Women have always been important in the life of the Christian community Not only have women contributed through their devotion and example at the local level, but many also have taken active leadership roles on a larger scale. Some held official positions such as nuns, abbesses, or anchoresses (a devout woman living in seclusion and often attached to a parish church). Others were laywomen who possessed special spiritual gifts and wisdom. Many women, through teaching, advising influential churchmen, and writing, have asserted considerable influence on the church. Often these influential women were mystics. Three particularly noteworthy churchwomen of the Middle Ages were Hildegard of Bingen (1098-1 179), Julian of Norwich (ca. 1342-1413), and Margery Kempe (ca. 1373-1433).
Saint Hildegard experienced profound religious experiences from early childhood. She was reared by Jutta, abbess of a local Benedictine monastery. She eventually was accepted into the Benedictine order. She succeeded Jutta as abbess of the monastery and moved her group of nuns to Rupertsberg where a large convent was built. From there she traveled widely and founded a daughter house. She was encouraged by her confessor to write down her visions. These writings became the influential Scivias, which condemned worldly evils and predicted pending disasters. She also wrote other important works. She seems to have exhibited considerable influence on the Emperor Fredrick Barbarossa, various kings, church leaders, and saints. Numerous miracles were attributed to her during her life and others were attributed to her tomb. She was declared a saint in the fifteenth century.
Julian of Norwich was probably an anchoress who lived outside the walls of Saint Julians Church On May 8, 1373, she had a series of fifteen visions while in an ecstatic state that lasted five hours. The following day she had another vision. After twenty years of reflection, she composed The Sixteen Revelations of Divine Love. In this book she presents her visions and reflects on the mysteries of prayer, faith, and divine love. She felt that divine love held the clues to all the secrets of life
Margery Kempe was a laywoman and English mystic who had fourteen children with her husband John She became subject to visions after a bout with mental illness She traveled widely, undertaking pilgrimages to Canterbury and the Holy Land In 1413, she and her husband took vows of chastity to increase their devotion. Kempe was given to long periods when she experienced direct relations with Christ. Her condemnations of pleasure and worldliness led her into frequent conflict with religious authorities. Almost all that is known about Kempe is found in her work called the Book of Margery Kempe.
The new church was constructed on the site of one built by Constantine When completed it was the largest church in the world The building projects required tremendous funds, however. The tax burden increased and people were even deprived of food to finance the popes' grand plans. Resentment grew The late fifteenth-century and early sixteenth-century popes generally were not concerned with spiritual matters. Most dedicated themselves to the pursuit of power, luxury, and pleasure. Offices were bought and sold openly. Papal concubines and their children were accepted at court. Popes not only acknowledged their illegitimate children but also actively promoted their interests. Italy was bathed in the blood of papal wars. Alexander VI (1492- 1503) and Julius II were among the worst of these decadent popes.
The High Middle Ages saw two significant changes in the life of the Eastern Orthodox church. The first was the decline of Byzantine Orthodoxy The second was the rise of the Russian Orthodox church. These developments are discussed briefly in this section.
As the year 1000 approached in the East, the Byzantine Empire was under pressure from the Muslims but would still maintain control over the remains of its empire for another four centuries. Orthodoxy had a generally comfortable relation to the state. The church's missions to the Slavs were well on their way to securing those regions for the Orthodox faith. Efforts to convert Russia finally were having success.
The relationship of Greek Orthodoxy to Western Christianity remained troubled. Papal claims to supremacy and differences in liturgy continued to be problems. The question of the filiocfue and its issue of the Holy Spirit was still debated. At the beginning of the eleventh century, the papacy officially adopted the filiocfue as an addition to the Nicene Creed. The patriarch of Constantinople quietly retaliated by removing the pope's name from the list of patriarchs regarded as orthodox. For various reasons, this caused little stir in the Western world
Early in the eleventh century, the rise of Hildebrand (Gregory VII) to a position of prominence not enjoyed by the Pope before caused additional tensions over papal primacy. Another fight between Eastern and Western Christians erupted because the Normans (French) insisted that Greek churches in sections of Italy still controlled by the Byzantines use Latin practices in worship. The patriarch in turn demanded that Latin churches in Constantinople
conform to Greek customs When they refused, he closed them in 1052 Attempts to resolve this issue had failed by 1054
This date is often given as the time when the schism between East and West became final. However, friendly relations between the two branches of Christianity continued for some time. People on both sides still hoped that differences could be resolved Another decisive event was in 1204 when the Fourth Crusade sacked Constantinople. For three days, crusaders pillaged the city. The crusaders ruthlessly desecrated holy sites. Pieces of the altar and the icon screen were torn from Santa Sophia. Prostitutes were placed on the throne of the patriarch. Such acts by their fellow Christians produced a lasting hatred in the Greeks. After 1204, Christianity was divided. Attempts to reconcile Eastern and Western Christianity were made at the Councils of Lyons (1274) and Florence (1438-1439). These were unsuccessful because many in the Eastern church refused to accept the unions proclaimed at the councils.
Another decisive event in the history of Greek Orthodoxy occurred in 1453 when the Turks captured Constantinople The fall of the "God protected city" shocked the Orthodox world. Santa Sophia was turned into a mosque (a Muslim place of worship). Yet the Muslims regarded Christians as people of the Book and did not persecute them They were allowed free expression of their religion.
The Turkish leader, the sultan, became the protector of the church in much the same way as the Roman and the Byzantine emperors. Moreover, the Islamic faith does not recognize a distinction between the laws of God and of humans. As a result, the leaders of the Greek church were also made civil authorities. The sultan relied on the church for administering matters of state such as law enforcement and social welfare. Even though the church was subject to Muslim rule, it became one with the state in Greece, eastern Europe, and many sections of the Mediterranean world. The close identification of the patriarchate of Constantinople with Turkish politics caused national churches in such regions as Greece, Romania, Bulgaria, and Serbia to assert their independence. The power of the patriarch of Constantinople was greatly reduced
Early efforts to convert the Russians had not been very successful. Something of a breakthrough happened when the Russian princess Olga converted in 955. In 988 her grandson, Prince Vladimir of Kiev (980-1015), accepted Christianity He then married the sister of the Byzantine emperor Orthodoxy soon became the state religion of Russia. Idols of pagan gods were destroyed The true faith was proclaimed throughout the land. Christian social services were organized Monasteries sprang up In this early era, Christianity likely had its greatest impact in the cities. Much of the countryside remained pagan.
Kievan Russia was brought to an abrupt end by the invasion of the Mongols in 1237. Kiev never recovered from the destruction brought by the conquerors. It was the church that gave unity to the country and helped preserve a sense of Russian identity during the Mongol occupation. The Russian metropolitan Peter (1308-1326) settled in Moscow. His presence helped to raise the city to the place of importance it has had in Russian secular and religious history ever since.
The church continued its mission activity, expanding among the Mongols and the tribes in the northern and eastern reaches of the Asian continent. Monks seeking the solitude of the vast Russian forests spread out on the continent only to be followed by disciples who established religious communities. These colonists and monks spread the Gospels wherever they went. New areas came under Orthodox influence.
Sergius of Radonezh (ca. 1314-1392) was the greatest Orthodox saint of this era. As a young man, Sergius withdrew to the forest where he founded a hermitage (a place where a hermit lives) dedicated to the Holy Trinity. This grew into the Monastery of the Holy Trinity, which soon became the most important monastery in Russia. Sergius became a spiritual guide, or elder, to many. People from all over Russia sought his advice on both spiritual and political matters. His guidance encouraged Moscow to resist the Mongols and his mystical prayerfulness strengthened the Russian church.
After Constantinople fell to the Turks in 1453, Russia assumed a new place of leadership in the Orthodox world. This leadership was accompanied by the development of the Third Rome Theory. According to the theory, the original Rome was the seat of the church, but fell to the barbarians. Constantinople became the second Rome, but became apostate and was conquered by the Turks as punishment. Only Moscow remained pure It was now seen as the center of all Orthodox Christianity, the third Rome
The tsar (emperor of Russia) took on the role of protector of the church and secular minister, similar to the Roman and Byzantine emperors. The tsar was quite willing to use his new "appointed by God" position for political ends. In theory, the Byzantine symphonia also applied to relations between church and state in Russia. In reality, the Russian church was almost completely dominated by the state. Eventually priests were required to report to government officials any information obtained in the confessional that might involve disloyalty to the state. The person making confession could be imprisoned or exiled Such practices led Russian Christians to resent the close relation between church and state.
On the other hand, the spiritual life of the Russian church was deep and meaningful and noted for its strictness. It required charity toward the less fortunate as well as a liturgical and moral discipline that was often missing in other branches of Christianity Orthodoxy and Russian life were closely intertwined . 3
At the close of the Middle Ages, the church was split into two distinct halves—Eastern and Western Christianity Most of the basic theology of both churches was formed before the division became permanent. This common theology is expressed in the Nicene Creed The Orthodox church accepted only the first Seven Ecumenical Councils of the church and any theological ideas developed since then were rejected For example, the Eastern church does not accept the Jilio^ue, purgatory, or papal infallibility.
Both the Eastern and Western churches agree on the basic nature of sacrament They agree there are seven sacraments (baptism, confirmation, the Eucharist, confession, last rites, orders, matrimony), though there are slight differences in how they administer them The Eastern church has never insisted on clerical celibacy. Their parish priests could marry, but higher officials were to remain celibate The main differences concern liturgy The forms of worship differ and the languages have diverged Usually, the Orthodox church presents the liturgy in the vernacular while the Roman Catholic church has used Latin until recent times. The Orthodox church has never accepted the pope as the head of the church. It sees him as an important bishop (a first among equals), but no more. The Eastern church organizes itself into national churches presided over by a patriarch
By the end of the Middle Ages, the Greek church had spread into eastern Europe and Russia Constantinople had fallen. Moscow was on its way to becoming the "third Rome ' Western Europe began to find new political order as nation-states struggled to develop. The political vacuum of the early Middle Ages was filled in part by the papacy. The pope started to claim he was both the spiritual and the political leader of Christendom.
In the thirteenth century, the popes came near to realizing the grand hierarchy they had visualized. This hierarchy presented a united Christendom with the pope at the top as the vicar of Christ. Under him were earthly rulers and cardinals (the princes of the church) Beneath these were the lower aristocracy, merchants, parish priests, craftspeople, and, finally, the peasants. The pope controlled this hierarchy by administering the sacraments and carrying prayer to God He reserved the right to judge king, prince, merchant, bishop, priest, and peasant alike This grand design was also seen in the great
theological systems of the Scholastics and the vast medieval cathedrals.
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After the thirteenth century, the power of the pope started to decline. The grand hierarchy began to unravel at all levels Secular leaders, aided by rising nationalism, were successful in establishing a degree of independence Scholasticism was challenged, especially by scholars with an Aristotelian viewpoint The quality of the popes declined Their constant warfare, their dedi-
cation to luxury and power, and their unconcern for their role as pastor of the church led many to doubt if they were really the representative of Christ on earth.
Various problems in the church went unaddressed by church authorities. Spiritual and mystical movements arose both in and outside the church The call for a return to the simplicity of New Testament Christianity was in sharp contrast to the pomp of the church hierarchy. Despite its difficulties, the church kept the loyalty of the majority of the believers. In many ways, the church was still the most democratic of medieval institutions. Even the pope had to be elected by the cardinals. An individual of lowly origins could rise to a high church position.
Religion dominated the thought and life of many people Salvation was actively sought. People went on pilgrimages and did severe penance to cleanse their souls in preparation for eternity. A powerful spirituality developed as mendicants, mystics, and ordinary people sought deep, abiding religious experience. Efforts were made to maintain consistent worship and to require all Christians to participate. Absenteeism and pluralism limited the effectiveness of these requirements Many regions found themselves without regular preaching and administering of the sacraments. The sacraments were held in high regard, because they brought the grace of God to humans.
The Mass was venerated as it was during that ceremony when the great miracle of the bread and wine becoming the body and blood of Christ occurred. It is claimed that in the cities where Mass was said at noon daily crowds would rush from church to church hoping to receive a blessing by just seeing the bread lifted by the priest at the moment it became the body of Christ. Great care was taken so that a crumb of bread or a drop of wine would not fall to the floor where it might be eaten by a mouse who would thus gain entrance to heaven!
Fear dominated much of life in the Middle Ages—fear of God, fear of the devil, fear of death, fear of facing the Eternal Judge, fear of hell, fear of witchcraft. The Black Death increased this fear. Religion was a defense against the evil that surrounded people.
The Renaissance brought changes to this environment. The rebirth of study in classical culture produced a renewed interest in humanity. There was again appreciation for the beauty of this world and the abilities of humans. Art glorifying the human body flourished as did new inventions and architecture.
Renaissance popes generally were worldly with little concern for the spiritual needs of the Christian community. The feeling grew that some avenue of reforming the church other than the papacy had to be found People started putting faith in church councils as the only way to end abuses that were everywhere in the church.
CHRISTIANITY IN THE MIDDLE ACES
CONCLUSIONS
The High Middle Ages saw a great increase in the power of the papacy. The grand hierarchy of the thirteenth century allowed the pope to exercise tremendous control throughout Europe. Yet the reforming popes and spiritual movements within the church failed to produce the needed renewal. As the power of the papacy declined, other changes occurred that undermined the institutions of feudal society. Nationalism, the money economy, the importance of the merchant class, and the significance of cities weakened the old order and marked the start of a new one. The Renaissance undermined many ideas on which medieval society had been built.
At the beginning of the sixteenth century, there was widespread desire for change in the church. The old institutions had been weakened but they still had life left, as the events surrounding the Protestant Reformation show.
1. Following the customs of the Middle Ages, Saint Francis and others often allegorized their ideas The pursuit of "lady poverty" became a way of expressing a life of apostolic poverty
2 . One problem in writing a concise history is deciding who to discuss and who to leave out. Bernard was a very important twelfth-century figure not discussed above. He was not a creative theologian, however, he was very influential throughout Europe Bernard was known as a man of deep devotion who staunchly defended tradition and was an eloquent preacher. He took part in many of the important events of the era For instance, he was the most memorable opponent of Abelard He also helped to inspire the "fever" that resulted in the Second Crusade
3. For a good discussion of Orthodoxy's history and theology in the Middle Ages, see Timothy Ware, The Orthodox Church, reprint ed (Baltimore: Penguin, 1973), 87-119.
Capellanus, Andreas The Art of Courtly Love Translated by John J Parry Irwin-on-the- Hudson, N Y : Columbia University Press, 1990 Clark, James M The Great German Mystics. Eckhart, Tauler, and Suso. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 1949
Dorcy, Mary J. St. Dominic. Reprint ed Rockford, Ill : TAN Books, 1982 Habig, Marion A., ed. St. Francis of Assisi. Writings and Early Biographies. English Omnibus of the Sources for the Life of St. Francis. Chicago: Franciscan Herald, 1973.
Hyma, Albert. The Christian Renaissance. A History of the Devotio Moderna. 2d ed Hamden: Archon, 1965
a Kempis, Thomas The Imitation of Christ Translated by Michael Oakley and Ronald Knox Rev ed Southbend, Ind Greenlawn, 1990
REFORM AND DECLINE ( 1 000 - 1500 c E.)
Knowles, David The Monastic Order in England. A History of Its Development from the Times of St. Dunstan to the Fourth Lateran Council, 943-i2i6 Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1940.
- The Religious Orders in England. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press,
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Moorman, John. A History of the Franciscan Order Chicago: Franciscan Herald, 1988 Nicol, Donald M Byzantium and Venice. New York: Cambridge University, 1989 Noonan, John T. Contraception: A History of Its Treatment by the Catholic Theologians and Canonists. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1986
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PART III
THE REFORMATION
CHAPTER EIGHT