MIDDLE AGES

Chaos, Darkness, and Emerging Order

(500-1000 C.E.)

Pope Gregory I.

D IFFERENCES had EMERGED in New Testament times between the two main branches of orthodox Christianity—the Eastern and Western churches— that began to lead to a split between them A major difference between the branches was that they spoke different languages. The preferred language of the East was Greek while that of the West was Latin

Differences in preferred language in turn helped to create vast differences in the Greek and Latin "minds." It is not far from the truth to say that the Greeks were more philosophical, artistic, and mystical (stressing direct contact with God) and the Latins were more practical and legalistic. When these attributes were applied to Christianity, different concerns in the faith were obvious. For example, the questions of the basic problem of humans and the work of Christ was seen differently in the two halves of the church. In the East the basic problem of humanity was that sin had caused people to lose their divinity. The work of Christ was to restore that lost divinity. In the West, the basic problem of humans was understood to be sin itself The work of Christ was to pay the price for that sin. As a result, the East's most important symbol was the Resurrection, which indicated a return of the lost divinity. The West's most important symbol was the cross, which showed the price paid for sin 1 These differences were heightened in the patristic period by the rivalry between Rome and Constantinople. They were highlighted even more by the unrest over barbarian invasions in the West and the relative stability of the East They were further aggravated by the varying impact of the rise of Islam on the two halves of the old Roman Empire. All of these situations contributed to a growing schism between Greek and Latin Christianity.

This chapter looks at the cultural and political world in which Christianity existed during the early Middle Ages. Then it presents some major developments in the Eastern and Western branches of the faith. It also reviews the state of the church at the beginning of the eleventh century.

THE WORLD IN THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES

The fifth-century barbarian invasions shattered the old Roman Empire. The emperor in Constantinople still claimed to be the rightful ruler of Rome and the West Many in that region continued to recognize his rule, although from the fifth century on he did not have effective control in the area The real power was in the hands of the leaders of various Germanic groups. In the seventh and eighth centuries, the Muslims took control of Persia, Palestine, North Africa, and portions of southern Europe These conquests divided the old Roman Empire into three large sections: the Byzantine Empire, western Europe, and the Islamic Empire The history of each is briefly discussed below

Important Events of the Early Middle Ages

DATES	EVENTS •	SECULAR LEADERS	RELIGIOUS PERSONS	WRITINGS
431 C.E.	Conversion of Ireland begins		Patrick
440-467	Assertion of papal authority		Leo I
492-496	More development of papal authority		Gelasius I
51 1	Merovingian Dynasty	Clovis
527-565	Byzantium rises	Justinian I		Justinian Code
529	Monastery at Monte Cas- sino founded		Benedict of Nursia	Rule of St Benedict
553	Council of Constantinople
570-629	Rise of Islam, new claims of papal authority, liturgy, rule for medieval life		Muhammad, Gregory I	Koran, Pastoral Rule
597	Mission to England begins		Augustine of Canterbury
650-754	Theology of Orthodoxy compiled		John of Damascus	Fount of Wisdom
664	Celtic and Roman churches joined (Whitby)
719-754	Mission in Germany		Boniface
726	Iconoclast controversy begins
732	Muslims defeated at Tours	Charles Martel
751-752	Carolingian dynasty founded	Pepin the Short
768-814	Reign of Charlemagne	Charlemagne
844	Transubstantiation contro¬ versy begins		Paschasius Radbertus, Ratramus, Gottschalk	Body and Blood of the Lord
847	Filioque controversy begins
863	Conversion of Moravia begins		Cyril, Methodius
858-867	Successful assertion of papal independence		Nicholas I

The Byzantine Empire

The distinctive empire and culture that emerged in the East is often referred to as Byzantine by modern scholars. This term helps to distinguish it from the Greco-Roman culture it replaced The name comes from Byzantium, the ancient city that became the site for Constantinople. One of the people who was responsible for the creation of Byzantine culture was Justinian I (527—565). When he became emperor in 527, he set out to restore the failing Roman Empire

Justinian undertook to reconquer the lands lost to the Germanic tribes. He was only partially successful in spite of the valiant efforts of his armies. He regained North Africa from the Vandals, Italy from the Ostrogoths and Lombards, and a small part of southeastern Spain from the Visigoths The rest of western Europe remained under control of the Germans. To make matters worse, Justinian was attacked on the east by Sassaian Persians who were trying to wrestle Persia from his control. By the end of his reign, it had become clear that the emperor would have to concentrate on holding the East The West would have to be abandoned

Another contribution of Justinian was the famous Justinian Code, a set of laws that gave shape to the legal system and government of the emerging society. It summarized the heart of ancient Roman laws and sought to define the principles on which the law operated The code also created the centralized government holding absolute authority that characterized Byzantine civilization

The Byzantine culture that emerged in Justinian's time drew heavily on the ideas of Greek Christianity, but it was influenced by the Near East too. Byzantine civilization produced great cities and architecture One of its best achievements was the magnificent Santa Sophia, a church built by Justinian in Constantinople The society was also deeply religious There was a very close relation between the state and the church, which we will examine later in this chapter

The Byzantine Empire was under tremendous pressure of invasion from the reign of Justinian on. In the sixth century, most of northern Italy was lost to a Germanic tribe, the Lombards. Only a strip of land from Ravenna to Rome along with southern Italy was left in the hands of Constantinople In the late sixth century, an even more serious threat by the Avars to the north and the Persians to the south was resisted successfully. In the eighth century the Muslims gained control of North Africa, Egypt, Palestine, Syria, and Asia Minor By 717-718 they placed Constantinople under siege. Even when this siege was broken, the Muslim threat was not totally eliminated

Although the Byzantines eventually regained some of the lands they had lost, they were left with an empire consisting of parts of Asia Minor and the

Balkan peninsula. The Franks, who had become the major power in western Europe, continued to chip away at Byzantine control in Italy. By the ninth century, the empire was threatened by the emergence of the Bulgar state in the Balkans. The Bulgars were eventually destroyed Byzantine influence was extended throughout central Europe and into Russia. Some progress was made in the East against the Muslims. By the eleventh century, however, the Byzantine state was considerably weakened at a time it was facing new challenges by a variety of enemies, most significantly the Turks. The Turkish invasion finally led the Byzantine state to call on western Europe for assistance This appeal to Europe was one factor that gave rise to the Crusades, which are discussed in Chapter 6.

The State and the Church in Western Europe

The history of the West after the fall of the Roman Empire is much different. For most of the early Middle Ages, there was no strong central power. The lack of a central power, along with the emergence of feudalism (a system of economic, social and political organization), led to a number of struggles in which the church would be a major player. Violence and disorder characterized much of the West. Some scholars believe this age was one of Europe's darkest.

The Merovingian Dynasty. One of the most important tribal groups in the West was the Franks. The Franks began to carve out a widespread kingdom for themselves in the fifth century under their great leader Clovis (481-511). Eventually western Europe was dominated by the Lombards in the south and southeast, the Franks in the central area, and the Anglo-Saxons in England.

By far the largest area was controlled by the Franks. Clovis was a powerful warrior who successfully conquered many of the neighboring peoples. He founded the Merovingian dynasty, which ruled until 751. It declined steadily from the time of Clovis. Merovingian kings relied heavily on force, which caused them to be viewed as bloodthirsty. They seemed to have little concern for common people.

The kings found themselves relying on well-to-do landowners to support their causes and fight their wars. Ownership of land gave both laypeople and church officials great power. A system emerged in which a person's status depended on his ability to give land to those who served him These “noble" landowners controlled their regions and often stood between the king and the people. The rules governing relations between the king and the nobles were unclear and constant strife resulted. The feudal system began to emerge as a way of coping with this situation.

The elite in this society were not "cultured'' Romans but often were crude and uneducated They were concerned with drinking, gambling, fighting, and increasing their power. Family connections were especially important as a means of gaining land and control Several powerful families would eventually control and influence much of western Europe For peasants, life was nasty and short and characterized by hard work, ignorance, and isolation.

The church played an important role in the chaotic Merovingian world. Many of the Franks were Christian and looked to the church for spiritual direction Unfortunately, the religious and moral life of many laypersons and clergy was at a very low level Church officials did play important secular (nonreligious) roles Because some church officials were educated when political leaders were not, the clergy assisted in preparing documents and administering affairs of state.

The urban centers so important in the Roman Empire became relatively unimportant Trade declined and people moved to the countryside to work the land Local cathedrals dominated by a bishop became the focus of regional life In addition, the church itself was one of the largest landowners on the Continent, which gave it tremendous power. Bishops and other church officials came to act more as feudal lords than as spiritual leaders. The pope in Rome finally claimed he was the head of the church Because he had an hierarchy of power and some influence over local affairs through his bishops, he came to provide a degree of central control that the political powers could not

The Carolingian Dynasty. The later Merovingian rulers were so ineffective that the last few are sometimes referred to as ""do-nothing" kings This dynasty was to be replaced by the Carolingians, so named after their greatest ruler, Carolus (or Charles) Two able early leaders of this family were Charles Martel (714-741) and Pepin the Short (741-751). 2 Charles Martel is best remembered for his defeat of invading Muslims at Tours in 732, which prevented the Muslims from conquering western Europe

Both men served as high officials for Merovingian kings. They were capable warriors who also effectively administered the realm. They built loyalty among the nobles in the society by giving large grants of land called benefices, or fiefs, for service to the state Often this land was taken from property that belonged to the church In spite of this seizure of property, both took actions that gained them favor with the church They dispensed justice fairly, cared for the weak, and guarded church rights They became the real power in the kingdom

Pepin finally decided to seize power formally in the realm by removing the last of the Merovingian kings from the throne and transferring the crown to himself In this action he sought and received the blessing of the pope The pope was encouraged to bless the change because he was under pressure from

the Lombards in northern Italy, and he needed Frankish protection for his properties there This arrangement started a long history of Frankish involvement in the affairs of the papacy Frank kings came to see themselves as protectors of Rome and the pope. They also came to feel that they had the right to interfere in such church matters as the appointment of a new pope

Pepin gave lands taken from the Lombards in central Italy to the pope He did so despite the fact that these lands legally belonged to the Byzantine Empire. Pope Stephen II (d. 757) persuaded Pepin to do so with the aid of a document known as the 'Donation of Constantine ." This document was a forgery, possibly prepared at that time In it Constantine supposedly gave the pope the control of the western empire, Italy, and Rome The "Donation of Constantine" was widely accepted in much of the Middle Ages and was used as a basis for later papal claims to authority.

Charlemagne. Pepin's successor Charlemagne (768-814) was the greatest of the Carolingian rulers as well as the first of the great European kings. Charlemagne was an extremely successful military leader and diplomat who carved out a large, stable Frankish Empire. His able administration of the empire was driven by his deep belief in the duties of a Christian king. These were based on his readings of the Old Testament and Augustine's City of God.

To him the king was an agent of God anointed to carry out God's commands. He was to command his subjects to do good as well as to resist evil. Society was to function according to Christian ideas of right order, justice, and harmony. Charlemagne undertook a vigorous reform of the church through such steps as encouraging Christian missions, asserting the authority of bishops, improving the moral and educational standards for clergy, reforming monasteries through strict observance of the Rule of Saint Benedict, and ensuring financial support for religious causes by imposing a 10 percent tax on all Christians.

This reform was aided by the papacy The pope's role in reform helped to improve his position throughout Europe. Possibly in gratitude for this improved status, Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne "Emperor of the Romans" on Christmas Day in 800 Historians still debate many of the details as well as the importance of this event. It is unclear how either Charlemagne, his subjects, or the papacy understood the title of emperor. Yet Charlemagne did reign as emperor until his death and successfully forced the Byzantines to recognize his right to the title

The Carolingian Renaissance. Another important achievement of Charlemagne's reign was the Carolingian Renaissance, which did much to preserve Western civilization. Charlemagne developed an appreciation for learning He saw education of the leadership, especially the clergy, as one of the keys to

CHRISTIANITY IN THE MIDDLE AGES

providing a better quality of life. This idea was revolutionary in an age that had almost forgotten the value of education

The stress on learning helped to produce a renaissance, or rebirth, of culture that brought together trends from earlier small revivals that had occurred in other places in Europe Charlemagne invited Irish monks to teach in his realm. Ireland had not suffered the cultural and educational breakdown that the Continent had experienced after the collapse of Rome Other scholars came from Italy, Spain, and England Charlemagne established a court school at his new capital, Aachen (in what is today Germany), in the 790s. The noted scholar and monk Alcuin of York (735—804) was made head of the school.

Alcuin and other scholars developed a method of instruction that became the foundation for all education in the Middle Ages It emphasized the study of subjects such as Scripture, church fathers, and literature in the original texts. This emphasis aided the development of historical studies and renewed an appreciation for literature Art flourished. A standard form of Latin began to spread throughout Europe. Monasteries and cathedrals began to enhance their libraries and to copy texts, which was particularly important in the creation of the cathedral schools of the later Middle Ages.

Declining Empire and the Developing Feudal System. In the ninth century the Carolingian Empire declined from its high point under Charlemagne Outside pressures increased internal problems. Muslims from North Africa, called Saracens, attacked Italy and southern France by sea. New invaders from Asia called Magyars, or Hungarians, attacked the eastern empire on horseback. But the most severe threat came from northern Vikings, or Norsemen These Norsemen were the ancestors of Danes, Swedes, and Norwegians.

The Vikings were barbarians who were still pagan in their religion. In the ninth century they began to expand. They traveled by boat in small bands and attacked the entire Atlantic coast of Europe, the Baltic Sea region, Russia, Ireland, England, Iceland, Greenland, and North America The rivers of Europe became highways, allowing them to attack far inland. They burned, pillaged, and looted everywhere they went, instilling such fear that ninth-century English Christians put a prayer in their liturgy that contains the desperate plea, "Lord protect us from the wrath of the Norsemen " Royal armies of the empire were ineffective against this northern threat. Local nobles with their own armies were more effective This served to lessen further the control of the empire by leaving powerful lords with their own military forces that the emperor could not command By 900, Europe again was fragmented

Around 900, the feudal system became the dominant form of political and social organization in much of western Europe The system grew out of German customs and the great self-sufficient manors that were a part of life in the late stages of the Roman Empire In the feudal system, lesser lords swore alii-

ance to greater lords in return for protection The lesser lords gave their military service and that of their vassals (even lesser lords who had sworn allegiance to them) to the greater lord. In return, the greater lords granted others the right to rule fiefs (estates). Ideally this system would create a grand hierarchy with the king at the top and many levels of lesser nobles under him. In reality it led to a complicated system in which any one person might have a number of fiefs and allegiances. The feudal structure divided much of western central Europe into a patchwork of local domains over which central authorities had little control.

Peasants technically were not part of the feudal system. However, most of the peasants had become economically attached to large, self-sufficient agricultural estates known as manors. Other persons were obliged to serve their lords as serfs (people bound for life to their lord), tending the fields and performing other services. Because their position was hereditary, serfs could not leave the manor or the service of their lord. Serfs were bound to the soil but could not be bought or sold. Some lords also owned slaves, who were property and could be bought and sold.

The church was deeply involved in the feudal system because it was such a large landholder. Bishops and abbots were often the managers of extensive benefices (fiefs). They in turn were expected to give the same service to greater lords as any other vassal. Churchmen became as entrapped as laypeople in this world of war and intrigue where power involved holding and extending one's lands. Even the pope was seen as just another "earthly" noble to be controlled or to control. Many popes were appointed by powerful lords for political purposes, not for religious reasons.

On the whole, life was nasty, lacking in creature comforts, and full of dangers from war and disease. Lords were largely indifferent to peasants' needs. The vast majority of people remained uneducated. The church played a significant role in people's lives, and it was a very religious age. The church was the one institution where the common person could find compassion and a sense of meaning. The religion of the day was often simple, however, and not very thoughtful. The great debates of the patristic period had little meaning for most people. In many cases, the Christian faith amounted to little more than superstition. Morality among laypeople and clergy alike was at a low level, and the church was badly in need of reform. 3 By 1000, "winds of change" would begin to be felt

The Rise of Islam

The third group that took over a part of the old Roman Empire was guided by Islam. In the early seventh century, a new prophet arose out of the Arabian desert. Muhammad (570—632) claimed that Allah (Arabic for God) had spoken

_ un _

CHRISTIANITY IN THE MIDDLE AGES

Life on the Manor

Feudal lords and their manors were supported by a large number of peasants who labored in their fields. The manors usually were large enough to be self-sufficient. They often consisted of cleared areas used as fields for crops and animals. One-third to one-half of the cleared land was dedicated to the lord's use and the rest provided a living for the peasants. In addition to areas for planting, the typical manor also contained meadows for hay and grazing, woodlands to gather fuel and building supplies, and wetland areas. The manor had its own government, laws, and court. The center of the manor was a village with the lord's house, surrounding buildings such as barns and a mill, peasants' huts, and a church built by the lord

Peasants were slaves, serfs, freemen who owned small plots of land, or cottars who owned their own huts but no land. Although there were some legal differences in these statuses, in reality most peasants were bound as "serfs" to their lord. Some serfs escaped if they had an especially difficult lord. They would roam the countryside looking for a kinder lord to serve.

Three days a week the peasants worked the lord's land. They also had to work extra days during planting and harvest seasons and to maintain estate roads, buildings, and fortifications. Female peasants frequently had to provide labor for the lord's household.

Peasants paid a tithe to the church that, at times, ended up in the lord's pocket. They were taxed by the lord if their daughters married off the estate. They paid additional fees to use the lord's mills and wine presses. A death tax was collected when a son inherited property. The feudal system kept the lords rich and the serfs poor. At best the manor life provided serfs barely enough to get by. There was little left to save for difficult times. Yet it did offer some security and a means of survival in a chaotic time

directly to him calling for religious reform and devotion to the one true God. FJe produced an inspired holy book called the Koran in which the laws of Allah were presented After initial setbacks, he won followers who came to be known as Moslems or Muslims (literally those who submit to God). The religion he founded is Islam (submission to God).

Islam is a monotheistic religion. It recognizes that Allah spoke in both the Old Testament and the New Testament. Christians and Jews are seen as brothers in the true faith as they too are "people of the Book" Islam regards Christ as a prophet, but Muslims do not believe he was divine Muhammad is the

final prophet of God with the mission of bringing Allah's full revelation to humans.

Islam is a highly ethical religion that teaches that commitment to God must be accompanied by a strong commitment to treating others correctly. Love, charity, justice, and mercy are characteristics to be cultivated by true believers. The new faith did much to improve the quality of life and notions of morality in the lands it came to dominate.

By the time of Muhammad's death his followers had captured the holy cities of Mecca and Medina (in present-day Saudi Arabia) and much of the surrounding desert areas. After his death, Muslim warriors conquered numerous lands in the name of Allah, his prophet Muhammad, and the true faith of Islam. By 750 they had taken Persia, Arabia, parts of Asia Minor, North Africa, and Spain.

The impact of Islam was widespread. For the most part, North Africa and parts of Asia Minor, which had played an important part in early church history, were lost to Christianity. Although Spain was dominated by the Muslims during the early Middle Ages, it still kept a strong Christian community. The Holy Land around Jerusalem was under Muslim control.

In most of western Europe, the Muslims were not a serious threat to the empire after 732 and that region was relatively free to develop on its own. However, the West did become isolated from North Africa, the Holy Land, and the Far East, which cut it off from trade and limited its cultural development. In the Byzantine Empire, the government was a strong central authority, but the Muslims continued to be a constant external threat to both the empire and the church.

THE EASTERN CHURCH

The Eastern church remained in union with the Western church, although it developed along rather different lines during the early Middle Ages. In this section we look at several developments in the Eastern church: church-state relations, monasticism, expansion, and some major controversies in the East.

Sympbonia

The church played an important role in the politics and culture of the East as it did in the West. Yet the stable eastern Byzantine Empire was in sharp contrast to the western situation. This stability helped to maintain and strengthen ancient patterns of church-state relations in Greek Christianity that disappeared in Latin Christianity. Emperors had been deeply involved with matters

of the church ever since the time of Constantine They would call councils, appoint church officials, and attempt to solve theological debates.

These church-state relations continued in Eastern Christianity. The emperor was not a priest and could be excommunicated by a patriarch (the head of the church in a major city like Constantinople). The emperor and other officials remained so active in affairs of the church, however, that western scholars usually say the church was dominated by the state in the East. The East calls the relation between church and state symphonia, or harmony. In this symphonia, the spiritual and civil authorities supported one another. State administration was left to political officials. Spiritual matters, such as theology, liturgy, and contemplation of the divine, were the domain of the church.

The whole society believed itself to be under the protection of God and Mary, the Mother of God. The emperor was God's anointed, much like David and Solomon in the Old Testament. The accomplishments of the empire were seen as signs of God's favor The emperor used his power to persecute pagans and people who disagreed with official positions. Efforts were made—with varying degrees of force—to bring Jews into the Christian community. This effort was only partially successful and many Jews would not convert. Jews began a long, troubled stay on the edges of Christian society.

In spite of the understandings between church and state, perfect symphonia was far from realized Theological controversy continued, especially during the early Middle Ages There was occasional conflict between the two, but the state generally dominated the church In many ways secular officials used the church to accomplish their political purposes.

Monastics

Another important characteristic in the Eastern church was the role of monastics. Monasticism developed somewhat differently in the East than in the West. In the West, monks and their abbots tended to be more involved in the daily activities of society and politics in addition to their church duties. In the East, the monastics were much more dedicated to the "contemplative life," which means they tended to withdraw and dedicate themselves to prayer and devotion The goal of the contemplative life was mystical union with God Eastern monasteries were often located in isolated spots that were difficult to reach

Th is isolation does not mean that monks had no role in Byzantine culture They were seen as ideal Christians who were to pray for society. The lower clergy (parish priests) were allowed to marry in the East, but monks were not. Because of their deeper dedication to religious life, monks were often called from their monasteries to assume positions as bishops and patriarchs. Married clergy were not allowed to reach these higher positions Monks also played

important roles in the development of theology and liturgy, and they often led the expansion of Christianity into pagan lands.