One question that historians have debated throughout the ages is whether Constantine really converted to Christianity. Some Christian writers of his time believed he was Christian and that his conversion was the result of the working out of the kingdom of God on earth. Other historians have argued that he was a sincere convert, but because of his position of emperor he could not appear "too" Christian. For example, he could not suppress pagan worship because paganism was still a strong force in the empire. Still other historians believe that he was simply a smart politician who used Christianity for political ends.
On the positive side, Constantine considered himself a "bishop" who occasionally tried to guide and assist the church through important disputes. He also had Christians and Christian bishops attached to his royal court. He took many steps to favor the church, and there is little doubt that the situation of the faith improved under his rule. He was finally baptized on his deathbed, which was not unusual as late-life baptisms were a common practice at the time.
On the other hand, Constantine did not go through the normal process of becoming a Christian. He neither received instruction in the faith nor placed himself under the direction of Christian teachers and bishops. He determined his own religious practices until his death. The fact that he was not baptized until shortly before his death means that technically he was not a Christian. In addition, he had continued to serve as the pagan high priest and to take part in pagan rituals. After his death, the senate declared him a pagan god.
The question still remains: Did Constantine convert to Christianity? 9
other contender The determinative battle between the two was fought at the Milvian Bridge over the Tiber River in 312. Shortly before the battle, Constantine had a vision (or perhaps a dream) in which he was told to paint a Christian symbol (J?) on his army's shields and battle standards. 8 He was assured "in this sign you shall conquer." Constantine ordered his army to paint this symbol on their equipment, and he was indeed victorious.
After securing the West, Constantine turned to the East. At first he entered into an alliance with Licinius who was gaining control in the East. Together they issued the Edict of Milan in 313, which called for the end of persecution of Christians. It also required that churches, cemeteries, and other properties taken in earlier persecutions be returned to the church This edict is usually considered the end of Christian persecution, although it continued
in the East until Constantine took control of that area in 324 At this point, Christianity became an officially recognized religion that was equal to other legal religions in the empire.
Constantine is often called the first Christian emperor. Although there is debate about how sincere his conversion was, he probably considered himself a believer Yet he may not have had the same understanding of his faith that many held It is clear, though, that with his rule, the fate of the church was changed and Christianity was in favor. People who had previously been persecuted for their faith could participate in ruling the empire and could even take part in the splendors of the emperor's court. Laws were passed that favored the church. Its clergy were given the same privileges as pagan priests. Augustus's laws penalizing the unmarried were repealed. This ruling was significant because of the high value placed on celibacy (remaining unmarried and having no sex) by Christians. The first day of the week, the Sun's Day, was made a holiday.
Constantine called himself "a bishop, ordained by God to oversee whatever is external to the church " However, he was not beyond becoming involved in church matters, as we shall see in Chapter 4. More importantly, he regarded the church as something to be used to advance the aims of the state. Pagans were still the majority of the population in the empire. Constantine did not require them to become Christians and did not attack most parts of traditional Roman civilization Yet he saw Christianity as a force to restore peace among the warring elements in the empire. In promoting Christianity, he believed he was promoting a stronger and more peaceful empire.
Constantine's plans for peace were threatened by several controversies within the church. One of these, the Donatist controversy, concerned the issue of the purity of the church A group in Carthage refused to recognize Caecilian (consecrated 311) as bishop because he was consecrated (a ceremony to make one a bishop) by Felix of Aptunga. Felix had been a traitor to the faith under the Diocletian persecution The situation was made more complex by native groups in North Africa who resented Roman occupation and who used the theological debate as an opportunity to loosen the government's control. Those who rejected Felix soon elected Donatus as an alternative bishop Donatus would lead the Donatist movement for several decades. The Donatists continued to believe that the church must be holy (pure) and that sacraments administered by impure bishops were ineffective
The bishop in Rome investigated the controversy and decided against the Donatists, who then appealed to the emperor. Constantine first referred the matter to a synod (meeting) of western bishops in 314 When this synod ruled against the Donatists, Constantine heard the case and also decided against
them. Because they refused to obey his ruling, he tried to end the controversy with force in 316 but abandoned this policy in 321. The Donatists persisted and won many converts. In fact, by the fifth century the majority of Christians in North Africa were probably Donatists. Donatism was finally wiped out when the Muslims destroyed the African church in the seventh and eighth centuries.
Upon Constantine's death in 337, the empire was divided among his three sons: Constantine II, Constans, and Constantius. The death of his two brothers left Constantius in control of the whole empire in 350. When he died the empire briefly returned to paganism under the rule of his cousin Julian the Apostate, who reigned from 361 to 363. His death left Theodosius I in control. Theodosius then established Christianity as the official religion of the empire.
The place of Christianity in the empire was significantly changed. From the time of Constantine on, emperors helped construct Christian church buildings. Worship became more elaborate, with congregations participating less in the services. Christians were favored and pagans often were persecuted Most Christians welcomed these changes. They believed Constantine and his successors were the instruments of God showing God's power to win victory in history. They were happy that they could be faithful to one empire, one emperor, and one church.
These changes were not without their dangers, however. Because it was fashionable to be a Christian, many converted to the faith who had little commitment to Christian ideas. They were quite different from the early followers who held their beliefs with passion or the martyrs who gave their lives for their faith. Immoral behavior became more acceptable. It appeared to many that the church had become weak and corrupt.
Another danger was the new relation of the church to the state Religion and politics were becoming closely connected The power of the state was used to enforce Christian doctrines. In turn the church was expected to support the state In the West, the pope would come to control much political power. In the East, the church came to be dominated by the emperor. The church was seen as an instrument to serve the purposes of the state The problem of church-state relations would cause many conflicts throughout Christian history . 10
Not all were pleased with the changes in the church and many reacted negatively. One movement that grew as the church became more accepted in so-
ciety was monasticism. Monastics are people who seek to live pure Christian lives by withdrawing from society In the early stages, these individuals would withdraw into the desert where they would dedicate themselves to becoming more Christ-like Males in this group came to be called monks and females came to be called nuns
Although the word monk means alone, most monks and nuns lived in communities At first many lived in desert caves. They tried to completely control their flesh so they could dedicate themselves to God, which meant practicing celibacy, living in simple cells (rooms with little comforts), and possessing only the clothing necessary to protect the body. They dedicated themselves to prayer, fasting (going without food), and worship. Many waited for the rapid return of Christ and the establishment of the kingdom of God on earth. To control the flesh some took drastic measures, such as starving or castrating themselves. They often felt they were involved in a life and death struggle with the devil and demons
Although it is impossible to know who was the first monk or nun, Anthony of Egypt (2517-356) is called the father of the movement. Anthony introduced to monasticism an ordered plan for living Pachomius (ca. 290-346) was another important figure in early monasticism He founded a monastery (where monks live) at Tabennisi, which inspired the founding of eight other monasteries The rule he developed to guide his monks influenced both Basil and Benedict
Basil the Great (ca 330-379) was a well-educated man who withdrew into the desert for a period of time. Even though he would eventually leave the desert to become bishop of Caesarea, he left his mark on monasticism by the creation of a rule (laws) to guide monks in their lives. The Rule of Saint Basil is very strict but was not as extreme as the practices followed by many monks at the time It is the basic rule followed by eastern monks to this day.
Benedict of Nursia (ca 480-ca. 550) was another key person in the monastic movement Benedict was educated in Rome where the low moral quality of society led him to withdraw. Eventually a community of followers grew around him He founded other monasteries, each presided over by an abbot (head, overseer) In later life he lived in the monastery at Monte Cassino There he wrote a rule that carefully explained how a monastery was to be administered and the nature of the monastic life.
According to the Rule of Saint Benedict, monks were to elect an abbot who would direct operation of the monastery and who also would be a spiritual guide and counselor to the monks. The abbot was to be obeyed without question The monks were to dedicate themselves to the Divine Office (series of prayers and readings to be said at appointed hours of the day and night). Saying the Divine Office required that monks have books from which to read Monks consequently became very good at copying books by hand, a skill that
came to be very important in preserving learning and literature in the early Middle Ages They also were to dedicate themselves to private prayer and hard work. The Rule of Saint Benedict was disciplined and austere but not unduly harsh. It spread throughout the Western church and was also the basis for later reform movements in church history. Saint Benedict is referred to as the father of western monasticism.
The monastic movement had several significant effects on the church Many dedicated Christians imitated monastic ways even though they did not join monasteries Temporary retreats into lonely places or monasteries became common for those seeking to renew or deepen their spiritual lives. There was an effort to enforce celibacy on all clergy in the Western church. This effort was not successful for centuries in the West. (Celibacy has never been required for the lower-level clergy in the East.) Because of the respect paid to monks, they were frequently called from their monasteries to serve in church offices. The monks were often viewed as superior to other Christians. This view increased the growing tendency to separate Christians into spiritual classes. There developed "ordinary" and special, or "extraordinary," categories of Christians.
CONCLUSIONS
A major factor in the first five hundred years of the church was its changing relations to the state. Early in the patristic period, the Christian community was subject to periodic persecution. This persecution was often produced by emperors or officials who were trying to reverse the declining empire Christians became convenient scapegoats for the problems of the empire Doing away with the Christians was seen as a means of restoring Rome to its ancient glory.
The persecutions led to a strong role for martyrs in the early church. At the same time, issues raised by the movement to restore the lapsed led to an understanding of the church as a body of "sinful" people who depended on the grace of God rather than on their own purity. The role of the bishop increased and the church in Rome tried to assert its leadership of the Christian world The apologists attempted to defend Christians against pagan attacks They took positions of "Christ against culture" (fortress building) and "Christ in dialogue with culture" (bridge building). These positions have continued throughout church history to the present day
As the church became established, new problems arose. One set of issues centered on the church's use of political power. Other problems resulted from Christianity's sudden popularity, which brought into the church "social Christians," who joined for reasons of social and political advancement Certainly
many lacked the passionate commitment found in the faith of the martyrs. Other Christians were dissatisfied with the low levels of commitment found in the church, which increased the trend for some Christians to seek a deeper and more meaningful faith than was practiced by the average church member. This trend, in turn, strengthened the role of monastics in the Christian community.
Church-state relations was not the only factor that led to changes in the church Other controversies within the community also produced changes in Christian theology and church structure. We will examine these in Chapter 4.
1. Choosing the beginning and end of historical periods is always difficult. History is something of a continuous line, with events from the past feeding into those in the future The historian is often without clear-cut "signposts" that tell exactly when one period ended and another began The year 500 was chosen as the end of the patristic period because the church fathers were dead, the most important of the early councils of the church had been held, and the Roman Empire had experienced invasions in the West from "barbarians "
The term barbarian invasions is used in this text to emphasize the replacement of one order with another To many Romans it may have seemed that hordes of uncivilized Germans suddenly swept into the empire, destroying the old ways. Many contemporary historians argue that the Germans were neither "barbarians" nor "invaders ” The Germans had a civilization that included all the basic structures of culture, such as family, religion, politics, and economics. The "invasions" may have been more of a gradual movement into the empire The invading Germans considered themselves good Romans for centuries Some historians say that calling the coming of the Germans "barbarian invasions" is a way for Romans to transfer the blame for the collapse of the empire from themselves to others.
The movements of German tribes during the early fifth century are particularly important because they marked the beginning of the end of effective political control in the West. Although the emperor in Constantinople continued to claim western Europe, he had limited control over the region, which opened the way for the church to assert more influence The sixth century was still a time of change from the old empire to the new situation where the church would be the dominant political as well as spiritual force in the West After 500 the emperor relied more upon bishops to assert political control in the West. After 600 it was obvious that a new order was emerging in western Europe
2. From this point on, most of the dates in this book refer to times after the birth of Christ As a result the label "c E " is dropped As with Tiberius, the dates after emperors' names will indicate the period of their rules, not their lifespans
3. For a good discussion of the rise and fall of the Roman Empire, see John B Harrison, Richard E Sullivan, and Dennis Sherman, A Short History of Western Civilization, 6th ed (New York: Knopf, 1985), 100-189
4 . For a good discussion of Tertullian, see Justo L. Gonzalez, A History of Christian Thought, vol 1 , From the Beginnings to the Council of Chalcedon (New York: Abingdon, 1970), 175—190
5 . For a good discussion of Cyprian, Novatian, and Stephen, see Kurt Arland, A History of Christianity, vol 1 , From the Beginnings to the Threshold of the Reformation, trans James L. Schaaf (Philadelphia Fortress, 1980), 156-161
PERSECUTION TO ESTABLISHMENT (100 - 500 c e )
6. The question of military service always has been a problem for Christians Early on, most Christians apparently would not serve because of teachings against the use of force and the taking of human life They are taught by Jesus in the Gospels against taking oaths and taking up the sword They were warned about hating their brothers and sisters They were required to love their enemies. These admonitions were taken seriously by the earliest believers By this time, however, the situation had changed Although church leaders continued to teach against military service, many "ordinary'' Christians were in the army
7. For a good discussion of the apologists, see Justo L. Gonzalez, The Story of Christianity, vol. 1 , The Early Church to the Dawn of the Reformation (San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1984), 50—57 A classic study on the church's relation to the world is H Richard Niebuhr, Christ and Culture (New York: Harper and Row, 1975). He identifies several different basic positions the church has assumed, including Christ against culture, the Christ of culture, Christ above culture, and Christ in paradox with culture
8. This is a combination of Chi and Rho, the first two Greek letters in the name Christ Although it may not have been used by the earliest Christians, since Constantine it has been used as a monogram for Christ
9. For a good discussion of the conversion of Constantine, see Gonzalez, Story, vol 1, 120-123.
10. The problem of the relation of church to state is not exclusive to Christianity For instance, Islam, Shinto, Hinduism, and Buddhism also have had similar relations to the states where they dominate
Athanasius. On the Incarnation. Translated and edited by Penelope Lawson New York: Macmillan, 1981.
-. The Life of St. Anthony the Great. Willits, Calif.: Eastern Orthodox Books, 1976.
- Select Treatises of St. Athanasius in Controversy with the Arians. 5th ed Translated by
John H Newman. 2 vols. 1890 Reprint. New York: AMS, 1978 Bainton, R. H. Christian Attitudes Toward War and Peace. New York: Abingdon, 1960. Benedict The Rule of St. Benedict. Edited and translated by Justin McCann London: Sheed and Ward, 1972.
Bettenson, Henry, ed. Documents of the Christian Church Numerous editions. London: Oxford
Chadwick, Henry. The Pelican History of the Church. Vol. 1 , The Early Church. New York: Penguin, 1968
Dodds, E. R. Pagan and Christian in an Age of Anxiety. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1968
Doerries, Hermann. Constantine the Great. New York: Harper and Row, 1972.
Dudley, D R Civilization of Rome. New York: New American Library, 1960 Fergeson, John. The Religions of the Roman Empire. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1970 Frend, W. H. C. The Donatist Church: A Movement of Protest in Roman North Africa. Oxford: Clarendon, 1952
-. Martyrdom and Persecution in the Early Church. Garden City, N.J.: Anchor, 1967.
Grimal, Pierre The Civilization of Rome. Translated by W S Marquinness New York: Simon and Schuster, 1963
Harnack, Adolf von. The Mission and Expansion of Christianity in the First Three Centuries. New York: Harper and Row, 1962
Hinson, E Glenn. The Evangelization of the Roman Empire: Identity and Adaptability. Macon, Ga Mercer University Press, 1981.
MacMullen, Ramsay Paganism in the Roman Empire. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1981.
Pelikan, Jaroslav The Christian Tradition. Vol 1 Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1971
Tertullian Apologetical Works. Fathers of the Church , vol 10. Washington, D C.: Catholic University Press, 1963.
-. Disciplinary, Moral and Ascetical Works. Fathers of the Church, vol. 40 Washington,
DC: Catholic University Press, 1959
Waddell, Helen The Desert Fathers. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1957.
Workman, Robert B. Persecution in the Early Church. Reprint. London: Epworth, 1960.
CHAPTER FOUR