rome's African Frontier (London 2003); for the fragments of Juba's writings, Roller, Scholarly Kings 1–169, and BNJ #275.
3. Pliny, Natural History 5.51–4.
4. Vitruvius 8.2.8.
5. Strabo 15.1.13.
6. Vitruvius 8.2.6–7; Strabo 17.3.4; Pausanias 1.33.6; Dio 76.13.3.
7. Ptolemy, Geographical Guide 1.9, 17; also 4.6–8.
8. John Hanning Speke, Journal of the Discovery of the Source of the Nile (New York 1868) 420–1; Thomson, History 268–9, 275–7.
9. Pliny, Natural History 6.202–5; Herodotos 4.49; Roller, Pillars 47–9.
10. Pliny, Natural History 6.175–80.
11. Velleius 2.101–2; Pliny, Natural History 6.141, 12.55–6, 32.10; see also Roller, Juba 212–26.
12. G. W. Bowersock, “Perfumes and Power,” in Profumi d'Arabia (ed. Alessandra Avanzini, Rome 1997) 543–56.
13. Strabo 16.4.22–4; G. W. Bowersock, Roman Arabia (Cambridge, MA, 1983) 46–9. On whether the expedition was a success or failure, see Bowersock, “Perfumes and Power,” 551–3.
14. Dario Nappo, “On the Location of Leuke Kome,” JRA 23 (2010) 335–48.
15. Pliny, Natural History 6.136–56, 165–7.
16. BNJ #781; Pliny, Natural History 6.141 (erroneously called “Dionysios,” not “Isidoros”); Roller, Juba 217–19; Wilfrid H. Schoff, Parthian Stations of Isidore of Charax (London 1914).
17. Pliny, Natural History 6.145.
18. On the routes involved, see Fergus Millar, “Caravan Cities: the Roman Near East and Long-Distance Trade by Land,” in Essays in Honor of Geoffrey Rickman (ed. Michael M. Austin et al., London 1998) 123–6.
19. Pliny, Natural History 6.96–106, 12.51–81.
20. Pliny, Natural History 6.175.
21. Strabo 2.5.12.
22. Eratosthenes, Geography F150 (= Caesar, Gallic War 6.24).
23. Barbara Levick, Tiberius the Politician (London 1976) 27–8.
24. Strabo 7.1.5; Pomponius Mela 3.24; Pliny, Natural History 9.63.
25. “Danuvius” is the most common form of the name in Latin; Greek sources usually continued to use “Istros.”
26. The Nile had different names in its upper course, and this is the case today with both the Ohio and Missouri.
27. Caesar, Gallic War 6.25; Diodoros 5.25.
28. Strabo 7.3.13.
29. Caesar, Gallic War 4.17–18, 6.9; Cary and Warmington, Ancient Explorers 276.
30. Strabo 7.1.3; Velleius 2.97; Dio 55.1.
31. Livy, Summary 141–2; Dio 54.33.1–3.
32. Pomponius Mela 3.33.
33. Velleius 2.97; Dio 54.20.4–6.
34. Olwen Brogan, “Trade Between the Roman Empire and the Free Germans,” JRS 26 (1936) 195–222.
35. Velleius 2.118–19; Suetonius, Augustus 23; Tacitus, Annals 1.61; Dio 56.18–22.
36. Tacitus, Germania 41.
37. Pliny, Natural History 4.96; Ptolemy, Geographical Guide 2.11.35.
38. For Archelaos' writings, see FGrHist #123; Roller, Scholarly Kings 170–6.
39. Diogenes Laertios 2.17; Strabo 1.1.16.
40. Pliny, Natural History 37.46; Solinus 52.18–23; see also Cary and Warmington, Ancient Explorers 195.
41. Examples include Horace, Odes 1.12.56, 3.29.27, 4.15.23; and Ovid, Amores 1.14.6.
42. Vergil, Georgics 1.121.
43. Strabo 15.1.37.
44. Pausanias 6.26.6–9; see J. G. Frazer, Pausanias's Description of Greece (reprint New York 1965) vol. 4, pp. 110–11. Pausanias was uncertain where the Seres lived, believing that Seria was an island in the Erythraian Sea, or somewhere else south or east of Egypt – another example of confusing points along a route with the place of origin of the commodities traded. Much earlier, Aristotle (History of Animals 5.19 [551b]) described some indigenous Greek way of weaving the fibers of a cocoon, which probably has nothing to do with Chinese silk. See also Pliny, Natural History 6.54.
45. Strabo 2.5.12.
46. Augustus, Res gestae 31.1; the choice of words is significant, “Romanorum ducem” indicating that there might have been previous contact with private citizens.
47. Orosios 6.21.
48. Nikolaos (FGrHist #90) F100 (= Strabo 15.1.73).
49. Grant Parker, The Making of Roman India (Cambridge 2008) 210–17.
50. The itineraries and dates for these journeys are listed in Helmut Halfmann, Itinera principum (Stuttgart 1986) 163.
51. Pliny, Natural History 3.17.
52. Dilke, Greek and Roman Maps 41–53; Pascal Arnaud, “Texte et carte de Marcus Agrippa: historiographie et données textuelles,” Geographia antiqua 16–17 (2007–8) 73–126; Claude Nicolet, Space, Geography, and Politics (Ann Arbor 1991) 95–122; Richard J. A. Talbert, “Urbs Roma to Orbis Romanus: Roman Mapping on the Grand Scale,” in Ancient Perspectives: Maps and their Place in Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece and Rome (ed. Richard J. A. Talbert, Chicago 2012) 167–70; James J. Tierney, “The Map of Agrippa,” Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy 63C (1963) 151–66.
53. Pliny, Natural History 4.77, 81, 98, 102; 5.9–10; 6.37–9, 57, 196.
54. Dilke, Greek and Roman Maps 40.
55. A good example is at Natural History 5.73: “below them [the Essenes] was the town of Engada.”
56. Strabo 1.1.16; 5.2.7,8; 6.1.11, 6.2.11, 6.3.10.
57. Arnaud, “Texte et carte,” 89–94.
58. Vitruvius 8.2.6.
59. For a complete analysis of Strabo and his work, see Roller, Geography of Strabo 1–27; Clarke, Between Geography and History 193–336.
60. Lawrence Kim, Homer Between History and Fiction in Imperial Greek Literature (Cambridge 2010) 47–150.
61. Richard D. Sullivan, “Dynasts in Pontus,” ANRW 7.2 (1980) 920–2.
62. Johannes Engels, “Kulturgeographie im Hellenismus: Die Rezeption des Eratosthenes und Poseidonios durch Strabon in den Geographika,” in Vermessing der Oikumene (ed. Klaus Geus and Michael Rathmann, Berlin 2013) 87–99.
63. François Lasserre, “Strabon devant l'Empire romain,” ANRW 30 (1982–3) 867–96.
64. Strabo 1.1.1.
Chapter 9 The Remainder of the First Century AD
1. Pliny, Natural History 2.167, 4.97.
2. Velleius 2.106; Dio 55.28.5.
3. Pomponius Mela 3.30–2; Pliny, Natural History 4.96–8.
4. Augustus, Res gestae 26.
5. Pliny, Natural History 2.167.
6. Strabo 2.3.6.
7. Pliny, Natural History 4.95; 37.33,36; Ptolemy, Geographical Guide 1.11.8.
8. Pliny, Natural History 37.45.
9. Tacitus, Annals 2.23–6.
10. Seneca the Elder, Suasoriae 1.15.
11. Tacitus, Germania 28, 37, 41, 46.
12. Casson, Periplus 16–18.
13. Pliny, Natural History 6.101.
14. See Casson, Periplus, for a text, translation, and commentary.
15. The date of this settlement and its temple is uncertain. It is documented on the late-antique map, the Peutinger Map; see also Casson, Periplus 24. For the location of Muziris, see Rajan Gurukkhal and Dick Whittaker, “In Search of Muziris,” JRA 14 (2001) 335–50.
16. Casson, Periplus 228–9.
17. Periplous of the Erythraian Sea 63; see also Pomponius Mela 3.70; Pliny, Natural History 6.80.
18. Casson, Periplus 235–6.
19. Periplous of the Erythraian Sea 64–5; Dalby, Food 206; Casson, Periplus 241–3.
20. Periplous of the Erythraian Sea 66.
21. Strabo 15.1.15; Periplous of the Erythraian Sea 61. There may be a lacuna in the text of the Periplous at this point.
22. Pliny, Natural History 6.81–91.
23. Samuel Lieberman, “Who Were Pliny's Blue-Eyed Chinese?” CP 52 (1957) 174–7.
24. Dio 68.15.
25. Infra, p. 199.
26. Ptolemy, Geographical Guide 1.13–14.
27. Ptolemy, Geographical Guide 7.2; Berggren and Jones, Ptolemy's Geography 155–6.
28. Mortimer Wheeler, Rome Beyond the Imperial Frontiers (London 1955) 203–10.
29. Berggren and Jones, Ptolemy's Geography 173–4.
30. Ptolemy, Geographical Guide 7.2.29, 8.27.10; see also Pomponius Mela 3.70.
31. Pliny, Natural History 5.11–15; Suetonius, Gaius 35; Dio 60.9.
32. F. de la Chapelle, “L'expédition de Suetonius Paulinus dans le sud-est du Maroc,” Hespéris 19 (1934) 107–24.
33. Pliny, Natural History 5.7.
34. P. Salama, “The Sahara in Classical Antiquity,” in General History of Africa 2: Ancient Civilizations of Africa (ed. G. Mokhtar, Paris and London 1981) 513–32.
35. Pliny, Natural History 5.36; Law, “Garamantes,” 181–200.
36. Ptolemy, Geographical Guide 1.8; Berggren and Jones, Ptolemy's Geography 145–7.
37. Ptolemy, Geographical Guide 1.7–12, 4.6.3, 4.8.5, 7.5.2; Ptolemaios, Handbuch der Geographie (ed. Alfred Stückelberger and Gerd Grasshoff, Basel 2006), vol. 1, p. 445.
38. Berggren and Jones, Ptolemy's Geography 67; Pliny, Natural History 8.70–1.
39. Lucan 10.191–2.
40. Strabo 17.1.5.
41. Seneca, Natural Questions 4a.2.3–5; Pliny, Natural History 5.55–8.
42. Pliny, Natural History 6.181–7.
43. Seneca, Natural Questions 6.8.4; see also 6.7.2–3.
44. Seneca, Natural Questions 4a.2.7.
45. Cary and Warmington, Ancient Explorers 211–13; Thomson, History 272.
46. Ptolemy, Geographical Guide 1.9.
47. Ptolemy, Geographical Guide 1.17.6.
48. Ptolemy, Geographical Guide 4.7.26.
49. Richard Burton, however, believed it was a Greek translation of an indigenous name: Richard Francis Burton, The Lake Regions of Central Equatorial Africa (Journal of the Royal Geographical Society 29 [1859]) 205.
50. Cary and Warmington, Ancient Explorers 214–15.
51. Edward Rice, Captain Sir Richard Francis Burton (New York 1991) 355.
52. Strabo 4.5.2.
53. Strabo 4.5.3.
54. Suetonius, Claudius 17.1; Dio 59.25, 60.19–23.
55. Tacitus, Agricola 30.1.
56. Katherine Clarke, “An Island Nation: Re-Reading Tacitus' Agricola,” JRS 91 (2001) 94–112.
57. Tacitus, Agricola 10, 29.2, 38.3; Dio 66.20.1.
58. Elmar Seebold, “Die Entdeckung der Orkneys in der Antike,” Glotta 85 (2009) 195–216.
59. Tacitus, Agricola 4.
60. Stan Wolfson, Tacitus, Thule and Caledonia: the Achievements of Agricola's Navy in their True Perspective (Oxford 2008) 35–46.
61. Silius Italicus 3.597.
62. Freeman, Ireland 33–6.
63. Strabo 1.4.3; see also 2.1.13, 17–18; 4.5.5.
64. Caesar, Gallic War 5.13.
65. Pomponius Mela 3.53.
66. For a list, see Freeman, Ireland 65–84.
67. For Pomponius Mela, see F. E. Romer, Pomponius Mela's Description of the World [Ann Arbor 1998); Kai Brodersen, Terra Cognita (Spudasmata 59, Zürich 1995) 87–94.
68. Pomponius Mela 2.96, 3.49.
69. Pomponius Mela 1.50, 3.38.
70. Romer, Pomponius Mela's Description 23.
71. Pomponius Mela 1.86, 3.90.
72. Pliny, Natural History 2.199, 3.132, 5.4, 6.5, 31, 199.
73. Pomponius Mela 3.45; see also Pliny, Natural History 2.170; Klaus Tausend, “Inder in Germanien,” OT 5 (1999) 115–25.
74. Paul T. Keyser, “Turranius Gracilis,” EANS 820.
75. Pliny, Natural History 2.89; 3.66.
76. Pliny, Natural History 2.5.
77. Pliny, Natural History 2.117–18.
78. Trevor Murphy, Pliny the Elder's Natural History: The Empire in the Encyclopedia (Oxford 2004) 129–64.
79. Sorcha Carey, Pliny's Catalogue of Culture: Art and Empire in the Natural History (Oxford 2003) 32–40.
80. Pliny, Natural History, Preface 1–5.
81. Molly Ayn Jones-Lewis, “Poison: Nature's Argument for the Roman Empire in Pliny the Elder's Naturalis Historia,” CW 106 (2012) 51–74.
82. Pliny, Natural History 4.101, 105; 5.51–2; 36.1.
83. Pliny, Natural History 6.81–91.
84. Pliny, Natural History 3.46; A. H. M. Jones, The Cities of the Eastern Roman Provinces (Oxford 1937) 491–6.
85. Pliny, Natural History 6.178–80.
86. Plutarch, Concerning the Face that Appears on the Globe of the Moon 26.
87. Plutarch, Symposium 7.4.7.
Chapter 10 The Later Roman Empire
1. Krisztina Hoppál, “The Roman Empire According to the Ancient Chinese Sources,” AAntHung 51 (2011) 263–306.
2. Ferguson, “China and Rome,” 591–2.
3. Schoff, Parthian Stations 40–2.
4. Supra, pp. 165?6.
5. Cary and Warmington, Ancient Explorers 105–6.
6. D. D. Leslie and K. H. J. Gardiner, The Roman Empire in Chinese Sources (Rome 1996) 3–31.
7. Periplous of the Erythraian Sea 39, 49, 64.
8. Tacitus, Annals 2.33; Suetonius, Gaius 52.
9. Ptolemy, Geographical Guide 1.11–12.
10. Berggren and Jones, Ptolemy's Geography 179.
11. BA, Map 6, D2.
12. Berggren and Jones, Ptolemy's Geography 152.
13. Ferguson, “China and Rome,” 594–5.
14. Casson, Periplus 27.
15. Pausanias 6.26.6.
16. Berggren and Jones, Ptolemy's Geography 23.
17. Alexander Jones, “Ptolemy's Geography: Mapmaking and the Scientific Enterprise,” in Ancient Perspectives: Maps and their Place in Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece and Rome (ed. Richard J. A. Talbert, Chicago 2012) 109–10.
18. Berggren and Jones, Ptolemy's Geography 17–18.
19. Ptolemy, Geographical Guide 1.6.
20. Ptolemy, Geographical Guide 1.4.
21. Richard J. A. Talbert. Review of Dueck and Brodersen, Geography in Classical Antiquity: Key Themes in Ancient History (Cambridge 2012), BMCR 2012.12.29.
22. Ptolemy, Geographical Guide 8.2; Berggren and Jones, Ptolemy's Geography 41–50.
23. Thomson, History 337–8.
24. For Columbus' use of the ancient sources, see V. Frederick Rickey, “How Columbus Encountered America,” Mathematics Magazine 65 (1992) 219–25.
25. Samuel Eliot Morison, Christopher Columbus, Mariner (New York 1956) 18–19, 69.
26. Ptolemy, Geographical Guide 6.7.1–47, 7.4.1–13; Ptolemaios (ed. Stückelberger and Grasshoff) 874–5, 906–7.
27. Alastair Strang, “Explaining Ptolemy's Roman Britain,” Britannia 38 (1997) 1–30; Barri Jones and Ian Keillar, “Marinus, Ptolemy and the Turning of Scotland,” Britannia 27 (1996) 43–9; James J. Tierney, “Ptolemy's Map of Scotland,” JHS 79 (1959) 132–48.
28. Ptolemy, Geographical Guide 7.5.4, 6.14.2.
29. Ptolemy, Geographical Guide 7.5.2; Hipparchos, Against the “Geography” of Eratosthenes F4 (= Strabo 1.1.9); Polybios 3.38.
30. Ptolemy, Geographical Guide 7.3.3; Thomson, History 277–8.
31. Cicero, Letters to Atticus #24, 26.
32. Cicero, Republic 6.21–2.
33. Cicero, Academica 2.123; Plutarch, Concerning the Face that Appears on the Globe of the Moon 26; Paul Coones, “The Geographical Significance of Plutarch's Dialogue, Concerning the Face which Appears in the Orb of the Moon,” Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 8 (1983) 361–72.
34. Ptolemy, Geographical Guide 1.7.11, 3.5.3.
35. Ptolemy, Geographical Guide 2.11.33, 35.
36. Ptolemy, Geographical Guide 3.5.1; this was an ethnym known as early as Herodotos (4.21).
37. Periplous of the Erythraian Sea 66.
38. Wheeler, Rome Beyond 28, 47, 98; Thomas Grane, “Did the Romans Really Know (or Care) about Southern Scandinavia? An Archaeological Perspective,” in Beyond the Roman Frontier: Roman Influences on Northern Barbaricum (ed. Thomas Grane, Rome 2007) 7–29.
39. J. M. Alonso-Nuñez, “A Note on Roman Coins Found in Iceland,” OJA 5 (1986) 121–2; M. P. Charlesworth, “A Roman Imperial Coin From Nairobi,” NC 9 (1949) 107–10; Yves Janvier, “La geographie greco-romaine a-t-elle connu Madagascar?” Omaly sy Anio 1–2 (1975) 11–41.
40. Wheeler, Rome Beyond 203–6.
41. Supra, p. 153.
42. Athenaios 3.121a, 14.657f.
43. See further, infra, p. 216.
44. L. Richardson jr, A New Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome (Baltimore 1992) 319–20.
45. Dilke, Greek and Roman Maps 104–6.
46. Richard J. A. Talbert, Rome's World: The Peutinger Map Reconsidered (Cambridge 2010).
47. Talbert, Rome's World 144–6.
48. Tønnes Bekker-Nielsen, “Terra Incognita: the Subjective Geography of the Roman Empire,” in Studies in Ancient History and Numismatics Presented to Rudi Thomsen (ed. Erik Christiansen et al., Aarhus 1988) 148–61.
49. Strabo 1.1.1.
50. Herodotos 2.104–6.
51. Strabo 16.2.35–9; Cinzia Achille, “Strabone e la storia giudaica: la progressiva corruzione della legge di Mosè,” Sungraphe 6 (2004) 89–105.
52. Augustine, City of God 8.11, 16.9.
53. John Watson McCrindle, The Christian Topography of Cosmas, an Egyptian Monk (London 1897).
54. Kosmas 113.
55. Kosmas 132, 140.
56. Periplous of the Erythraian Sea 4; Stanley M. Burstein, “Axum and the Fall of Meroe,” JARCE 18 (1981) 47–50.
57. Kosmas 134–5.
58. Kosmas 265–7.
59. Kosmas 149.
60. Kosmas 194.
61. For the printing history of these works, see Dictionary of Greek and Latin Authors and Texts, BNP Supplement 2 (ed. Manfred Landfester et al., 2009) 505, 548–9, 598–9.
Appendix 2 Some Further Notes on Mapping in Antiquity
1. Francesca Rochberg, “The Expression of Terrestrial and Celestial Order in Ancient Mesopotamia,” in Ancient Perspectives: Maps and Their Place in Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece and Rome (ed. Richard J. A. Talbert, Chicago 2012) 9–46.
2. For the terminology involved, see Dilke, Greek and Roman Maps 196–7.
3. Ephoros F30a (= Strabo 1.2.28).
4. Kosmas 149; Geus, “Space and Geography,” 233.
5. Stanley M. Burstein, Review of Kai Brodersen and Jas Elsner (eds), Images and Texts on the “Artemidorus Papyrus,” BMCR 2010.10.20; Richard Janko, “The Artemidorus Papyrus,” CR 59 (2009) 403–10.
6. Richard J. A. Talbert, “P. Artemid.: The Map,” in Images and Texts on the “Artemidorus Papyrus” (ed. Kai Brodersen and Jas Elsner, Stuttgart 2009) 57–64.
7. Irby, “Mapping the World” 81–107.
8. Agathemeros 1.1; Diogenes Laertios 2.2.
9. Herodotos 5.49.
10. For example, Herodotos' description of the Persian Royal Road (5.52–4).
11. Herodotos 4.42–4.
12. Diogenes Laertios 9.46; Agathemeros 1.1–2; Plutarch, On Isis and Osiris 6.
13. Diogenes Laertios 5.51.
14. Stanley F. Bonner, Education in Ancient Rome (Berkeley 1977) 130–1. Maps that were used for teaching were a conspicuous feature of the schools of Augustodunum (modern Autun in France), a major education center in the Late Roman period (R. Martin, “Augustodunum,” PECS 122–3).
15. Apollonios 4.279–81; the map must be interpreted as a construct from Apollonios' own era of the third century BC, not a document from early times.
16. Eratosthenes, Geography F25, 30 (= Strabo 1.4.1, 2.5.5–6); Roller, Eratosthenes 21.
17. Eratosthenes, Geography F51, 64 (= Strabo 2.1.10–11, 2.1.34).
18. Hipparchos, Against the “Geography” of Eratosthenes F32 (= Strabo 2.1.40).
19. Strabo 2.5.10; Thomson, History 217–18.
20. Supra, pp. 196?200.
21. Brodersen, Terra Cognita; Mattern, “Rome and the Enemy,” 24–66.
22. Livy 41.28.8–10; see Sherk, “Roman Geographical Exploration,” 558–60, for other examples.
23. Supra, pp. 166?7; Pliny, Natural History 3.17: “orbem terrarum urbi spectandus.”
24. Tina Najbjerg and Jennifer Trimble, “The Severan Marble Plan Since 1960,” in Formae Urbis Romae (ed. Roberto Meneghini and Riccardo Santangeli Valenzani, Rome 2006) 75–101.
25. Supra, p. 203; Talbert, “Urbs Roma” 163–91.
26. Propertius, Elegies (ed. G. P. Goold, Cambridge, Mass. 1990) 2.
27. Propertius 4.3.37–40.