Persecution to Establishment (100-500 C.E.)
Saint Lucy, an early martyr.
EARLY CHRISTIANITY
T HE PATRISTIC period in Christian history ranged from ca. 100 to about 500 C.E. 1 The term patristic comes from a Latin word meaning father. During this period creative thinkers hammered out most of the basic doctrines (teachings) of Christianity in response to controversies within the church, persecution and threats from without, and other historical developments. As a group, these early writers are referred to as "the fathers of the church" or simply "the Fathers."
The patristic period also saw Christianity grow from a small, vulnerable, often persecuted sect in the first century to become the official religion of the Roman Empire Other important changes also came about. Orthodox doctrines became firmly rooted A hierarchy of church offices was clearly established. F-Iigher officials increasingly sought to control the actions and teachings of lower ranking Christians, including governmental officers. The beginnings of a fateful split between Western (Roman Catholic) and Eastern (Orthodox) Christianity emerged. Overall, the church developed in this period into an institution that was in a strong position to influence spiritual and political matters throughout Europe The changing position of the church was in part due to drastic changes in the Roman Empire itself.
The patristic period was one of the most important eras in Christian history. This chapter begins by looking at developments in the Roman Empire that are important in the life of the church We then look at church-state relations as the faith moves from persecution to domination of the Roman world and at theological developments and controversies created by changes in these church-state relations.
Chapter 4 continues to examine the patristic period. It reviews problems of authority and other major controversies within the Christian community, notes some important theologians, and discusses the condition of the church at the beginning of the sixth century.
The fate of the church throughout the patristic period is linked with changes in the status of the Roman Empire This section briefly traces the history of Rome from its creation as a republic, to its appearance as a world power, and then to its decline as a stable empire in Western Europe
During much of the thousand years before the birth of Jesus, the lands around the eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea were dominated by Greek culture and
DATES | EVENTS | ROMAN EMPERORS | CHURCH PERSONS | WRITINGS |
64 C E | Burning of Rome, persecution of Christians, death of Peter and perhaps Paul | Nero | Peter, Paul | |
81-96 | Persecution of Christians | Domitian | The Revelation of John (?) | |
96-180 | Height of Roman Empire | Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Anto¬ ninus, Marcus Aurelius | ||
107 | Death of Ignatius | Ignatius of Antioch | Letters | |
1 1 1 | Policy on persecution | Trajan | Correspondence with Pliny the Younger | |
150-254 | Writings of apologists | Justin, Minucius Felix, Antenago- ras, Tertullian, Melito of Sordis, Aristides, Origen, others | ||
193-211 | Persecution of Christians | Septimius Severus | ||
250-251 | Empirewide persecution | Decius | Cyprian, Novatian | |
2517—356 | Beginnings of monasticism | Anthony of Egypt |
military might This influence spread west in part through the establishment of Greek city-states in southern Italy around 800 B.C.E. Around this time, the Etruscans, a group of people from Asia Minor, moved into what is now northern Italy and created a powerful civilization on the northwest coast. Shortly after 600 B C E , several villages near the mouth of the Tiber united politically under a single Etruscan king who was advised by a council of three hundred men called the senate. Other free citizens also participated in the government.
Rome was the center of this cluster of villages, and it soon became a powerful political force When the Etruscans' power weakened around 500 B.C.E., high-ranking Romans overthrew control of the Etruscan king This rebellion marked the beginning of the Roman Republic
DATES | EVENTS | ROMAN EMPERORS | CHURCH PERSONS | WRITINGS |
257-258 | Empirewide persecution | Valerian | ||
295 | Persecution begins again | Diocletian | ||
311 | Beginning of Donatist controversy | Constantine | Caecilian, Felix of Aptunga, Donatus | |
313 | Toleration granted to Christians | Constantine, Licinius | Edict of Milan | |
324 | Sole emperor | Constantine | ||
330 | Constantinople dedicated as new capital | Constantine | ||
330-379 | Eastern monasticism founded | Basil the Great | Rule of St Basil | |
361-363 | Persecution of Christians | Julian the Apostate | ||
363 | Persecution ends | |||
380 | Christianity established | Theodosius I | Edict of Theodosius | |
410 | Visigoths sack Rome | |||
455 | Vandals sack Rome | |||
480-550 | Western monasticism | Benedict of Nursia | Rule of St Benedict |
During its early centuries, the Roman Republic struggled for survival against foes within its borders and invaders from the outside By 265 B.C.E., however, Rome became the master of all of Italy from the Po Valley to the south. The success of Rome soon resulted in conflicts with other powers in the area. Rome was victorious in several large land and sea wars By 44 B C E., it controlled Spain, Gaul (France), northern Italy, Sicily, Greece, Crete, Cyprus, and parts of Asia Minor, eastern Mediterranean territories, and northern Africa
World power brought wealth to Rome, but it also put the republic under terrible strain. The traditional citizens' army had to defend long frontiers and deal with hostile people within Roman borders There were drastic changes in
the economy and the social structure To make matters worse, Hellenistic ideas and mystery cults from the East that stressed individual salvation tended to undermine traditional Roman values of commitment to work and citizenship
This strain led to a period of struggle within the republic among a number of men vying for control In 31 B.C.E., Octavian (or Augustus as he came to be known) won this struggle He was able to claim autocratic powers unknown by any previous Roman ruler. His rule marked the beginning of the imperial period, and from this time on, Rome in effect was ruled by an emperor Augustus took steps to end the civil warfare and chaos that tended to occur after the death of a leader by establishing a system in which able men from his family would continue to rule
The first four emperors of the first century were from Augustus's family: Tiberius (ruled 14—37 C.E.), 2 Caligula (37—41), Claudius (41—54), and Nero (54-68). However, all were less able rulers than Augustus, and Caligula and Nero were cruel, vain, wasteful, and, quite possibly, insane. For a brief period after Nero's death, the army tried to control the imperial office But when Vespasian (69-79) took control, he reestablished the practice of passing the throne to his sons Titus (79-81) and Domitian (81-96). In spite of their weaknesses, several of the rulers—especially Tiberius, Claudius, and Vespasian—were capable and able to extend the boundaries of the empire, increase the power of the emperor, administer the provinces effectively, and undertake large public works in Rome
By the time of Domitian's death, imperial rule was firmly established The empire reached its peak under rulers that following generations would call the "good emperors": Nerva (96—98), Trajan (98—117), Hadrian (117—138), Antoninus (138-161), and Marcus Aurelius (161-180). All named their successors early and worked closely with the senate. They encouraged an imperial bureaucracy (a hierarchy of professional government officials) to administer the empire, created a single body of law for the whole realm, met the monetary needs of the empire, gave local regions considerable freedom, and undertook projects to help the needy throughout the empire.
Because the number of slaves decreased, large estates began to rely more heavily on tenants (people who worked the land and paid rent). Small-scale industry flourished and trade was vigorous. Numerous public buildings, public baths, roads, aqueducts, and private homes were constructed Through taxes on the provinces, the government maintained the bureaucracy, paid the army, and assisted the large numbers of poor in Rome There were many holidays, religious festivals, games, and cultural events Architecture, art, philosophy, science, and literature flourished under the pax Romana.
Yet the empire had problems that would soon cause difficulties The boundaries of the empire were too long to be adequately defended by the army, and their defense strained public funds The empire still had much poverty, injustice, and oppression.
After the death of Marcus Aurelius, the peace that had been common in the empire for almost one hundred years was destroyed. From 193 to 284 there were continual wars as the army tried to control the state. Strife and rebellion was common as units of the army fought the ruling emperor and tried to place their general on the throne. Successful rebellions would result in great benefits to the army units in the form of money, government positions, land grants, and pensions. The rulers during this period are often called "barrack emperors" because their main concern was the well-being of the military.
The traditional role of Roman citizens in the government diminished The emperor was in the process of becoming the absolute lord over the realm and the people were regarded as nothing but mere subjects. Agricultural output declined and trade was disrupted. To make matters worse, Persia to the southeast and German tribes to the northeast were increasing their pressure on the frontiers. The only Romans who benefited from this situation were the great landlords and the army. The values that had made Rome great were severely questioned and the whole society was troubled. People increasingly sought escape from this turmoil through nontraditional religions Among these was Christianity.
The period from 284 to 500 saw the continued decline and eventual destruction of the Roman Empire In 284, the general Diocletian (284—305) was placed in power by the army He and his successor, Constantine (306-337), undertook reforms to try to stop the empire's decline. Diocletian ignored the senate and divided the empire into four areas ruled over by an augustus. He also reformed the tax system to obtain new revenues and undertook a fateful attack on Christians as a threat to the Roman way of life.
When Constantine assumed the throne he made a number of moves that would have important consequences for the history of the church. In 313 he issued the Edict of Milan, which gave religious toleration to all groups, including Christians, throughout the realm This edict resulted in part from Constantine's conversion to Christianity before a battle in 311 Although he was not baptized until he was on his deathbed in 337, he used Christian teachings
as the basis of many of his policies. He promoted Christian causes and saw Christianity as a force that could unite the empire
For some time the city of Rome had been losing political importance, and it was poorly positioned to defend itself against threats from the German tribes to the north. These, along with other factors, led Constantine to establish a new capital at Byzantium, an ancient Greek city on the straits at the entrance of the Black Sea The new capital, which Constantine named Constantinople (and is now called Istanbul), was dedicated in 330. The empire thus had two competing political centers, which aggravated an existing conflict between Western (Latin) and Eastern (Greek) Christianity. From this point on, the Christian world would have two centers.
The period from Constantine's death until the end of the rule of Theodosius I (379-395) was one of relative peace, although the western realm still had problems The financial requirements of the government and the military placed an increasingly heavy burden on the people. The economy remained depressed Large self-sufficient estates became more and more important. The army became more inefficient, especially those units on the frontiers. Many people remained loyal to the older pagan religions, and they resented the advantages given to Christians. This resentment led to a brief time of persecution of Christians under Julian the Apostate (361-363), who tried to reestablish the older pagan faith
These internal tensions and weaknesses were made even more threatening by the rising power of the "barbarian" German tribes. Though the tribes were referred to as barbarians , they actually possessed a developed culture that depended on agriculture and that gave men and women considerable rights. Through the generations, they had become efficient in war. They lacked the "high" culture of the Romans, however, with its emphasis on art, literature, law, and architecture.
From the time of Augustus, small groups of Germans had been allowed to settle in the empire Some of their members had risen to high positions in Roman society As long as their numbers were small and they could be controlled, they were not seen as a real threat. However, a group of Visigoths (a Germanic tribe) who had been allowed to migrate into the empire revolted against the government. They defeated the emperor at Adrianople in 378. Although they were confined for the time being to the Balkan region (an area of southern Europe between Italy and the Black Sea), they still were a "nation" within the boundaries of the empire that could not be managed by the central government.
The death of Theodosius left the empire without effective leadership, resulting in rebellions, assassinations, and power struggles. The eastern empire remained stable, but the government was unable to stop the western advance
of the Germans and other barbarians. Groups of Germanic tribes attacked the empire during the fifth century. A group of Visigoths sacked Rome in 410, and then formed a large kingdom in southern Gaul and Spain. In 455 the Germanic Vandals pillaged Rome
Other groups, including the Burgundians, Sueves, Alains, Alemanni, and Huns, captured large sections of Roman Europe. Angles, Saxons, and Jukes attacked Roman outposts in Britain and established small kingdoms. In the late fifth century, the Franks, led by their brilliant king, Clovis (481-511), drove out other tribes and established a large realm in northern Gaul and along the Rhine river. While most of these tribes were content to call themselves subjects of Rome, in reality the local areas were controlled by tribal kings.
As a result, the emperor in Constantinople had little authority in the western empire by 500. The Germans were firmly established. The region was divided among competing tribes with little central control. Political chaos reigned. Thousands of large estates became isolated economic units having less contact with the outside world. The empire in the West had collapsed. 3
From the first century on, Christianity experienced dramatic growth. Beginning with the second century, the numbers of Christians had increased to the point that they could not be ignored. Yet the official Roman reaction to Christians varied considerably, ranging from toleration to persecution to acceptance to establishment (making Christianity the official religion). The treatment of the church was tied closely to the economic, social, and political conditions of the empire. More often than not, the faith was used as a pawn in larger political games. In this section we look at church-state relations during the patristic period as the church gradually moved from persecution to establishment.
It is popular to think of the first few hundred years of church history as a time of constant conflict with Roman authorities, and some claim that "the church was built upon the blood of martyrs." The believers who gave their lives for their faith did place an unforgettable stamp on the church. Martyrdom was seen by them as a sure sign of the saving grace of God It was regarded as the "highest calling" of a Christian and even was actively sought by some.
Throughout Christian history these martyrs have been praised as shining examples of the Christian faith Moreover, their steadfast beliefs and the peace with which they faced death often served as forceful witness to Christ to pagans (non-Christians). More than one pagan was converted to Christianity by witnessing an execution of a believer, which was supposed to discourage people from following the religion!
Early Patristic Period. For the most part, however, Christians were left alone during the early patristic period. Although the faith was declared "illegal" in the first century, actual persecution of the Christians was sporadic. It usually was limited to situations where an individual local official or emperor would attack the church. Even more common were cases of persecution where the "crime" of an individual Christian or a group of Christians was brought to the attention of authorities. Seldom did one find empirewide abuse.
The average Christians probably lived quiet lives, mostly in cities. There they minded their businesses or practiced their crafts, married, had families, participated in most of the duties of a Roman citizen, and spread throughout all levels of Roman society. Their ethics required them to lead moral lives, to work hard, and to help others. They were challenged to dress plainly without ornaments or signs of office They often would not attend pagan festivals, serve in the army, hold the office of judge, or give sacrifices to Roman gods.
At times the Christians' sacramental meals (where "blood" was drunk and "flesh" was eaten), their practice of baptizing both males and females, and their love feasts (a meal held in the early church along with the Eucharist) led to charges of cannibalism or sexual misconduct. But on the whole, most Christians were probably viewed by other citizens of the empire as "good neighbors " When there were periods of persecution, not all Christians chose martyrdom Many fled, others denied their faith, and some performed sacrifices to the emperor or Roman gods while still regarding themselves as Christians
The first known persecution of Christians began with the emperor Nero in 64, when large sections of Rome burned Apparently to remove suspicion from himself, the emperor decided to blame the fire on Christians The Roman historian Tacitus says they were persecuted because of "abominations" and their "hatred of humankind." While the exact nature of the charges against Christians are unclear, many did suffer cruel deaths because of their faith. It is possible that both Peter and Paul died in Rome during this era. These persecutions seem to have occurred only in Rome and ended when Nero was removed from the throne in 68
Neither Vespasian nor Titus bothered the church This situation changed when Domitian came to power He did not take notice of the Christians at first, but for some unknown reason he later launched attacks on them These
There were many important theologians who contributed to developing Christian theology during the patristic period. Tertullian (ca. 160-225) was one. He was born and raised in Carthage in a pagan family and converted to Christianity before 197. After his conversion he became a strong defender of the Christian faith. He stressed strict morality, which was one factor that led him to become a Montanist later in life. The Montanists were a group that looked for Christs immediate return and that practiced asceticism (strict discipline of the body). They flourished in North Africa in the early third century.
Tertullians famous question, "What has Athens to do with Jerusalem?" implies a rejection of pagan philosophy as a ground for Christian theology. Yet he wrote several works that drew heavily upon pagan philosophy. Tertullian was a prolific writer and was the first major theologian to write in Latin (earlier thinkers wrote in Greek). His writings not only advanced Christian theology but also now serve as resources for historians studying the controversies, patterns of worship, and Christian morality of the early third century.
Tertullians Apology is his most famous work. It argued that Christianity should be tolerated by the pagans. His Against Marcion defended the use of the Old Testament by Christians as well as the oneness of God. Against Praxeas developed a doctrine of the Trinity. His On the Soul was the first Christian psychology and On Baptism was the earliest surviving document on that subject 4
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attacks possibly occurred because he had begun to persecute Jews, and Roman authorities still did not make a clear distinction between Christians and Jews at this point After Domitian's death Christians had another time of peace
Reasons for Persecution. Early writings help to clarify the reasons for the persecutions and the attitudes toward martyrdom. Some of the most important documents are the letters exchanged between Pliny and Trajan In 111, Pliny the Younger had been appointed governor of Bithynia on the northern coast of modern Turkey. There were so many Christians in Bithynia that the pagan temples were abandoned. Someone sent Pliny a list of Christians, and, because the religion was illegal, he sought out those on the list. Those who denied the faith, made sacrifices to the Roman gods, and cursed Christ were freed Those
who did not deny Christianity suffered other fates. Non-Romans were executed for their "obstinacy'' while Roman citizens were sent to Rome for trial Pliny was still uncertain on how to handle the situation. He also had doubts on the legal grounds for executing the Christians. Outside of obstinacy, what was their crime? Should they be punished just because of "the Name" (Christian) or only if they had committed a specific crime? He wrote the emperor for guidance
Trajan's reply is important for three reasons. First, it does not seem to establish a new policy but expresses the practices that had been used for some time. Second, it became the "official" policy toward Christians followed throughout the empire. With a few exceptions this policy directed officials until the rule of Constantine Finally, it gives some idea why the government found Christians threatening
Trajan said that there was no general rule as to when to punish Christians. Their crime of faith was so insignificant that government officials were not to waste time hunting them down. If Christians were accused, they were to be given the opportunity to deny their faith and to perform sacrifices to the pagan gods. The accusation could not be made by people who were unwilling to give their names. Should the accused refuse to worship the gods, they were to be punished The reason for punishment is equally interesting. Christians were not to be punished for crimes they had committed before being brought to trial Instead they were punished for their lack of respect for Roman courts during their trials. In addition, their refusal to sacrifice to the gods and the emperor seemed to question the emperor's right to rule
Th is last point is the key to understanding pagan suspicion of Christians. It was not their supposed abominations (cannibalism, sexual immorality, and so on) that got them in trouble It was their "hatred of humankind" that led to their abuse. In other words, when the Christians failed to sacrifice to the gods, they were showing their disrespect to Roman tradition and civilization. Because the religious system was so intertwined with the civic duties of a citizen, refusal to perform acts of worship to the pagan gods meant that a person was disloyal to the empire
This same idea is behind the charge of "atheism" that was sometimes leveled against Christians. We usually think of atheists as people who do not believe in a god or gods Yet, Christians believed in God (although some Romans had trouble with the invisible God they followed). The problem was that they refused to submit to the right gods. The emperor, himself was viewed as a god and a savior by the Roman people If people sacrificed to the emperor and other Roman gods, thus performing the proper religious duties as well as indicating loyalty to the state, they were free to worship whatever other gods (or no other gods) they wished The commitment of Christians to the empire was further questioned because they refused to attend Roman festivals and
games and to serve in the army. No matter how much Christians proclaimed their loyalty to the empire, they could not overcome the suspicions of the obviously loyal pagans.
The Christian Reaction. Second-century writings also show the Christian attitude toward martyrdom. Among the more important writings are the seven letters of Ignatius of Antioch (ca. 35-107). Ignatius, bishop of Antioch, was a man so respected for his faith that he was known by the title "Bearer of God ." The elderly bishop was condemned to death by imperial officials for his faith around 107 C.E. He was sent to Rome to have the sentence carried out, and on the way Ignatius and the soldiers guarding him traveled through Asia Minor. In route, he entertained other Christians and even dictated letters to Christian secretaries. Some scholars believe this would have been impossible had there been a general persecution in the empire.
As he approached Rome, he heard that Christians there were plotting to free him. He urged his fellow Christians not to prevent the execution as it was clearly God's plan for him. He desired to behave as a true Christian, to take part in the sacrifice of Christ, to be "God's wheat" ground in the teeth of beasts so he could be offered as the "pure bread" of Christ. This sacrifice would allow him to be the witness to the faith he desired Apparently Ignatius was granted his request and died in a Roman game.
Other important figures who died at the hands of the Romans during these second-century persecutions include Polycarp (ca. 69-155), Justin Martyr (ca 100-165), and the widow Felicity and her seven sons. Attacks against Christians also were carried out under Marcus Aurelius and Septimius Severus (193-21 1).
Most of second-century persecutions were limited and local. Things changed in the third century, however. As the empire began to decline, more and more Christians were persecuted Sometimes they were used as convenient scapegoats by government officials for various problems. Other times emperors came into power who believed that only by returning to the "old ways" could the glory of Rome be restored These emperors launched widespread persecution of the "new faith" in order to rebuild pagan religion Septimius Severus carried on his persecutions into the third century but they lessened under the emperors who followed. During most of the first half of the third century, Christianity enjoyed relative peace and growth
When Decius came to power in 249, a systematic, empirewide attack on Christianity began Decius was convinced that the empire was in trouble because the old gods were being neglected He decreed that everyone must perform sacrifices to the Roman gods. Those who did not were arrested and tortured into submission Decius did not want to kill Christians but to make them turn from their faith As a result, not many died in his persecutions.
Many Christians were faithful to their beliefs even when being tortured These people earned the honor of being called "confessors” by their fellow Christians Others performed the required sacrifices and received an official certificate saying they had obeyed the decree Others bought fake certificates saying they had sacrificed
The Question of the Lapsed. Those who received the certificates in one way or another were considered "lapsed" and outside of the Christian community. Questions arose when many of these lapsed Christians sought to be restored to the church For example, should those who rushed to perform the sacrifices, those who performed them only under torture, and those who bought fake certificates be treated in the same way? Who should decide how the lapsed were to be readmitted? The confessors felt their special status in the church gave them the right to decide Many of the bishops believed that only they should decide under what conditions the lapsed could reenter the church. The bishops held this was necessary to maintain their authority, to uphold the unity of the church, and to ensure uniform treatment for those who were being judged
The controversies about the lapsed produced two important figures: Cyprian (d 258) and Novatian (d. ca. 257-258). Cyprian was the bishop of Carthage when the persecution under Decius broke out. He fled the city rather than face Roman authorities, and, from exile, he continued to direct the Carthage church by letters. When he returned to the city after the persecution, his authority was challenged by the confessors and others. Cyprian clashed with the confessors because they readmitted the lapsed on very easy terms, whereas he felt their reinstatement should be more difficult because their "crime" was so great. This controversy resulted in the development of a system of penance, which were acts dictated by church officials to sinners based on the seriousness of their offense. These acts had to be performed before sinners could receive absolution (forgiveness for sins) and could be readmitted into the church. Cyprian's system was accepted throughout North Africa and eventually by the church in Rome
Novatian and Cyprian. Another phase in the controversy was activated by Novatian Novatian was an official in the church in Rome who opposed the election of Cornelius (d 253) as bishop of Rome. His opposition was partly because Cornelius was too lenient with the lapsed who sought to be readmitted to the church Novatian was joined by other rigorists who felt the policies toward the lapsed should be more strict He was elected as a rival bishop of Rome, but he and his followers were eventually driven out of the church. Novatian founded strict churches that survived into the fifth century.
Rome and Carthage sided together on following a more moderate policy than Novatian concerning the lapsed However, the peace between the two cities was broken over the issue of accepting those who had been baptized in Novatian congregations. The bishop Stephen (d 257), a successor to Cornelius, held that baptism performed by Novatian clergy was valid and people desiring admission to Orthodox congregations did not have to be rebaptized
Cyprian and the North African church strongly opposed this acceptance of Novatian baptism. He argued that because there was "no salvation outside of the church," baptism performed outside the orthodox fellowship could not be legitimate. Therefore, Novatian converts had to be rebaptized The controversy was complicated, however, because Stephen based his arguments on the demand that all churches should follow the practices approved by the bishop of Rome (the pope), whose authority could be traced to Saint Peter. Not all churches accepted the primacy (supremacy) of the bishop of Rome at this time. Stephen's position eventually won out.
Results of Conflicts. These conflicts had important implications for the church and its operations. One issue was the nature of the church If the church was an organization comprised only of those who were "pure," then only the pure could be members and administer its sacraments. On the other hand, the church might be seen as an institution that relied on the divine love of God for salvation. If that were the case, then those who were not totally pure might be members, hold office, and administer the sacraments without changing the rituals' effectiveness in conveying divine grace That was not a new issue in the church. The questions of the lapsed and rebaptism of Nova- tians helped gain acceptance for the idea that the church was made up of "impure" people and officials who depended on the divine love of God The problem of the "purity" of the church would often reappear in different forms.
The conflicts also established that only the bishop had the right to forgive or not forgive mortal sins (serious sins that could result in damning the sinner to hell). The "penance system" begun by Cyprian would emerge as a major issue in the church in the Middle Ages and would be one of the roots of the Reformation Bishop Stephen's assertion of the primacy of Rome was another step in establishing the authority of the pope in Western Christianity . 5