Physical persecution was not the only problem faced by the early church. Many pagan writers attacked Christian morality and beliefs. In spite of the threat of persecution, the Christian community was not without its defenders. An important group of writers who sought to defend the early church against pagans attacks are known as the apologists
Arguments against Christianity were diverse. Some attacked the supposed sexual immorality and cannibalism of the Christians. Others tried to show the futility of a belief in the Christian God, Jesus, or the Resurrection. Still others tried to show that Christian beliefs were too simple to compare favorably with pagan philosophy. Yet another set of arguments questioned the loyalty of Christians as citizens of the empire
Efforts to defend the faith against these criticisms actually began in the second century and continued long after that. The list of apologists includes such persons as Aristides (ca. 138), Justin Martyr, Theophilus (late second century), Minucius Felix (second or third century), Tertullian (ca. 160-225), and Origen (ca. 185-ca. 254).
The apologists followed several lines of defense. They defended Christians against charges of immorality and claimed it was the pagans who were immoral. The apologists also claimed the Christians were not atheists. They pointed out that even some great pagan philosophers believed in an unseen God Christians were not disloyal citizens just because they did not believe in or sacrifice to pagan gods. Most Christians performed other civic duties well and they prayed for the emperor and the empire.
A major, and controversial, issue for Christian writers was how Christians were to relate to pagan culture and philosophy. Christians generally would not participate in pagan games and festivals because they were considered immoral by many, though not all, believers. More important issues centered around the achievements of Greco-Roman culture Greeks and Romans had created great cultures with noteworthy art, literature, architecture, law, and philosophy, in which many pagans took pride. Should these achievements be ignored or denied? Should they be seen as anti-Christian? Or could they
somehow be incorporated into the faith? Christian apologists took vastly different positions.
Some apologists claimed that pagan culture and ideas should be rejected outright. The attempt to appreciate Greco-Roman culture was a threat to the faith. One important theologian who took this position was Tertullian. He believed that many of the heresies (teachings which depart from accepted doctrine) of his day were caused by efforts to combine pagan philosophy with Christian doctrine. In his Prescription Against Heretics, he raised the chilling challenge, "What does Athens have to do with Jerusalem? What does the Academy have to do with the Church?"
The opposite position was taken by Justin Martyr, who became the first Christian writer to attempt to reconcile his faith and philosophy. Justin was born to pagan parents. He converted to Christianity after a long search of the various philosophical schools of his day. However, his conversion did not mean that he quit being a philosopher. He was convinced that Christianity and philosophy were not inconsistent. In fact, he found many points of contact between Christian beliefs and the teachings of great Greek philosophers such as Socrates and Plato, who had some insight into truth
Justin found the explanation for this partial grasping of truth in the doctrine of the Logos that appeared both in the Gospel of John and in pagan thought. The Greek term logos may mean either word or reason. Pagan thinkers such as Socrates and Plato believed that the human mind could grasp truth only because there is a universal reason (logos) that underlies all reality. Some New Testament writers such as John also taught that this "true light" gives light to everyone Justin held that the pagan philosophers had received light from the true Logos (Christ), which gave them insight into truth Thus, they were "Christians" in their wisdom. This did not mean that pagan philosophy had a complete understanding of truth What the philosophers had understood in part was revealed fully in Christ's incarnation . 7
These struggles to understand the relation of the faith to Greco-Roman culture point to issues of Christ and culture that are found in the church today In the narrow sense the question is, What is the relation of theology to philosophy? Through the ages the two have been closely linked This relation started in the New Testament. Its high point came in the Middle Ages, when philoso-
phy and theology were very close indeed. Moreover, philosophical schools (lines of thought often associated with a certain philosopher) have often had a strong impact on Christian thinking For instance, beginning with the second century (and some would say with Paul), the ideas of Plato started to underlie most Christian thinking. For a thousand years the beliefs of the church were built upon Plato's philosophy. In the twelfth century, Aristotle was rediscovered, which brought about a sweeping change in Christian theology (discussed in Chapter 6). Each age has its own philosophies, and Christian theology must respond to them in one way or another.
Not only have Christian thinkers had to respond to the philosophies of their day, but also they have had to speak to other questions presented by the cultures in which they live. One position on how to respond to their cultures is taken by "fortress building" theologians. Like Tertullian, they believe their task is to proclaim the truth to the world outside of the church and the world can accept or reject these truths as it chooses. In part this is the stance today of the Roman Catholic church on such issues as the use of "artificial" birth control, abortion, and the ordination of women to the priesthood.
Others are "bridge building" theologians, who respond to the problems raised by their cultures by "entering into dialogue" with their cultures. Like Justin, these theologians speak to questions being raised by an entire culture, not just by the Christian community. A modern example of this approach is the liberation theologians, who have helped with the problems of the poor in Latin America by combining Christian thinking with the teachings of Karl Marx (who developed the theory of socialism). Each of these positions has its advantages and problems.
The issues of Christ and culture faced by the early Christians also reflect the same practical concerns that have confronted Christians throughout history Just how are Christians to live in their culture on a daily basis? What is moral and immoral? Can Christians enjoy "pagan" art, literature, music, or theater? What about sporting events and movies? How can people be good citizens and good Christians?
The apologists dealt with these concerns in a time when the church was being persecuted However, the situation was soon to change, which raised another set of issues.