Circa 27—Beginning of the ministry of Jesus; the calling of James, son of Zebedee.
Circa 30—Death of Jesus; Pentecost and outpouring of the Holy Spirit onto the church.
Circa 40–43—According to later Spanish tradition, James briefly visits Spain; while there he experiences the first recorded Marian vision at Zaragoza.
Circa 44—According to the Acts of the Apostles by the Evangelist Luke (possibly written circa 70–80), James is executed in Palestine by Herod Agrippa I; according to later tradition, his relics are transported and interred on July 25 at Iria Flavia (Padrón) in the Roman Province of Gallaecia (Galicia).
Circa 57–58—In his Letter to the Romans, Saint Paul states his intention to visit Spain because (as he seems to imply) Christianity had not yet been preached there.
Late 3rd or Early 4th Century—Roman-Hispanic poet Prudentius writes in praise of Spanish Christian martyrs, saints, and shrines in his Peristephanon, buts makes no mention of Saint James the Greater.
301—King Tiridates III proclaims Christianity the national religion of Armenia; Christian monks begin migrating to the Armenian Quarter of Jerusalem (earliest evidence letters by Jerusalem Bishop Macarius to Armenian Bishop Vertaness, c. 325–335).
303–310—“Great Persecution” of Christians by Roman Emperor Diocletian.
311–313—Civil war throughout the empire; Constantine the Great emerges as sole Emperor (312); he issues Edict of Milan restoring freedom of religion (313); Christians shown imperial favor thenceforth.
Early 4rd Century—Eusebius, in his Church History, citing a lost work by Clement of Alexandria (early 3rd century) and possibly other sources, recounts the martyrdom of Saint James the Greater, adding new details but makes no mention of Spain.
324–330—Constantine redevelops Greek Byzantium, rechristened Constantinople and new capital of the Eastern Roman Empire.
385—Priscillian, Bishop of Ávila, is declared a heretic and executed by the Emperor Maximus; according to tradition, he is buried in Galicia.
Early 5th Century—Saint Jerome suggests that Christianity had been preached in Spain by an apostle but makes no mention of Saint James the Greater in this context.
406–410—Germanic tribes erupt across the Rhine into the Western Roman Empire (406); they invade the Iberian Peninsula (409); several years of famine, pestilence, and political chaos as tribes assimilate; Galicia becomes part of the Suebian kingdom; Gothic army under Alaric sacks Rome (410).
444—Church or Martyrium, possibly dedicated to Saint Menas, located on the future site of Armenian Cathedral of SS. James in Jerusalem.
476—Western Roman Empire is officially terminated; traditional beginning of the “Dark Ages” (as later characterized by Petrarch).
Circa 500—Anonymous Passio Jacobi Majoris recounts life and death of Saint James the Greater in Palestine, embellished with new details, but makes no mention of Spain.
585—Galician kingdom of Suebia absorbed into the expanding Visigoth kingdom of greater Iberia, centered in Toledo (Spain) and Toulouse (France).
614—Jerusalem captured and looted by the Persian Sassanids; original church or martyrium of Saint Menas reportedly destroyed.
Circa 630—Isidore of Seville, in his De Ortu et Obitu Patrum, asserts that James preached in Spain, the first preserved reference to this tradition; Byzantines under Heraclius recapture Jerusalem (event recorded in the Islamic Q’uran); Jerusalem shrine of Saint Menas rebuilt shortly thereafter.
632—Death of the Prophet Mohammad.
638—Islamic conquest of Jerusalem.
Late 7th Century—Julian of Toledo, writing of James the Greater, ignores the tradition that James preached in Spain.
Before 709—Aldhelm, English Bishop of Malmesbury, refers to Saint James the Greater having preached in Spain.
701–710—Visigoth kingdom rules most of the Iberian Peninsula uncontested since the fifth century; by 710, however, realm is badly divided by ongoing civil strife between King Roderic and rival contenders for the throne; North African Umayyads launch probing military excursions into Iberia.
711—Visigoths and King Roderic defeated at the Battle of Guadalete near Cádiz by Umayyads under Berber general Tāriq ibn Ziyad; Visigoth kingdom collapses; most of Iberian Peninsula quickly overrun by invaders; Sephardic Jews, persecuted by Christians for centuries, favor Islamic rule because of greater tolerance shown towards them.
718—Visigoth nobleman Pelagius (Pelayo) leads Christian revolt in remote northern Iberia; defeats Umayyad force at Covadonga (northeast of León); Pelagius proclaimed first King of Asturias.
732—Umayyad invasion of France is decisively repulsed by Frankish forces led by Charles Martel at the Battle of Tours; Islamic forces retreat to Iberia.
Mid–8th Century—Bishop Odoario of Lugo in Galicia dedicates church to Saint James the Greater (Santiago) in Meilán.
776—Asturian monk Saint Beatus of Liébana advocates Spanish nationalism in his Commentary on the Apocalypse and endorses the tradition of Saint James the Greater having preached in Spain; later hymn O Dei Verbum (attributed possibly to Beatus) also refers to James preaching in Spain.
778—Basque forces ambush and annihilate Frankish rearguard at Battle of Roncevaux Pass in the Pyrenees (later romanticized in the French Le Chanson de Roland), only military defeat ever suffered by Charlemagne.
796–798—Alfonso II El Casto (“the Chaste”) officially recognized as King of Asturias by Charlemagne and Pope Leo III.
Circa 800—Charlemagne establishes the March Hispania in Catalonia as a buffer zone between the French Carolingian and Islamic Umayyad kingdoms.
813–814—Sometime during reign of Alfonso the Chaste (according to 12th century sources), shrine of Saint James the Greater (Santiago) established near traditional burial site in northwestern Galicia near Compostela (possibly derived from Latin Campus Stellae or “Field of Stars”); relics discovered by the monk Pelayo and legitimacy ratified by Galician Bishop Theodomor.
Mid–9th Century—Florus of Lyon and Usuard of Saint-Germain-des-Près both refer to the relics of Saint James the Greater near Iria Flavia.
859—Asturians under King Ordoño I victorious over Islamic forces at the Battle of Monte Laturce in Aragón; elements of the battle later incorporated into the fictional Battle of Clavijo, in which Santiago Matamoros (“Saint James the Moor-slayer”) supernaturally appeared to fight for Christians.
868—Portus Cale (Grande Porto) conquered by Asturian nobleman Vimara Peres; County of Portucale (northern Portugal) established as Christian jurisdiction.
871—County of Coimbra (south of Portucale) conquered by Galician nobleman Hermenegildo Gutiérrez.
910—Alfonso III of Asturias, in response to rebellion of three sons, divides his realm into three separate kingdoms: Asturias, Galicia, and León.
912–955—Reign of Abd-ar-Rahman III, Caliph of Córdoba; inaugurates “Golden Age of Spanish Jews” as their political influence grows.
920—Allied Christian armies of León and Navarre defeated by Islamic Caliphate of Córdoba at the Battle of Valdejunquera.
939—Islamic Caliphate of Córdoba defeated by allied Christian forces of Léon, Castile and Navarre at the Battle of Simancas near Valladolid; Santiago Matamoros is again said to make an appearance during the battle.
981—Portuguese rebellion in Coimbra suppressed by Ramiro III of León.
985–1000—Islamic Berber armies led by Almanzor (Al-Mansur) temporarily retake or sack large portions of Iberia, including Santiago de Compostela in 997 (August 10); previously feuding Christian kingdoms react by renewing alliances with each other.
1000—Almanzor is victorious over allied Christian forces at the Battle of Cervera near Burgos; costliness of the victory, however, brings Almanzor’s campaigns to a halt.
1020—Alfonso V recognizes legal rights of Spanish Jews at the Council of León.
1029—Sancho III of Navarre seizes control Castile and designates his youngest son Ferdinand (the future Ferdinand I) as Count of Castile; Sancho then incorporates León into his kingdom (1034); during his reign, increased pilgrimage traffic along the Camino de Santiago across northern Iberia.
1031—Collapse of Iberian Umayyad Caliphate formerly based in Córdoba.
1056—Ferdinand I (El Magno or “The Great”) declares himself Emperor of Spain.
1064—Portuguese Coimbra retaken by Ferdinand I; Siege of Barbastro in Aragón; city sacked by Christian forces including Norman mercenaries led by William of Montreuil.
1066—Granada Massacre of Jews by Islamic fundamentalists; Jewish political influence at Iberian courts begins to wane.
1072–1078—Georgian Orthodox church built as a shrine for Saint Menas in Jerusalem.
1075—Construction begins on the Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela.
1085—Toledo conquered by Castilians in the name of Alfonso VI El Bravo (“the Brave”); Alfonso appoints first Christian governor of Toledo, the Mozarab (Arabized Christian) Sisnando Davides; Muslims appeal to Almoravids of North Africa for aid.
1086—North African Almoravids under Yusuf ibn Tashfin defeat Castilians at the Battle of Sagrajas; Alfonso VI wounded and Christian southern advance halted.
1094—Castilian warlord Rodrigo Díaz de Vivar nicknamed El Cid (“the Master”) seizes control of Valencia.
1095—Bishopric of Galicia is transferred from Iria Flavia to Santiago de Compostela.
1096–1099—First Crusade results in capture and sack of Jerusalem; Godfrey of Bouillon elected first King of Jerusalem; inspires Christian offensives across Iberia; Armenian Orthodox Church is granted control over Georgian Church of Saint Menas.
1099–1102—Death of El Cid (1099) is followed three years later by the fall of Valencia to the Almoravids (1102).
1108—Almoravids defeat Castilians at Uclés near Toledo.
1118—Zaragoza conquered by Alfonso I of Aragón.
1120—Diego Gelmírez appointed by Pope Callixtus II as first Archbishop of Santiago de Compostela; Gelmírez relentlessly promotes the cult of Santiago Mayor.
1122—Uncompleted Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela opens for worship.
Circa 1135–1139—Five books of the illuminated manuscript Codex Calixtinus (i.e. Liber Sancti Jacobi) are compiled in Santiago by the French Cluniac monk Aymeric Picaud and fictitiously attributed to Pope Callixtus II (d. 1124); contains the first preserved reference to Santiago de Compostela as the burial site of Saint James the Greater.
1137—Seeking protection from Almoravids, County of Barcelona voluntarily merges with the Kingdom of Aragón.
1139—Almoravids defeated by Portuguese at the Battle of Ourique in southern Portugal on the Feast Day of Saint James (July 25).
Circa 1140—Anonymous Historia Compostelana is written, recounting the tenure of Archbishop Gelmírez; Armenian Cathedral of Saint James in Jerusalem begins construction.
1143—Portuguese autonomy under King Afonso Henrique recognized by Alfonso VII of Castile in Treaty of Zamora.
1147—North African Almohads displace Almoravids as dominant Muslim power in Iberia; they capture Seville; Lisbon captured by Portuguese with help from English.
Circa 1150—Earliest surviving account for the legendary Battle of Clavijo, allegedly fought in 834 or 844, from a manuscript by Pedro Marcio of Santiago de Compostela.
1165—John of Würtzburg reports that the completed Armenian Cathedral of Saint James in Jerusalem claims possession of relics, including the skull of Saint James the Greater.
1171—Military Order of Santiago formally established with Pedro Fernández de Castro as first Grand Master.
1172—Almohads capture Murcia in southeastern Spain.
1184—Combined Portuguese and Leónese force defeat Almohads at Santarém.
1187—Islamic coalition under Egyptian Sultan Saladin decisively defeats Crusaders at the Battle of Hattin in modern day Israel; Christian Kingdom of Jerusalem surrenders to Saladin shortly thereafter; all subsequent Crusades fail to decisively regain Holy Land.
1195—North African Almohads under Caliph Moulay Yacoub defeat Castilians at the Battle of Alarcos near Toledo.
1207—Anonymous epic poem El Cantar de mio Cid written in Castilian.
1211—Completed Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela is dedicated.
1212—Coalition of Spanish and Portuguese forces led by Sancho VII (El Fuerte or “The Strong”) of Navarre defeat Almohads at the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in Andalusia.
1214—Saint Francis of Assisi visits the shrine of Santiago de Compostela.
1217–1252—Ongoing crisis in Almohad succession; reign of (Saint) Ferdinand III; he reunites the crowns of Castile, León, and Galicia; massive territorial gains for Christians in Andalusia, including conquests of Córdoba (1236) and Seville (1248); Granada remains only independent Islamic kingdom but pays tribute to Castile.
1226—Jaume (James) I El Conquistador of Aragón conquers the Balearic Islands.
1232–1273—Reign of Muhammad I ibn Nasr, founder of the Nasrid dynasty; he builds Alhambra Palace in Granada; Nasrids continue to rule Granada until 1492.
1249—Alfonso III of Portugal conquers Faro in the southern Algarve region, completing the Portuguese phase of the Iberian Reconquista.
1259–1286—Reign of North African Marinid ruler Abu Yusuf Yaqub ibn Abd al-Haqq; he repeatedly intervenes militarily in Iberian affairs, creating confusion with shifting Islamic-Christian alliances between Granada, Castile, and Aragón.
Circa 1260—The Golden Legend is compiled by Jacobus de Voragine, including the Santiago de Compostela tradition of Saint James the Greater.
1265—Siete Partidas legislation codified during reign of Alfonso X El Sabio (“the Wise”) of Castile; he promotes cultural collaboration between Christians, Muslims, and Jews; Castilian dominant Iberian dialect outside of Portugal.
1270—Eighth and final Crusade led by (Saint) Louis IX of France abandons siege of Tunis after death of king and much of his army from disease; European interest in Crusader military interventions begins to wane.
1270–1284—Arts flourish during final years of Alfonso the Wise as exemplified by the Cantiges de Santa María; forerunner of modern Spanish guitar, guitara latina, achieves popularity as musical instrument; North African Marinids launch repeated invasions of Iberia but fail to gain a foothold.
1275—Crown Prince and heir apparent Ferdinand de la Cerda of Castile is killed in the Battle of Écija near Granada.
1278—Marinids defeat Castilians at the naval battle of Algeciras near Gibraltar; Castilians abandon siege of Algeciras the following year (1279); shortly afterwards, however, Marinid ruler Abu Yusuf Yaqub ibn Abd al-Haqq forms alliance with Alfonso the Wise of Castile against Granada, but is unable to prevent the latter from being driven into exile by his rebellious son, Sancho IV (1282).
1290—Fall of Acre in the Holy Land to the Egyptian Mamluks officially marks the end of European Crusader pretentions in the Middle East.
1297—Portugal and Castile sign peace Treaty of Alcanizes, finalizing territorial borders.
Circa 1300—The Travels of Marco Polo begins to circulate in manuscript throughout Europe; interest in Eurasian trade routes continues to grow.
1319—Granada throws back an attempted Castilian invasion.
1330—Alfonso XI of Castile victorious in Battle of Teba near Málaga; among Christian casualties are Sir James Douglas of Scotland.
1340—Attempted Islamic Marinid invasion of Iberia is repulsed by combined Castilian and Portuguese forces at the Battle of Río Salada near Cádiz.
1348–1353—Black Death ravages Europe, including Iberian Peninsula; Alfonso XI of Castile dies of plague while preparing for conquest of Gibraltar (1350).
1350—Berber world traveler Muhammad Ibn Battuta visits Granada; four years later (1354) he dictates observations in his memoir Rihla (“Journey”).
1367—Castilian civil war.
1378–1417—Western Schism of the Roman Catholic Church; rival claimants to the papacy in France and Italy contend for supremacy.
1385—Portuguese consolidate independence from Spain by defeating Castilians at the Battle of Aljubarrota, invoking the protection of Saint George; soon afterwards (in 1387), João (John) I of Portugal marries English princess Philippa of Lancaster.
1410—Prince Ferdinand of Aragón (the future Ferdinand the Just) conquers the city of Antequera in Granada.
1416—Ferdinand I El Justo (“the Just”) of Aragón plays important role in final resolution of the Western Schism.
1431—Castile and Granada fight to an effective draw at the Battle of La Higuerula, although Castile receives tribute afterwards; in France, Joan of Arc burned at the stake by the English in Rouen for witchcraft.
1445—Castilian royalists defeat rebel nobility at the Battle of Olmedo.
1453—Constantinople falls to the Ottoman Turks, renamed Istanbul; psychological shock felt throughout Christendom; end of Hundred Years War between England and France.
1454—Johannes Gutenberg prints Bible using new technology of movable type.
1462—Gibraltar conquered by the Castilians.
1469—Ferdinand II of Aragón, grandson of Ferdinand the Just, marries Isabella I of Castile; they become joint monarchs of those newly-united kingdoms.
1474–1479—War of the Castilian Succession results in the confirmation of Isabella I as legitimate heir to the throne.
1478—Spanish Inquisition established by Ferdinand & Isabella.
1481—Zahara sacked by Granada in retaliation against Christian raiding parties.
1482—Ferdinand & Isabella initiate final Granada War by sacking Alhama; Castilians introduce modern artillery into the conflict; Granada divided by internal conflicts.
1487—After a lengthy siege, Castilian conquest of Andalusian port city Vélez-Málagra reduces Kingdom of Granada to the size of a city-state.
1491—Siege of Granada by Castilians begins; November 25: Granada surrenders city to Castilians, effective January 2, 1492.
1492—January 2: Granada under Mohammad XII (aka King Boabdil) surrenders to Ferdinand & Isabella of Spain; March 31: Alhambra Decree issued by Ferdinand & Isabella, expelling un–Christianized Jews from Spain, effective July 31.
1492–1493—August 3: Columbus sails west from Palos de la Frontera in search of the Asian continent; October 12: he reaches San Salvador in the West Indies; explores neighboring islands, including Cuba and Hispaniola; commands the Nina after shipwreck of flagship Santa María; returns to Palos (via Portugal) on the Ides of March 1493.
1493—Papal bull issued by Alexander VI dividing all newly discovered and conquered lands between Catholic Spain and Catholic Portugal; details worked out in subsequent Treaty of Tordesillas (1494).
1493–1504—Second, third, and fourth voyages by Columbus to New World; most of Caribbean region claimed for Spain.
1495–1498—Leonardo da Vinci paints The Last Supper in Milan.
1495—Santiago de los Caballeros founded in modern day Dominican Republic.
1497—Vasco de Gama of Portugal rounds the African Cape of Good Hope; his achievement spurs Spanish exploration efforts westward.
1497–1526—Islamic religious freedom gradually abolished throughout the Iberian Peninsula; unconverted Muslims leave for North Africa.
16th Century—Global agricultural production begins major shift; New World crops such as corn, tomatoes, potatoes, and chocolate find new markets; Old World crops such as sugar, coffee, cotton, and tobacco thrive in the Americas.
1500—Pedro Álvarez Cabral claims Brazil in the name of Portugal.
1504–1505—Letters of Italian-Spanish explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci published as Mundus Novus; his belief that new continents were being discovered (rather than Asia) gain widespread currency; popular use of Vespucci’s Latinized first name (America) becomes standard reference to the New World, following German publication of Cosmographiae Introductio (1507).
1513—Spaniard Vasco Núñez de Balboa crosses Panama and becomes first European to sight the Pacific Ocean; former Spanish governor of Puerto Rico, Ponce de León, discovers Florida while, according to posthumous tradition, searching for the legendary Fountain of Youth; the name of his flagship is Santiago.
1515—July 25 (Feast of Saint James): Santiago de Cuba founded by Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar; subsequently used as launching point for conquest of Mexico.
1516–1520—Raphael paints The Transfiguration in Rome.
1517—Martin Luther initiates the Protestant Reformation.
1519—Charles V elected Holy Roman Emperor.
1519–1520—Hernán Cortés conquers Mexico and the Aztec Empire; unprecedented quantities of precious metal wealth begin flowing into Spain.
1519–1522—Sailing in the name of Spain, Portuguese-born Ferdinand Magellan leads first circumnavigation of the globe; after Magellan is killed during skirmish in the Philippines (1521), expedition continues sailing westward; Victoria, last surviving of five original ships, returns to Spain after three-year voyage.
1530–1533—Francisco Pizarro conquers Peru and the Inca Empire for Spain.
1531—Apparition later known as Our Lady of Guadalupe first appears to (Saint) Juan Diego in Mexico City near former Aztec sacred site at Tenochtitlán.
1535—Viceroyalty of New Spain established; includes Mexico and Central America, along with large portions of Caribbean region, and present day southern U.S.
1536—Santiago de Cali is founded in modern day Colombia.
1538—Santiago de Guayaquil is founded in modern day Ecuador.
1539–1542—Hernando de Soto explores Florida and most of southeastern U.S.; becomes first known European to encounter the Mississippi River.
1540–1542—Vázquez de Coronado explores much of southwestern U.S. in search of the legendary Seven Cities of Gold (El Dorado); his lieutenant García López de Cárdenas becomes first European to view the Grand Canyon (1540).
1541—Pedro de Valdivia founds the city of Santiago, Chile.
1542—Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo of Spain explores the California coast as far north as the Russian River; Viceroyalty of Peru established with capital at Lima; jurisdiction includes most of modern day Peru, Chile, and Argentina; Spanish New Laws passed by Charles V, outlawing slavery of Native Americans, first emancipation legislation in history.
1547—Santiago Atitlán is founded in modern day Guatemala.
1550—Public debate over human rights of Native Americans in Valladolid, Spain, between Bartolomé de las Casas and Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda.
1550–1590—Protracted Chichimeca War in north central Mexico becomes first widespread uprising of Native Americans against Europeans in the New World; decades-long conflict only resolved after Spanish troops removed, government subsidies granted (“Peace by Purchase”) and continuous intervention of Franciscan missionaries.
1551—National University of San Marcos in Lima and the University of Mexico in Mexico City are both founded.
1553—Francisco de Aguirre crosses from Chile into Argentina and establishes the city of Santiago del Estero (del Nuevo Maestruzgo).
1556—Charles V abdicates as Holy Roman Emperor and retires to a monastery; he is succeeded by his son, Philip II of Spain.
1565—City of Saint Augustine, Florida, is founded.
1579—Francis Drake reaches Point Reyes, CA, while circumnavigating the globe.
1580–1640—Iberian Union of Spanish & Portuguese crowns.
1588—“Invincible” Spanish Armada of Philip II defeated in the English Channel, then ravaged by storms; Protestant England remains free.
1589—Attempted English raid of Galicia by Francis Drake is repulsed but in response, Santiago relics are hidden and subsequently lost for three centuries; Drake later dies after failed attack on San Juan, Puerto Rico (1596).
1605–1615—Two parts of El ingenioso hidalgo don Quijote de la Mancha by Miguel de Cervantes Saavadre are published; it quickly becomes the most popular novel in the Spanish language on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean.
1610—City of Santa Fe, New Mexico, is founded.
1618–1648—Thirty Years War in Europe; Dutch use opportunity to invade Spanish and Portuguese holdings in the New World, most notably in Brazil and the Caribbean.
1620—The Mayflower lands at Plymouth Rock.
1630–1654—Dutch Brazil (New Holland) effectively controls large coastal portions of Portuguese South America.
1648—City of Santiago, Nuevo León, Mexico, is founded.
1656—Diego Velázquez paints Las Meninas in Madrid, incorporating self-portrait with badge displaying the Order of Saint James.
1659—Mexico City Cathedral, under construction since 1573 and one of the world’s most famous examples of Spanish Colonial architecture, is consecrated.
1661—Rembrandt paints Saint James the Greater in Amsterdam.
1689–1692—Works of Mexican nun and poetess Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz are published in Madrid; shortly thereafter, she is targeted by the Inquisition and forced to give up all literary activities.
1701–1714—War of Spanish Succession fought in Europe; international power of Spain and Holy Roman Empire severely weakened.
1716–1726—So-called Golden Age of Piracy, centered in the Caribbean region, with vulnerable Spanish shipping continuously raided by privateers and buccaneers.
1759–1767—Jesuits suppressed throughout Portuguese and Spanish Empires.
1769–1823—Initiated by (Saint) Father Junípero Serra, 21 Franciscan missions constructed in California alone; the last one, Mission San Francisco Solano in Sonoma, CA, is dedicated in 1823.
1776—Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata founded with Buenos Aires as capital; Declaration of Independence signed by 13 American colonies.
1783—Treaty of Paris; Great Britain recognizes American independence.
1789—Storming of Bastille and beginning of French Revolution.
1807–1814—Peninsular War begins with Napoleonic invasion of Portugal and Spain but ends with French withdrawal concurrent with defeat of Napoleon in Russia; Spanish upheavals spark Latin American independence movements.
1807–1821—Exiled Portuguese royal court relocates to Río de Janeiro, Brazil.
1810—Argentine independence declared in Buenos Aires, first of successful revolutions in Latin America (“May Revolution”); September 16: Catholic priest Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla issues Grito de Dolores (“Cry of Dolores”) proclamation, now celebrated as Mexican Independence Day.
1814—During War of 1812, the frigate USS Essex under the command of Captain David Porter is captured by the British at the Battle of Valparáiso (Chile).
1814–1822—Argentina, Chile, and Peru successively achieve independence, with military aid from Libertador General José de San Martín.
1818—Chileans victorious over Spanish at the Battle of Maipú near Santiago; Bernardo O’Higgins appointed as first Chilean Supreme Director.
1821—June 24: Libertador General Simón Bolívar leads Venezuelans to victory over Spanish royalist forces at the Battle of Carabobo, thereby consolidating independence for former states of New Granada (Venezuela, Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Panama); August 24: Treaty of Cordoba; Spain formally recognizes Mexican independence.
1822—Brazil declares independence from Portugal.
1824—Latin American independence movement concludes with Peruvian victory over the Spanish at the Battle of Ayacucho.
1836—Republic of Texas declared (March 2); Mexican army led by General Santa Anna overruns Alamo mission in San Antonio (March 6); Mexicans defeated and Santa Anna taken prisoner by Texans under Sam Houston at the Battle of San Jacinto (April 21).
1846–1848—Mexican War; U.S. acquires southwestern states, including California.
1855—American freebooter William Walker declares himself President of Nicaragua; two years later (1857) he is executed in Honduras.
1862–1865—Mexican War of French Intervention; May 5, 1862: heavily outnumbered Mexican army defeats invading French force at Battle of Puebla; beginning of Cinco de Mayo tradition; Mexican President Benito Juárez maintains office; French pretender Maximilian is executed (1867).
1879–1884—Rediscovery efforts of traditional Saint James burial site at Santiago de Compostela led by Canon López Ferreiro.
1888—Brazil becomes the last modern nation-state to legally abolish slavery.
1892—Highly influential World’s Fair Exposition in Chicago celebrates 400th anniversary of Columbus’ first voyage.
1898—Spanish-American War; U.S. acquisitions include Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines; Battle of San Juan Hill fought near Santiago de Cuba, resulting in U.S. victory and celebrity status for Colonel Theodore Roosevelt.
1910–1920—Mexican Revolution leads to implementation of new national constitution (1917) and election of Álvaro Obregón as President (1920).
1914—Panama Canal opens.
1917—After a period of neutrality, Brazil declares war on Germany and becomes only Latin American country to actively participate in World War I; Jerusalem, after centuries of Ottoman rule, becomes part of the British Mandate, including the Armenian Quarter.
1929—Ecuador becomes first Latin American country to grant women’s suffrage.
1931—Christ the Redeemer statue dedicated in Rio de Janeiro.
1933—FDR initiates U.S. “Good Neighbor” policy towards Latin America by withdrawing American troops and promoting trade relations.
1936—Carlos Saavedra Lamas of Argentina becomes the first Latin American to be awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.
1936–1939—Spanish Civil War; victorious Nationalist forces led by Galician-born General Francisco Franco, with covert support from Nazi Germany; Santiago Matamoros claimed to be seen helping Nationalists to victory at Battle of Mérida (1936).
1941—FDR signs Lend-Lease Act into law, extending massive aid to Latin American Allies, including, Brazil, Mexico, and Cuba.
1945—Gabriela Mistral of Chile becomes the first Latin American awarded a Nobel Prize in Literature.
1946–1950—Aftermath of World War II sees outmigration of former Nazis to several South American countries, particularly Argentina and Chile.
1949—After civil war, Costa Rica permanently abolishes its military.
1952—Argentine First Lady Eva Perón dies of cancer at age 33.
1956—U.S.–backed Nicaraguan dictator Anastasio Somoza assassinated.
1959—Fidel Castro proclaims victory for the Cuban Revolution from Santiago de Cuba.
1961—U.S.–backed Bay of Pigs invasion in Cuba is defeated; Anthony Mann film El Cid is nominated for three Oscars.
1962—Cuban Missile Crisis ends after Soviet ships withdraw from region.
1967—Cuban revolutionary Ernesto “Che” Guevara killed in Bolivia; Six-Day Arab-Israeli War results in Jerusalem Armenian Quarter becoming part of Israeli state.
1973—Chilean elected President Salvador Allende is overthrown in a U.S.–backed military coup and replaced by General Augusto Pinochet.
1974—Isabel Perón, third wife and widow of former Argentine President Juan Perón, becomes the world’s first elected female head of state.
1975—Death of dictator Francisco Franco; some Spanish Civil War exiles begin returning to Spain from Latin America.
1976–1978—Evita by Andrew Lloyd Webber and Tim Rice, a semi-fictionalized account of Eva Perón’s life and times, becomes a hit Broadway show.
1979—Sandinista Revolution in Nicaragua overthrows U.S.–backed dictator Anastasio Somoza Debayle; Daniel Ortega emerges as new Nicaraguan leader.
1980—Saint and Martyr Archbishop Óscar Romero of El Salvador assassinated.
1982—British Navy defeats Argentine Navy in Falklands War; two years later (1984), Argentina returns to civilian rule.
1983—U.S. invades island-nation of Granada.
1986—Roland Jaffé film The Mission wins Oscar for best cinematography.
1989—Berlin Wall falls; former Soviet Union aid to Latin America ceases.
1989–1990—U.S. invades Panama.
1992—500th anniversary of Columbus’ voyage receives mixed reactions; Rigoberta Manchú of Guatemala becomes first Native American to win Nobel Peace Prize.
1994—North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) is signed by the U.S., Mexico, and Canada, loosening trade restrictions between these countries.
1997—Buena Vista Social Club, recorded in Havana, Cuba, under the direction of American impresario Ry Cooder, becomes best-selling album in the U.S.; later a successful documentary film by Wim Wenders (1998).
1998—Self-described Marxist Hugo Chávez elected President of Venezuela; election inaugurates so-called marea rosa (“pink tide”) in Latin American politics.
2000–2010—Trade relations between Latin America and China burgeon, with the latter becoming Latin America’s second largest trading partner after the U.S.; Chile becomes first Latin American country to sign a free trade agreement with China (2005).
2001—September 11: Terrorist attacks against the U.S.; American foreign policy focus shifts away from Latin America with more emphasis towards the Middle East.
2002—U.S. detention camp established at Guantanamo Bay in Cuba.
2003—Most of Latin America condemns the U.S. invasion of Iraq or remains neutral, with the exceptions of Colombia, Honduras, Nicaragua, El Salvador, and the Dominican Republic; Colombia declines to contribute troops.
2008—Union of South American Nations (UNASUR) founded with headquarters in Ecuador and parliament in Bolivia.
2009—Sonya Sotomayor appointed by President Obama as the first Hispanic and Latina justice of the U.S. Supreme Court.
2011–2012—Codex Calixtinus illuminated manuscript at Santiago de Compostela stolen and later recovered.
2013—Cardinal Jorge Mario Bergoglio of Buenos Aires elected as Pope Francis I.
2016—June 23: United Kingdom votes to leave the European Union (“Brexit”); August: XXXI Summer Olympics held in Rio de Janeiro; Nobel Peace Prize awarded to President Juan Manuel Santos of Colombia; November 8: U.S. Presidential election.