PROLOGUE
1. Ralph Adams Brown, The Presidency of John Adams (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1975), 207-8.
2. Ibid., 206.
3. John Ferling, John Adams: A Life (New York: Henry Holt and Co., 1996), 409.
4. Brown, Presidency,207.
5. Brown, Presidency,206; Ferling, John Adams (“Genteel Dwelling”), 296.
6. To Benjamin Stoddert, 31 Mar. 1801, quoted in Richard Rosenfeld, American Aurora: A Democratic-Republican Returns: The Suppressed History of Our Nation’s Beginning and the Heroic Newspaper That Tried to Report It (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1997), 901.
7. Dictionary of American Biography (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1933) s.v. 6, “L’Enfant, Pierre-Charles.”
8. Stanley Elkins and Eric McKitrick, The (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 171; WPA Guide to Washington, D.C., 20, 60-63. Age of Federalism:The Early American Republic,1788-1800
9. WPA Guide, 30.
10. Thomas Froncek, ed., An Illustrated History of the City of Washington by the Junior League of Washington (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1977), 87.
11. Bess Furman, White House Profile (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1951), 29.
12. Bob Arnebeck, Through a Fiery Trial: Building Washington, 1790–1800 (Lanham, Md.: Yale University Press, 1962), 595.
13. Ibid., 574-75.
14. Constance M. Green, Washington, Village and Capital, 1800-1878 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1962), 21.
CHAPTER 1: PHILADELPHIA, SUMMER 1787
1. The Federalist, no. 10.
2. Jefferson to Adams, 30 Aug. 1787, in Lester J. Cappon, ed., The Adams-Jefferson Letters: The Complete Correspondence Between Thomas Jefferson and Abigail and John Adams, vol. 1, 1774-1804 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1959), 196.
3. Dictionary of American Biography, s.v. “Madison, James.”
4. Max Farrand, ed., Records of the Federal Convention of 1787, revised edition in four volumes, vol. 3 (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1966), 94.
5. Ibid., 27, 33-34.
6. Ibid., 167.
7. Ibid., 176-79. The actual free population figures according to Rossiter’s authoritative The Grand Convention were 378,787 for Massachusetts, 318,796 for New York, and 2,964,047 for the thirteen states as a whole.
8. All of the facts concerning Hamilton’s birth are a little murky. He gave his birthdate as 1757, but there is some arguable evidence that it was 1755. See James Flexner, The Young Hamilton: A Biography (Boston: Little, Brown, 1978), 18, 31-32.
9. Ibid., 35.
10. Farrand, Records, III, 234. “a un pen trop de pretentions et trop peu de prudence... a force de vouloir tout conduire, il manque son but.”
11. Ibid., 89.
12. Ibid., I, 282-93.
13. Ibid., 451, 490-93, 500.
14. William Peters, A More Perfect Union (New York: Crown Publishers, 1987), 95-96.
15. Ibid., 108, 123-24.
16. Historical Statistics of the United States: Farrand, Records, I, 592-93.
17. Ibid., II, 221, 273.
18. Ibid., Ill, 166.
19. John P. Roche, quoted in Rossiter, Grand Convention, 198.
20. Farrand, Records, I, 48.
21. Ibid., I, 80; II, 29,31.
22. Ibid., II, 99, 101, 103.
23. Ibid., 501, 515, 537.
24. Ibid., 645.
25. US Const, Art VI, emphasis added.
26. Bill Moyers, Report from Philadelphia (New York: Ballantine, 1987), 29, 61, 70, 110.
CHAPTER 2: THE NATION IN 1790
1. The actual figure, according to Historical Statistics of the U.S., was 888,811 square miles for the United States’ land and water area. The United Kingdom (including Northern Ireland) has, at this day, 94,216 square miles; France, 211,207; and Spain, 194,884. Columbia Encyclopedia.
2. Historical Statistics. The figure for the North includes just under 182,000 living in Maine and Vermont, not yet states in 1790, and that for the South about 109,000 in fingers of settlement in Kentucky and Tennessee, likewise still not organized into states.
3. Psalm 24.
4. Kentucky was admitted in 1792, Tennessee in 1796.
5. Letters from an American Farmer, quoted in Bernard A. Weisberger, Many People, One Nation (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1987), 59.
6. Wayne E. Fuller, The American Mail: Enlarger of the Common Life (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1972), 45-47.
7. Robert Dinkin, Voting in Revolutionary America: A Study of Elections in the Original Thirteen States 1776 -1789 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1982), 29-30, 42.
8. Ibid., 88, 55.
9. Eugene H. Roseboom, A History of Presidential Elections (New York: Macmillan, 1957), 4.
CHAPTER 3: WASHINGTON’S HOPEFUL FIRST TERM
1. Douglas Freeman, George Washington: A Biography, vol. 6, Patriot and President (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1957), 166.
2. Ibid., 183.
3. Ibid., 193-94.
4. Stanley Elkins and Eric McKitrick, The Age of Federalism: The Early American Republic, 1788- 1800 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 47- 48.
5. John Ferling, John Adams: A Life (New York: Henry Holt and Co., 1996) 17.
6. Ibid., 129.
7. Elkins and McKitrick, Age of Federalism,533.
8. Ferling, John Adams, 18-19
9. Ibid., 129
10. Ibid., 101.
11. Bill Moyers, Report from Philadelphia (New York: Harper Bros., 1960), 164.
12. Clinton Rossiter, 1 787: The Grand Convention (New York: W. W. Norton, 1987), 20.
13. American Heritage Dictionary of American Quotations (New York: Penguin, 1997).
14. Elkins and McKitrick, Age of Federalism, 49.
15. Freeman, George Washington, vol. 6, 195.
16. Richard B. Bernstein, with Jerome Agel, Amending America: If We Love the Constitution So Much Why Do We Keep Trying to Change It? (New York: Times Books, 1993), 34.
17. Ralph Ketcham, James Madison: A Biography (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1990), 290.
18. Of the two that were not ratified, one attempted to dictate permanently the ratio between population and representation. The other required that any increase in congressional salaries not take effect until an election had intervened. After two hundred years in limbo, it was ratified in May 1992 and is now the Twenty-seventh Amendment.
19. Alvin Josephy, On the Hill: A History of the American Congress (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1979), 55.
20. Elkins and McKitrick, Age of Federalism, 125.
21. Mary-Jo Kline, ed., Alexander Hamilton: A Biography in His Own Words (New York, Newsweek Books, 1972), 229, 232.
22. Josephy, On the Hill, 69.
23. Elkins and McKitrick, Age of Federalism, 142, 144.
24. Ibid., 310.
25. Ibid., 155. Jefferson wrote the story twice, once at a time guessed by scholars to be 1793 and again in 1818.
26. Noble E. Cunningham Jr., The Jeffersonian Republicans: The Formation of Party Organization, 1789- 1801 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1957), 6.
27. Ibid., 5.
28. Jacob E. Cooke, “The Compromise of 1790,” William and Mary Quarterly, Oct. 1970, cited and discussed in Elkins and McKitrick, Age of Federalism, 156-60, 782.
29. Ferling, John Adams, 318.
30. Joel Silbey, ed., “First Congress Under the Constitution,” in The Congress of the United States: Its Origins and Early Development (Brooklyn, N.Y.: Carlson Publishers, 1991), 125.
31. Elkins and McKitrick, Age of Federalism, 229.
32. Kline, Alexander Hamilton, 243.
33. Elkins and McKitrick, Age of Federalism, 234, 237.
34. Freeman, George Washington, vol. 6, 348.
CHAPTER 4: THE CURSE OF FACTION
1. Ralph Ketcham, James Madison: A Biography (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1990), 324.
2. Noble E. Cunningham Jr., The Jeffersonian Republicans: The Formation of Party Organization, 1789- 1801 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1957), 11.
3. Page Smith, John Adams, vol. 2 (New York: Doubleday, 1982), 799-801.
4. Cunningham, Jeffersonian Republicans, 11.
5. Merrill D. Peterson, Thomas Jefferson and the New Nation: A Biography (New York: Oxford University Press, 1970), 441.
6. James Morton Smith, ed., The Republic of Letters: The Correspondence Between Thomas Jefferson and James Madison 1776–1826, vol. 2, / 790- 1804 (New York: W. W. Norton, 1995), 684-85.
7. Ibid., 445.
8. Ibid., 708-10; Ketcham, James Madison, 329- 30.
9. Smith, Republic of Letters, 695, 706.
10. John Ferling, John Adams: A Life (New York: Henry Holt and Co., 1996), 306.
11. Cunningham, Jeffersonian Republicans, 20.
12. 26, 30 Apr. 1792, quoted in Philip M. Marsh, Philip Freneau: Poet and Journalist (Minneapolis: Dillon Press, 1967), 155, 158.
13. Ibid., 157.
14. Cunningham, Jeffersonian Republicans, 21.
15. Ibid., 24.
16. Ibid., 25.
17. Ibid., 26-27.
18. Peterson, Thomas Jefferson, 415–74.
19. Mary-Jo Kline, ed., Alexander Hamilton: A Biography in His Own Words (New York: Newsweek Books, 1972), 275-76.
20. Ibid., 267-70.
21. Smith, Republic of Letters, 715; Stanley Elkins and Eric McKitrick, The Age of Federalism: The Early American Republic, 1788- 1800 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 292.
22. Cunningham, Jeffersonian Republicans, 31-32.
23. Smith, Republic of Letters, 814, 819-20.
24. J. H. Powell, Bring Out Your Dead: The Great Plague of Yellow Fever in Philadelphia in 1193 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1949), 127.
25. Bernard A. Weisberger, “The Paradoxical Dr. Rush,” American Heritage, Dec. 1975.
26. Ibid.
CHAPTER 5: MR. BURR LAUNCHES A MACHINE
1. Rush to Burr, 24 Sep. 1792; Beckley to Madison, 17 Oct. 1792, in Noble E. Cunningham, The Jeffersonian Republicans: The Formation of Party Organization, 1189–1801 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1957), 45- 46.
2. Monroe to Madison, 9 Oct. 1792, in ibid.
3. Herbert Parmet and Marie B. Hecht, Aaron Burr: Portrait of an Ambitious Man (New York: Macmillan, 1967), 65-66; Milton Lomask, Aaron Burr: The Years from Princeton to President, 1756- 1805 (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1979), 144.
4. Lomask, Aaron Burr, 103.
5. Nathaniel Hazard to Hamilton, 25 Nov. 1791, quoted in ibid., 142, 197; Parmet and Hecht, Aaron Burr, 87.
6. Lomask, Aaron Burr, 192.
7. Burr to Peter Van Gaasbeek, 27 May 1795, 23 Apr. 1796, Mary-Jo Kline, ed., Political Correspondence and Public Papers of Aaron Burr, vol. 1 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1983), 210, 250.
8. Quoting Josiah Hoffman to Peter van Shaack, 26 June 1792, Parmet and Hecht, Aaron Burr, 9.
9. Ibid., 82.
10. William L. Smith to Ralph Izard, 18 May 1796, quoted in Kline, Papers of Aaron Burr, 267.
11. Lomask, Aaron Burr, 190.
12. George J. Lankevich and Howard B. Furer, A Brief History of Mew York City (New York: Associated Faculty Press, 1984), 65.
13. Kline, Papers of Aaron Burr, 420-21.
14. Quoted in Bayrd Still, Mirror for Gotham: New York As Seen by Contemporaries from Dutch Days to the Present (New York: New York University Press, 1956), 68-69.
15. Lankevich and Furer, Brief History of New York City, 65.
16. Rochefoucault- Liancourt, Voyage aux Etats- Unis [Albany, 1795], quoted in Arthur J. Weise, The History of the City of Albany New York from the Discovery of the Great River in 1524, by Verrazzano, to the Present Time (Albany, N.Y.: E. H. Bender, 1884), 421.
17. To Natalie Delage [Sumter] 2 Feb. 1800, Burr Papers, Microfilm ed.
18. Weise, History of Albany, 427.
CHAPTER 6: WEDGES OF SECTIONALISM
1. 2 May 1740, Elise Pinckney, ed., The Letterbook of Eliza Lucas Pinckney, 1739- 1762 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1972).
2. N.d., 1741, ibid., 19.
3. Ibid., xxi-xxii.
4. George C. Rogers Jr., Charleston in the Age of the Pinckneys (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1969), 124.
5. Samuel Eliot Morison, The Maritime History of Massachusetts, 1783-1860 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1941), 42.
6. Dictionary of American Biography, s.v. “Ames, Fisher” (vol. 1).
7. Ibid., s.v. “Pickering, Timothy” (vol. 7).
8. Weisberger, “Seeking a Real Tax Revolt,” American Heritage, May/June 1991, 22.
9. Federal Writers Project, Pennsylvania: A Guide to the Keystone State, 298.
10. Thomas Slaughter, The Whiskey Rebellion: Frontier Epilogue to the American Revolution (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), 121.
11. Ibid., 221.
12. Ibid., 123.
13. Ibid., 130, 135.
14. Weisberger, “Tax Revolt,” 24.
CHAPTER 7: TERROR, TURMOIL, AND CITIZEN GENET
1. Joseph J. Ellis, American Sphinx: The Character of Thomas Jefferson (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1998), 158-59.
2. Merrill D. Peterson, Thomas Jefferson and the New Nation: A Biography (New York: Oxford University Press, 1970), 493.
3. Ibid., 516.
4. Ibid.
5. Stanley Elkins and Eric McKitrick, The Age of Federalism: The Early American Republic, 1788- 1800 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 301, quoting Jefferson to Thomas Mann Randolph, 3 Mar. 1793.
6. Broadus Mitchell, Hamilton: A Concise Biography (New York: Oxford University Press, 1976), 318; this is the source used here for the entire story, covering pp. 318-23.
7. Ibid., 320.
8. Adams to Abigail, 24 Jan. 1793, 15 Dec. 1794, quoted in John Ferling, Join Adams: A Life (New York: Henry Holt and Co., 1996), 320.
9. Ibid., 464.
10. Mitchell, Hamilton, 251.
11. Peterson, Thomas Jefferson, 385.
12. Ralph Ketcham, James Madison: A Biography (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1990), 339.
13. Adams to Rufus King, 11 Oct. 1792, and Ames to Timothy Dwight, 4 Oct. 1792, both quoted in ibid., 338.
14. Ibid., 339-40.
15. Peterson, Thomas Jefferson, 481.
16. Peterson, Thomas Jefferson, 461.
17. Gouverneur Morris, A Diary of the French Revolution by Gouverneur Morris, 1752-1816, vol. 2, ed. Beatrix Carey Davenport (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1939), 594-95.
18. Meade Minnigerode, Lives and Times: Four Informal American Biographies (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1925), 187.
19. Ibid., 191.
20. Ibid., 187.
21. National Gazette, 1, 5, 8, 12 June 1793 quoted in Douglas S. Freeman, George Washington: A Biography, vol. 7 (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1957), 86.
22. Alexander De Conde, Entangling Alliance: Politics and Diplomacy Under George Washington (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1958), 221.
23. Jefferson to Madison, 7 July 1793, quoted in ibid., 285.
24. Minnigerode, Lives and Times, 205.
25. Freeman, George Washington, vol. 7, 112-13.
CHAPTER 8: JOHN JAY’S DIVISIVE TREATY, 1794-1795
1. Stanley Elkins and Eric McKitrick, The Age of Federalism: The Early American Republic, 1788- 1800 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 246.
2. As reprinted in Samuel F. Bemis, Jay’s Treaty: A Study in Commerce and Diplomacy (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1962), 448 -49.
3. Ibid., 141, 144.
4. Hammond to Grenville, 17 Apr. 1794, quoted in ibid., 276.
5. Elkins and McKitrick, Age of Federalism, 377.
6. Dumas Malone, Jefferson and the Ordeal of Liberty (Boston: Little, Brown, 1962), 152.
7. John C. Miller, The Federalist Era, 1789-1801 (New York: Harper Bros., 1960), 143.
8. Elkins and McKitrick, Age of Federalism, 384.
9. Ibid., 386.
10. Miller, Federalist Era, 148.
11. Bemis, Jay’s Treaty, 277, quoting Hammond to Grenville, 17 Apr. 1794.
12. Richard B. Morris, ed., Alexander Hamilton and the Founding of the Nation (New York: Dial Press, 1957), quoting draft of “Camillus” No. 2, July 1795.
13. Miller, Federalist Era, 168.
14. Malone, Ordeal of Liberty, 249.
15. Douglas S. Freeman, Washington: An Abridgement in One Volume by Richard Harwell (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1968), 671.
16. Ibid., 672.
17. Elkins and McKitrick, Age of Federalism, 425.
18. Readers who would like to follow the historical controversy can find a good discussion and excellent bibliography in Elkins and McKitrick, Age of Federalism, 425-31 and 838-39.
19. Freeman, Washington, 674.
20. Ibid., 666-67.
21. Miller, Federalist Era, 171.
22. Freeman, Washington, 697.
23. Quoted in Elkins and McKitrick, Age of Federalism, 441.
24. Freeman, Washington, 686, 690.
CHAPTER 9: JEFFERSON AND ADAMS’S FIRST ROUND, 1796
1. Page Smith, John Adams, vol. 2 (New York: Doubleday, 1982), 880.
2. Ibid., 890, 912.
3. Ibid., 880-81.
4. Stephen G. Kurtz, The Presidency of John Adams: The Collapse of Federalism, 1795- 1800 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1957), 80.
5. To Edward Rutledge, 17 Dec. 1796, quoted in Dumas Malone, Jefferson and the Ordeal of Liberty (Boston: Little, Brown, 1962), 83.
6. Same letter, this time quoted in Kurtz, Presidency of John Adams, 95.
7. Smith, John Adams, vol. 2, 882, 887, 894, quoting letters to Abigail.
8. Jefferson to Adams, 28 Feb. 1796, and to Philip Mazzei, 24 Apr. 1796, quoted in Malone, Ordeal of Liberty, 265-68.
9. Smith, John Adams, vol. 2, 904, 908.
10. Ibid., 901-2; Stanley Elkins and Eric McKitrick, The Age of Federalism: The Early American Republic, 1788- 1800 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 520-21.
11. Malone, Ordeal of Liberty, 286-90; Adet’s report to Paris is dated 31 Dec. 1796.
12. Smith, John Adams, vol. 2, 908.
13. A good breakdown is in Kurtz, Presidency of John Adams, 412-14.
14. Smith, John Adams, vol. 2, 909.
15. Kurtz, Presidency of John Adams, 209.
16. Malone, Ordeal of Liberty, 296, 299.
17. Elkins and McKitrick, Age of Federalism, 528.
18. Ibid., 428-29.
CHAPTER 10: X, Y, Z, AND THE FRENCH CONNECTION, 1798
1. Page Smith, John Adams, vol. 2 (New York: Doubleday, 1982), 881.
2. Dictionary of National Biography, s.v. “Liston, Robert.”
3. Ralph Adams Brown, The Presidency of John Adams (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1975), 42.
4. Ibid., 43.
5. Dictionary of American Biography, s.v. “Marshall, John.”
6. George A. Billias, Elbridge Gerry: Founding Father and Republican Statesman (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1976), 262.
7. Ibid., 268; Albert J. Beveridge, The Life of John Marshall, vol. 2 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1916), 286.
8. Beveridge, John Marshall, vol. 2, 260.
9. Billias, Elbridge Gerry, 271.
10. Ibid.
11. Beveridge, John Marshall, vol. 2, 285.
12. Billias, Elbridge Gerry, 282.
13. Harry Ammon, James Monroe: The Quest for National Identity (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1971), 159.
14. Mary-Jo Kline, ed., Alexander Hamilton: A Biography in His Own Words (New York: Newsweek Books, 1972), 355-56.
15. Gerald H. Clarfield, Timothy Pickering and the American Republic (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1980), 188.
16. Brown, Presidency of John Adams, 50.
17. Stephen G. Kurtz, The Presidency of John Adams: The Collapse of Federalism, 1795- 1800 (Philadelphia: Univeristy of Pennsylvania Press, 1957), 80, 296.
18. Stanley Elkins and Eric McKitrick, The Age of Federalism: The Early American Republic, 1788-1800 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 588.
19. Brown, Presidency of John Adams, 52, 54, 56.
20. Kurtz, Presidency of John Adams, 300.
21. Brown, Presidency of John Adams, 53.
22. Clarfield, Timothy Pickering (quoting Ames to Pickering, 4 June 1798), 192.
23. William M. Fowler Jr., Jack Tars and Commodores: The American Navy, 1783- 1815 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1984), 36.
24. Ibid., 43.
25. Richard H. Kohn, Eagle and Sword: The Federalists and the Creation of the Military Establishment in America, 1788- 1802 (New York: Free Press, 1975), 2.
26. John C. Miller, Alexander Hamilton: Portrait in Paradox (New York: Harper Bros., 1959), 508.
27. Kohn, Eagle and Sword, 226.
28. To Elbridge Gerry, 3 May 1798, quoted in ibid., 230.
29. 22 Oct. 1798, quoted in Elkins and McKitrick, Age of Federalism, 606.
30. Miller, Alexander Hamilton, 477.
31. Ibid., 475.
32. Dumas Malone, Jefferson and the Ordeal of Liberty (Boston: Little, Brown, 1962), 427.
33. Elkins and McKitrick, Age of Federalism, 629.
34. Ibid., 617.
35. Ibid., 617-18.
36. Joseph Ellis, Passionate Sage: The Legacy and Character of John Adams (New York: W. W. Norton, 1993), 76.
37. Elkins and McKitrick, Age of Federalism, 618-22, quoting George Cabot to Rufus King, 10 Mar. 1799, and Theodore Sedgwick to Hamilton, 22 Feb. 1799.
38. 10 July 1799, quoted in ibid., 622.
39. Ibid., 638, quoting Uriah Forrest to Adams, 28 Apr. 1799.
40. Ibid., 640.
41. Kohn, Eagle and Sword, 212.
CHAPTER 11: GAGGING THE PRESS, 1798
1. Robert Rutland, The Newsmongers: Journalism in the Life of the Nation, 1690- 1972 (New York: Dial Press, 1973), 84-85, quoting Frederick Marryatt (1839) and Thomas Hamilton (1843).
2. 16 Aug. 1793, quoted in James Tagg, Benjamin F. Bache and the Philadelphia “Aurora” (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1991), 142.
3. 19 Dec. 1796, ibid., 313.
4. 22 Aug. 1795, quoted in ibid., 252; 18 Sep., 16 Oct., 1 Dec. 1795, quoted in Richard Rosenfeld, American Aurora: A Democratic-Republican Returns. The Suppressed History of Our Nation’s Beginnings and the Heroic Newspaper That Tried to Report It (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1997), 30.
5. See ibid., 29-30 for examples.
6. 11 Sep. 1795, ibid.
7. Aurora, 22 Oct. 1795, quoted in Tagg, Benjamin F. Bache, 279.
8. Aurora, 16, 23 Dec 1796, quoted in ibid., 282.
9. Washington to Jeremiah Wadsworth, 6 Mar. 1797, quoted in Rosenfeld, American Aurora, 31.
10. Rutland, Newsmongers, 70; Rosenfeld, American Aurora, 28.
11. Page Smith, John Adams, vol. 2 (New York: Doubleday, 1982), p. 961.
12. 16 Mar. 1798, quoted in Rosenfeld, American Aurora, 42.
13. 19 Mar. 1798, ibid., 44.
14. 19 Apr. 1798, quoted in ibid., 78.
15. Annette Gordon-Reed, Thomas Jefferson and Sally Hemings: An American Controversy (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1997), 61.
16. William Cobbett, Peter Porcupine in America: Pamphlets on Republicanism and Revolution (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1994), 3, 10.
17. 4 Mar. 1797, quoted in Rosenfeld, American Aurora, 25.
18. 12, 17 Mar., 21 Apr. 1798, quoted in ibid., 38, 44, 84.
19. Ibid., 29, 31.
20. John C. Miller, Crisis in Freedom: The Alien and Sedition Acts (Boston: Little, Brown, 1951), 44.
21. 12 Nov. 1798, quoted in Rosenfeld, American Aurora, 536.
22. Merrill D. Peterson, Thomas Jefferson and the New Nation: A Biography (New York: Oxford University Press, 1970), 604.
23. Douglas S. Freeman, Washington: An Abridgment in One Volume by Richard Harwell (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1968), 731.
24. Ibid., 54, quoting Aurora, 2 July 1798.
25. As quoted in Miller, Crisis in Freedom, 67, emphasis added.
26. To John Taylor, 4 June 1798, quoted in Dumas Malone, Jefferson and the Ordeal of Liberty (Boston: Little, Brown, 1962), 381.
27. 26 Nov. 1798, quoted in Smith, John Adams, vol. 2, 978.
28. Miller, Crisis in Freedom, 90.
29. John C. Miller, Alexander Hamilton: Portrait in Paradox (New York: Harper Bros., 1959), 483.
30. Miller, Crisis in Freedom, 113.
31. Stanley Elkins and Eric McKitrick, The Age of Federalism: The Early American Republic, 1788-1800 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 710.
32. Miller, Crisis in Freedom, 122, 128.
33. Ibid., 114-15.
34. Dictionary of American Biography, s.v. “Chase, Samuel”; also Chase in Columbian Centinel, 3 May 1800, quoted in ibid., 117-18.
35. Ibid., 118-19.
36. Ibid., 98, emphasis added.
37. To James Monroe, 19 Oct. 1823, quoted in Rosenfeld, American Aurora, 521.
38. Ralph Ketcham, James Madison: A Biography (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1990), 396.
39. Peterson, Thomas Jefferson, 614.
40. Ibid.
41. To John Taylor, 1 June 1798, quoted in Rosenfeld, American Aurora, 136.
42. 22 Feb. 1799, quoted in Malone, Ordeal of Liberty, 415.
43. To Edmund Pendleton, 14 Feb. 1799, quoted in Elkins and McKitrick, Age of Federalism, 723.
44. Malone, Ordeal of Liberty, 412.
45. Miller, Crisis in Freedom, 179.
CHAPTER 12: THE CLIMAX AND THE DRAWN BATTLE OF 1800
1. J. R. Pole, Political Representation in England and the Origins of the American Republic, appendix 2 (New York: Macmillan/St. Martin’s, 1966).
2. Ketcham, James Madison, 356.
3. They were Georgetown, Union, Williams, Bowdoin, and Middlebury, and the state universities of Vermont and North Carolina.
4. Aurora, 23 Sep. 1799, quoted in Rosenfeld, American Aurora, 696.
5. Aurora, 24 Aug., 11 Sep. 1799, quoted in ibid., 687, 692.
6. Porcupine’s Gazette, 19 Oct., quoted in ibid., 705.
7. Ibid., 698, quoting the Boston Russet’s Gazette.
8. Dictionary of American Biography, s.v. “McKean, Thomas.”
9. Ibid., 741.
10. Annals of Congress, quoted in ibid., 758.
11. Madison to Jefferson, 15 Mar. 1800, quoted in Daniel Sisson, The American Revolution of 1800 (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1974), 365-66.
12. To T. M. Randolph, 2 Feb. 1800, quoted in ibid., 366.
13. Rosenfeld, American Aurora, 773.
14. Francis Wharton, State Trials of the United States During the Administrations of Washington and Adams, 638-39.
15. 4 Mar. 1800, quoted in ibid., 177.
16. Sisson, Revolution of 1800, 368.
17. Hamilton to Jay, 7 May 1800, quoted in Noble E. Cunningham Jr., Jeffersonian Republicans: The Formation of Party Organization, 1789- 1801 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1957), 185.
18. McHenry to Adams, 31 May 1800, quoted in Page Smith, John Adams, vol. 2 (New York: Doubleday, 1982), 1028.
19. Pickering to McHenry, 13 Feb. 1811, quoted in ibid., 129.
20. Quoted in Ralph Adams Brown, The Presidency of John Adams (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1996), 178.
21. James R. Sharp, American Politics in the Early Republic: The New Nation in Crisis (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1993), 239.
22. To Rufus King, 15 July 1800, quoted in Cunningham, Jeffersonian Republicans, 186.
23. 1 Aug. 1800, quoted in Smith, John Adams, vol. 2, 1042.
24. James Bayard to Hamilton, 18 Aug. 1800, quoted in Brown, Presidency, 182.
25. Roy Robbins, Our Landed Heritage: The Public Domain 1776- 1936 (Gloucester, Mass.: Peter Smith, 1960), 16.
26. So James Callender reported to Jefferson in a letter of 13 Sep. quoted in Herbert Aptheker, American Negro Slave Revolts (New York: International Publishers, 1963), 219.
27. Sharp, American Politics, 242.
28. Thomas B. Adams to William Shaw, 8 Aug. 1800, quoted in Cunningham, Jeffersonian Republicans, 190.
29. Ibid., 154.
30. 26 Aug. 1800, quoted in ibid., 198.
31. 26 Oct. 1800, quoted in ibid., 188; 3 Oct. 1800, ibid., 189.
32. Quoted in Boston Gazette, Apr. 1799, quoted in ibid., 202.
33. Hartford Courant, 2 Feb. 1801, ibid., 207; Oliver Wolcott to Ames, 10 Aug. 1800, quoted in Sharp, American Politics, 245.
34. Letter... concerning the Public Conduct and Character of John Adams, Esq., President of the United States, quoted in Sharp, American Politics, 240.
35. Ibid.
36. Cabot to Hamilton, 29 Nov. 1800, quoted in Noemire Emery, Alexander Hamilton: An Intimate Portrait (New York: Putnam, 1982), 189.
37. Smith, John Adams, vol. 2, 1045.
38. Abigail Adams to Mary Cranch, 4 May 1800, quoted in ibid., 1035; to John Quincy Adams, 1 Sep. 1800, quoted in ibid., 1040.
39. Quoted in Noble E. Cunningham Jr., The United States in 1800: Henry Adams Revisited (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1988), 48.
40. Gazetteofthe United States, 10 Sep. 1800, quoted in Cunningham, Jeffersonian Republicans, 225.
41. 30 Oct. 1800, quoted in Rosenfeld, American Aurora, 873.
42. To William Tudor, 13 Dec. 1800, quoted in Smith, John Adams, vol. 2, 1034.
43. Quoted in Sisson, Revolution of 1800, 394.
44. Ibid., 395, 403.
45. Figure is from Stanley Elkins and Eric McKitrick, The Age of Federalism: The Early American Republic, 1788- 1800 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), which is also the number given in Sharp, American Politics, though Historical Statistics of the United States makes it 69-36.
46. Quoted in Rosenfeld, American Aurora, 890.
47. Ibid.
48. Adams to Thomas B. Adams, 17 Dec. 1800, quoted in Smith, John Adams, vol. 2, 1053.
49. Quoted in Rosenfeld, American Aurora, 894.
50. Smith, John Adams, vol. 2, 1053.
51. To William Tudor, 3 Feb. 1801, quoted in ibid.
CHAPTER 13: THE CROSSROADS OF FEBRUARY 1801
1. Quoted in Noble E. Cunningham Jr., Jeffersonian Republicans: The Formation of Party Organization, 1789-1801 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1957), 241.
2. Jefferson to Madison, 19, 27 Dec. 1800, quoted in Daniel Sisson, The American Revolution of 1800, (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1974), 407-8, 409-10.
3. Thornton to Lord Grenville, 27 Dec. 1800, in Public Record Office (London), FRO 115/8.
4. Jefferson to Burr, 15 Dec. 1800; Burr to Jefferson, 23 Dec. 1800, quoted in James R. Sharp, American Politics in the Early Republic: The New Nation in Crisis (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1993), 254.
5. Herbert Parmet and Marie B. Hecht, Aaron Burr: Portrait of an Ambitious Man (New York: Macmillan, 1967), 158.
6. Quoted in Sisson, Revolution of 1800, 417.
7. Dumas Malone, Jefferson and the Ordeal of Liberty (Boston: Little, Brown, 1962), 498.
8. Parmet and Hecht, Aaron Burr, 162.
9. Sisson, Revolution of 1800,417.
10. Quoted in ibid., 414.
11. Ibid.
12. 26 Dec. 1800, Henry C. Lodge, ed., The Works of Alexander Hamilton, vol. 10 (New York: G. P. Putnam’s, republished by Scholarly Press, St. Clair Shores, Mich., 1971), 401.
13. 22 Dec. 1800, ibid., 397-98.
14. N.d., Dec. 1800, ibid., 404-5.
15. Dec. 27, 1800, ibid., 402- 4.
16. To Morris 26 Dec. 1800, 10 Jan. 1801, ibid., 401, 407-8.
17. 16 Jan. 1801, ibid., 412-13.
18. N.d., 1801, ibid., 405-07.
19. Dumas Malone, Jefferson the President: First Term, 1801–1805 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1970), 429.
20. Abigail Adams, 3 Feb. 1801, quoted in Page Smith, John Adams, vol. 2: 1784-1826 (New York: Doubleday, 1982), 1061; John Adams to Thomas, quoted in Sisson, Revolution of1800, 415.
21. 22 Jan. 1801, quoted in Sharp, American Politics, 263.
22. Albert J. Beveridge, The Life of John Marshall, vol. 2 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1916), 553.
23. Quoted in Merrill D. Peterson, Thomas Jefferson and the New Nation: A Biography (New York: Oxford University Press, 1970), 648.
24. Ibid., 537.
25. Madison to Jefferson, quoted in Sisson, Revolution of 1800, 419.
26. “Plan at time of Balloting for Jefferson and Burr,” quoted in Sisson, Revolution of 1800, 421-22.
27. McKean to Jefferson, 19 Mar. 1801, quoted in Harry M. Tinkcom, The Republicans and Federalists in Pennsylvania, 1790–1801 (Harrisburg: Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission, 1950), 255-56.
28. Joseph Nicholson, quoted in Sisson, Revolution of 1800, 420. 7
29. Parmet and Hecht, Aaron Burr, 164-65.
30. William Cooper to Thomas Morris, 13 Feb. 1801, quoted in Sharp, American Politics, 272.
31. To Nicholas Low, quoted in Sisson, Revolution of 1800, 419.
32. 11 Feb. 1801, quoted in ibid., 425-26.
33. Sharp, American Politics, 270.
34. Adams letter to James Lloyd, 6 Feb. 1815, quoted in Sisson, Revolution of 1800, 428.
35. Quoted in ibid., 429.
36. Ibid., 430.
37. Ibid., 431-32.
38. Margaret Bayard Smith, The First Forty Years of Washington Society, Gaillard Hunt, ed. (New York: Scribner’s, 1906), 25.
CHAPTER 14: THE REPUBLICAN PRESIDENT
1. Dumas Malone, Jefferson the President: First Term 1801- 1805 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1970), 29-30.
2. To John Dickinson, 6 Mar. 1801, quoted in Joseph J. Ellis, American Sphinx: The Character of Thomas Jefferson (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1996), 220.
3. To Levi Lincoln, 25 Oct. 1802, quoted in Stanley Elkins and Eric McKitrick, The Age of Federalism: The Early American Republic (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), 754.
4. American Heritage Dictionary of American Quotations, 433.
5. “Address to the Electors of the State of New York,” 26 Mar. 1801, quoted in Ellis, American Sphinx, 216.
6. Malone, Jefferson the President: First Term, 22.
7. Merrill D. Peterson, Thomas Jefferson and the New Nation: A Biography (New York: Oxford University Press, 1970), 659.
8. 12 Mar. 1801, quoted in Daniel Sisson, The American Revolution of 1800 (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1974), 444.
9. Quoted in Ellis, American Sphinx, 233.
10. Peterson, Thomas Jefferson, 692.
11. 7 Mar. 1801, quoted in Ellis, American Sphinx, 234.
12. Peterson, Thomas Jefferson, 667.
13. Ibid., 666.
14. Ibid., 676.
15. Malone, Jefferson the President: First Term, 118.
16. To Livingston, 18 Apr. 1802, quoted in Ellis, American Sphinx, 244.
17. All of Iowa, Missouri, Arkansas, Oklahoma, Kansas, Nebraska, and South Dakota and parts of Minnesota, Louisiana, Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, North Dakota, New Mexico, and Texas.
18. To Levi Lincoln, 30 Aug. 1803, quoted in Ellis, American Sphinx, 249.
19. Ibid., 250.
20. Peterson, Thomas Jefferson, 703.
EPILOGUE
1. For the record, the earlier five were John Tyler, Millard Fillmore, Andrew Johnson, Chester A. Arthur, and Calvin Coolidge.
2. Richard Nixon, Hubert Humphrey, Fritz Mondale, and George Bush were the four.
3. Fletcher v. Peck.
4. Dartmouth College v. Woodward.
5. McCulloch v. Maryland.
6. Gibbons v. Ogden.
7. Cohens v. Virginia.