Index

• Academic achievement, 2–10, 24–26; correlates of, 4,10, 81–82, 96, 105–111, 114–118, 121–124, 136–137; gender-based barriers and, 29, 50; gender gaps in, 11–12, 106, 118–120, 123–124; measurements of, 110–111, 124–126; narrow definition of, 124
• Academy Prep Secondary School (Ghana), 78–103; description of, 86–87; formation of girls’ positive identity, 91–93, 97
• Achievement-oriented identities (AOIs), 13, 14–20, 43–48, 78–103; construction of, 16–18; gaps in, 123–124, 140; management of, 16, 43–48, 97, 137; meaning of, 127; measures of, 4–9, 16–19, 35, 82, 83, 110–111, 125–126, 128; objectives of, 167n2; revised notion of, 50; as tool kit, 16, 83, 97–98, 126, 135–139; traits of, 14, 15, 96–97. See also Confidence
• “Adultification” of Black girls, 61
• Affirmations, 67–68, 170n14
• Affluence, 117, 119, 121, 123. See also Economic background
• Africa, 146n18, 152n12. See also Ghana; South Africa
• African American Policy Forum, 60, 161n10
• Africana womanism, 13, 147–148n25
• Afro hair style, 45, 46, 152n11
• After-school activities, 43, 91–92, 97
• Aidoo, Ama Ata, 78
• AIDS. See HIV / AIDS
• American Association of University Women, confidence gap survey, 105–108
• Angelou, Maya, 104
• AOIs. See Achievement-oriented identities
• Apartheid, 24, 28–29
• Atlantic magazine, “The Confidence Gap,” 64
• Avery, Maria, 69

• Bantu Education Act, 28
• Bathrooms, 10, 151n32. See also Toilets
• Black Education Act (South Africa), 28
• Black feminism, 13, 147–149n25, 150n31
• Black Lives Matter movement, 73–75, 182–183
• Body image, 42
• Boston College, Lynch School of Education, 111
• Botswana, 33–34
• Boyd, Rekia, 75
• Brown v. Board of Education (1954), 2, 28, 54–55
• Bullying, 3, 31, 57–58, 59, 62, 66, 69

• Career paths, 98, 106, 108, 109
• Center for American Progress, 55
• Center for Intersectionality and Social Policy Studies, 60
• Centers for Disease Control and Protection, 59
• Chigudu, Hope, 1
• Child mortality, 77, 99
• Christian schools, 93–95
• Collaborative to Advance Equity Through Research, 161n10
• College attendance, 29, 30, 36, 55–56, 76, 113; as girls’ aspiration, 52–53, 84, 89, 93, 95–103, 137–138; by parents, 121, 122, 123
• Collins, Patricia Hill, 150n31
• Combahee River Collective, 147n25
• Confidence, 15, 19, 32, 47, 96, 104–127, 168–169n5; academic performance and, 81–82; Black girls’ gaps in, 64–65, 105–109, 117, 118, 123, 124; cultivation of, 64–70, 77, 82, 99–101, 104, 108, 119–122, 127, 140; gender gaps in, 90–91, 105–109, 115–119, 123; math score correlates with, 117, 118, 168–169n5; self-efficacy vs., 82, 95
• Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (Ghana), 84
• Copeland, Misty, 71
• Corporal punishment, 31
• Crenshaw, Kimberlé, 30, 148–149n25
• Cullors, Patrisse, 73
• Culturally relevant pedagogy, 40, 156n39, 158n45

• Desegregation, 2, 28, 54–55
• Dewey, John, 2
• Disadvantaged students. See Economic background
• Discipline, 3, 5–6, 7, 56, 60–61, 62, 68–70, 125
• Djaba, Otiko, 130–131
• Domestic responsibilities, 84, 85, 89
• Dress codes, 42, 43, 45–46, 125, 140
• Dropouts, 78
• Dweck, Carol, 5

• Economic background, 6, 12, 25–36, 60, 62–63; academic ambitions despite, 100–101, 110–111; achievement-oriented identity and, 13, 14–20, 43–48, 78–103; Black comparative math scores and, 174n29; Black feminism and, 147n25; confidence in math and, 120–121; education levels and, 114, 120, 121, 123, 124, 136–139; effects of improvement programs and, 125; Ghanaian poverty lines and, 170n13; inequalities in, 124, 132–133; math score correlates with, 117–119; race and, 30–35; resiliency and, 114–115; single-sex schools and, 28–29, 53, 55, 158–160n2
• Educate the Girl Child campaigns, 133
• Education Amendments Act, U.S. See Title IX
• Education and Training Act, South Africa, 28
• Education Department, U.S., 60
• Engineering studies, 5, 30, 88
• Equitable education, 2–3, 8–9, 13, 127, 135; Ghanaian model of, 79–80, 83–84, 97; individual achievement focus of, 124, 126; and inequality, 2, 8, 12, 20, 77, 125, 140; and negative experiences, 8, 18–19, 20, 62, 108, 140; and positive experiences, 19, 20, 46–48, 62, 97; South African legislation, 27–29; U.S. legislation, 55, 133, 161n10. See also Feminist schools; Gender equity
• Essence magazine, 71
• Exceptionalism, 133

• Faith-based learning, 93–95, 96, 170n14
• Family: Africana womanism and, 147–148n25; disadvantaged students and, 136; discouragement by, 80, 92; education levels of, 114, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 136; gendered academic performance gap and, 121; girls’ confidence-building and, 66; girl’s self-esteem and, 106–107; single-parent, 24, 36, 76–77; student discipline and, 69
• Female body, 42, 150–151n32
• Feminine norms, 7–8, 15, 22, 57, 60, 61
• Feminism, 19, 51–77, 131, 133, 150–151n32; forms of, 13. See also Black feminism; Womanism
• Feminist schools, 12–16, 18, 20, 62–70, 76–77; attributes of, 125–126; components of, 13–16, 54, 62, 126–128, 134–141, 149n25; curriculum for, 70–76; tools of, 135, 139, 140
• Ferree, Myra, 175n5
• Frempong, George, 81, 82
• Frye, Margaret, 81–82

• Garza, Alicia, 73
• Gay identity, 37–38, 57
• Gender, 49, 57, 84–88, 130–134, 158n45; confidence gap and, 90–91, 105–9, 115–119, 123; constructions of, 21–22, 67; definition of, 150–151n32; Ghanaian national policy on, 84, 86; global issues and, 132–134; intersectionality and, 30–35, 116, 148–149n25; mathematics performance and, 111–124, 166n42, 168–169n5; poverty and, 30–35; self-perception and, 82, 134; socialization and, 7–8; stereotypes and, 15, 29, 43, 58; values related to, 88
• Gender equity, 16–20, 98, 116, 128, 132–34; definition of, 12–14, 131; neutral environment and, 115; South African constitution and, 29, 133; U.S. Title IX and, 55, 133, 161n10
• Gender identity: definition of, 150–151n32; fluidity of, 14; nonbinary, 37–38, 57–58
• Gender Parity Index, 84
• Gender-sensitive schools, 5, 10–12, 146n18; curriculum for, 7, 13, 26, 43–45
• Gender Studies and Human Rights Documentation Centre, 131
• Georgetown University Law Center, 61, 161n10
• Ghana, 17, 18, 19, 78–103; confidence case study, 104, 108, 119–122; education policy problems, 83–86; factors in academic outcomes, 81; faith-based learning, 93–95, 96, 170n14; gendered math and science achievement, 120, 123–124, 168–169n5; girls’ academic goals, 98–103, 137–139; girls’ educational access, 79, 82, 84–86, 91–92, 133; national service program, 99; poverty lines, 170n13; sexual abuse of girl students, 85–86, 130–131; Speech and Prize Day, 131; TIMSS scores, 119–122; universal education, 83; Women’s Manifesto, 84
• Girl, meaning of term, 21–22
• “Girl-friendly” schools. See Gender-sensitive schools
• “Girlhood Interrupted: The Erasure of Black Girls’ Childhood” (report), 61
• Girls’ clubs, 170n14
• Girls Education Movement, 32
• Girls schools. See Single-sex schools
• Global initiatives, 4, 29–30, 132–134
• Grit, 5, 6, 10, 80–82, 103, 105
• Gun violence, 57, 161n10

• Hairstyle policy, 45–46, 152n12; gender-neutral, 43, 125
• Harvard Business School, 138
• #Bringbackourgirls, 128
• #GirlRising, 128
• #MeToo, 128
• #SayHerName, 161n10
• #62MillionGirls, 4
• #Time’sUP, 128
• Hijab, 38, 46
• Hispanic girls, 53, 58, 61, 74, 107, 174n29; affluence-math scores correlation, 118–119; negative experiences of, 129, 130
• HIV / AIDS, 33–35, 154–155n31
• Home science courses, 9, 55, 85, 108
• hooks, bell, 49, 51; Teaching to Transgress, 12
• Horne, Lena, 72
• Hudson-Weems, Clenora, 148n25
• Human rights, 132
• Human Sciences Research Council, South Africa, 35, 49, 114, 154n31

• Identity management. See Achievement-oriented identities; Marginalized identities
• Individual abilities, 15, 100–101, 110, 124, 125
• Inspirational women, 71–72
• Intersectionality, 30–35

• Jarrett, Valerie, 161n10
• Jim Crow. See Segregation
• Job market, 76–77, 98, 100
• Jones, Camara Phyllis, 9
• Juvenile justice system, 61, 76

• Kay, Katy, 109
• Knight, Donna, 52, 53, 62–65, 68–69, 70–72, 75, 104
• Krobo Girls Senior High School (Ghana), 130–131

• Leadership, 19, 62–63, 96–97, 138; by women and girls, 53, 87–93, 128–129
• Learning experiences, 6, 65–66, 69, 125
• Lee, Brock, 36, 37, 39–40, 41, 43, 44–46
• Lesbian identity, 57, 147
• Let Girls Learn, 4
• Life expectancy, 99
• Life Orientation class, 34, 43
• Life-skills curriculum, 104
• Lorde, Audre, 127
• Low-income students. See Economic background

• Malawi, 81–82
• Male gaze, 150n32
• Marginalized identities, 20–22, 30–39, 49, 116, 140, 148n25
• Masculinity, 7–8, 15, 21, 57
• Mathematics, 5, 9, 20, 29, 68, 88, 134, 166n42; breakdown of eighth-grade scores, 122; comparative scores of disadvantaged students, 174n29; gendered confidence / achievement study, 111–124, 168–169n5; girls’ confidence decline, 106, 108; male dominance of, 85
• McConnell, Mitch, 128, 129
• Mensah, Mary, 79–80, 96, 104, 138; goals of, 87–91
• Menstruation, 3, 11, 32–33, 47–48, 125, 134
• Mental health disorders, 59–60
• Meyer, Elizabeth, Gender, Bullying, and Harassment, 57
• Micro-aggressions, 9
• Middle class, 37, 147
• Millennium Development Goals, 84
• Ministry of Education, South Africa, 31–32
• Ministry of Women and Children’s Affairs, Ghana, 84
• Morrell, Robert, 49
• Morris, Monique, Pushout, 58–59
• Morrison, Toni, 71
• Mothers. See Family; Single-parent homes
• Motivational sayings, 88, 94, 170n14
• Multiple identities, 37–38
• Muslims, 24, 25, 38–39, 40, 46, 48

• National Blue Ribbon Schools, 54
• National Survey of American Life Adolescent Supplement, 59
• National Women’s Law Center survey, 57, 129–130, 161n10, 162n14
• Nineteenth Amendment, 133
• Nkrumah, Samia, 84
• Nonbinary gender identification, 25, 37–38, 54, 57–58, 140
• Noncognitive skills, 19–20, 96–97; definition of, 168n3; role of, 80, 81–82, 83; studies of, 5–6
• Nyong’o, Lupita, 70–71

• Office for Civil Rights, U.S., 60
• Office of Juvenile Justice, U.S., 57
• Optimism, 71, 100
• Orenstein, Peggy, Schoolgirls: Young Women, Self-Esteem, and the Confidence Gap, 107, 108
• Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 29–30
• Owusu, Kwame, 78

• Parents. See Family
• Parkland, Florida, school shooting, 57
• Patriarchy, 85–86, 87, 110, 131, 133
• Peer networks, 11, 19, 26, 48, 97
• Perfectionism, 51, 64, 183
• Perseverance, 80–82
• Plan International, 57, 129
• Poverty. See Economic background
• Power dynamics, 11–12, 14, 16, 25, 31, 54, 62, 77, 124, 126
• Prayer, 94, 170n14
• Pregnancy, 58–59, 62, 76–77, 78, 131; HIV transmission, 155n31
• Pretoria High School for Girls, 152n12
• Prevention and Management of Sexual Violence and Harassment in Public Schools, 32
• Prison studies, 63
• Programme for International Student Assessment, 116
• Puberty, 32, 58–62; early onset, 58–59, 61. See also Menstruation
• Punishment. See Discipline

• Queer identity, 25, 37–38, 147n25

• Race, 2, 6, 28, 152n12; achievement gaps and, 123, 140; Black feminism and, 147n25; confidence differences and, 107–108, 116–119; demographic shifts and, 55; dismantling barriers of, 126; feminism typologies and, 13, 147–148n25, 150n31; institutional segregation and, 2, 28–29, 54–55; intersectionality and, 30–35, 116, 148–149n25; math scores and, 174n29; onset of puberty and, 58–59, 61; poverty and, 30–35; sexual harassment and, 129–130; social justice and, 75; South African schools and, 113–114; of teacher, 40–41; three-level taxonomy of, 9–10; unfair power relations and, 124
• Rape. See Sexual assault and harassment
• Religious values. See Faith-based learning
• Resilience, 10, 87, 101, 114–115, 130, 140, 164n26
• Respectability, 88
• Rice, Tamir, 75
• Rights, 11, 13, 132
• Role models, 11, 40, 70–75
• Rowland, Blake, 39, 40

• Safe spaces, 14, 18, 24–50, 62, 128; definition of, 26; development of, 26–27, 34–37, 44–48, 135; importance of, 139; insufficiency of programs, 27; as progress measurement, 125; U.S. elementary school program, 54, 56–58; and widespread unsafe feelings, 122, 129, 130
• Safety net, achievement net vs., 137
• Sanitary pads, 3, 11, 32, 47–48, 125, 134
• Sanusi, 24
• Science, 5, 19, 35, 68, 85, 88, 106, 134; career path and, 108; gendered confidence study and, 111–124
• Segregation: South African apartheid and, 28–29; U.S. schools and, 2, 28, 54–55
• Self-confidence. See Confidence
• Self-control, 5, 105, 125
• Self-devaluation, 9–10
• Self-discipline, 5–6, 170n14
• Self-efficacy, 82, 95
• Self-esteem, 9, 32; factors harming, 41–43, 59; factors in forming, 106–107
• Self-image, 58–59, 82, 105, 107, 134, 137
• Self-worth, 64–65, 82
• Senate, U.S., 128–129
• Sessions, Jeff, 128
• Sex, gender vs., 21–22
• Sex education, 34, 43
• Sexism, 131, 148, 159n2; culture of silence and, 49; educational counters to, 16–20; educational legacies of, 134; elimination of, 126; institutional, 8–10, 11, 16; intersectionality and, 30–35; prevalence of, 44; three levels of, 9–10
• Sexual assault and harassment, 3, 6, 48, 57–59, 128–132; blaming / stigmatization of victim, 2, 13, 43–44, 131–132; daily injustices and, 57, 67, 129–130, 134; by Ghanaian male teachers, 85–86, 130–131; South African girls and, 28, 29, 31–32, 41–45, 48, 50; standing against, 93
• Shipman, Claire, 109
• Singing class, 67–69
• Single-parent homes, 24, 36, 76–77
• Single-sex schools, 18–19, 28–29, 152nn11,12, 166nn44,45, 168–169n5; advantages of, 158–60n2, 166n44; South African girls and, 28–29, 152n12; U.S. girls and, 53, 55, 159n2
• Social change, 14, 19, 54, 126, 135, 141
• Social class, 13, 37, 132–133, 148n25; academic disparity and, 117, 140
• Social justice, 70, 73–76, 133
• Social workers, 69
• Soft skills, 80–81
• South Africa, 2, 17, 18, 24–50; confidence and, 108, 114–115, 116; dress and hair-style codes, 42, 43, 45–46, 125, 140, 152n12; former apartheid system, 2, 24, 28–29; free public schools, 113–114, 122, 123; gender disparities, 29–37, 122–124, 133; government schools, 24, 27–28; HIV / AIDS problem, 33–35, 154–155n31; life-skills curriculum, 104; low-ranked educational system, 29–30; math and science performance, 112–115, 120, 122; public spending on education, 29; public vs. independent schools, 123; single-sex schools, 28–29, 152n12; TIMSS data and, 112–116, 120
• South African Schools Act, 27–29
• Special needs girls, 56
• Spirituality, 93–95, 148n25
• Stanford University, 123–124
• STEM curriculum, 5, 30, 88 (see also Mathematics; Science)
• Stereotypes, 15, 29, 43, 58–59, 61, 108
• Strategic skills, 6–8, 96, 127, 140
• Student leadership, 91–93
• Success, 5, 104, 127, 140; predictive factors, 110
• Support systems, 137–139
• Suspension, 3, 60, 61, 76

• Tampons, 48
• Teachers, 29, 55, 58, 68, 137, 166n42; male sexual abuse of female students, 85, 130–131; minority backgrounds, 53, 64–65; of noncognitive skills, 81–82; ratio to students, 28; as role models, 40–41, 43; rules of conduct and, 68–70; South African HIV / AIDS problem and, 154n31; as womanist role models, 72
• Technology, 5, 88
• Teele Elementary School, 53, 62–77, 166n45; positive outcomes and, 77; rules of conduct and, 68–69; womanist curriculum and, 70–76
• Third World feminism, 13
• Title IX, 55, 133; expansion (2014) of, 161n10
• Toilets, 3, 11, 32–33, 114, 125
• Tometi, Opal, 73
• Tracking, academic, 29, 30, 85, 88–89, 108
• Traditional feminism, 147n25
• Transgender identity, 57, 162n14
• Transgression, 2, 12, 14, 15, 35, 46, 48, 54, 62, 70, 75, 77, 91–93, 95–97, 103, 126, 127, 135, 139–141
• Trauma-informed schools, 46–48, 111, 156–157n41; as gender-specific, 125, 127, 158n45; mental health and 59–60
• Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study, 35, 111–124, 118, 173–174nn20–24
• Tribal universities, 28
• Trump, Donald, 129
• Tutu, Desmond, 71
• TWII Foundation, 138

• Unemployment levels, 76, 98
• United Nations International Children Emergency Fund, 133
• United States, 7, 17–19, 51–77, 98, 104; Black women’s position, 76–77, 149n25; crime victimization, 56–57; equitable education law, 55–56, 133, 161n10; everyday sexual harassment, 129–130; exceptionalism, 133; feminist education program, 62–70; gender-based confidence / achievement gap, 107–108, 109, 115–119, 123; math and science study, 111–124; race-based sexual harassment, 129–130; racial social justice movements, 70, 73–76; school desegregation, 2, 28, 54–56; school discipline and punishment, 60–61; schoolgirls’ confidence decline,107–108; school safety, 54, 56–58; single-sex schools, 53, 55, 159n2; social disparities, 132–133; TIMSS data, 115–119
• University of Cape Town, 24, 35
• Unterhalter, Elaine, 30–31
• Urban schools, 18–19, 55

• Violence, 75, 150–151n32; 161n10. See also Safe spaces; Sexual assault and harassment; Trauma-informed schools

• Walker, Alice, 147–148n25, 165n40
• Warren, Elizabeth, 128–129
• Wellsboro School, 24, 35–48
• Western Cape province, 35–41
• White feminism, 148n25, 166n40
• White House Council on Women and Girls, 161n10
• White students, 28, 107, 117, 123
• Womanism: Africana, 13, 147–48n25; curriculum, 70–76; definition of, 165–166n40; role models, 70–74; values, 71
• Women’s Manifesto for Ghana, 84, 133
• Women’s movements, 28, 128, 129, 132–133, 175n5
• Workplace inequities, 98
• World Economic Forum, 29–30

• Youdell, Deborah, 58
• Young Women’s Leadership Academy (Chicago), 159–160n2