A Watershed in History (1500-1600 C.E.)
Martin Luther, the Protestant Reformer.
THE REFORMATION
T HE REFORMATION OF the sixteenth century was the high point of a series of changes that began in the fourteenth century and did not end until well into the seventeenth century. The forces that had been building in the late Middle Ages and the Renaissance brought forth tremendous creative energy and destructive conflicts in the sixteenth century. Many historians argue that the Reformation was one of the great watersheds (turning points) in history. Some historians claim that the Reformation was the beginning of the modern world
The Reformation was a watershed for a number of reasons The Roman Catholic Reformation, which occurred in the middle of the century, determined the evolution of the Roman Catholic church well into the twentieth century. Both the Reformation and Catholic Reformation destroyed the medieval ideal of a united Christendom Western Christianity has been fragmented ever since The idea that all disputes among Christians could be settled by the church hierarchy or by a council went by the wayside
Some scholars argue that contemporary notions of individualism and secularism had their origins in the sixteenth century. The church became less important as a community that directed salvation to people. Protestantism taught that believers could go directly to God. The individual conscience, not the dictates of the church, became the guide for behavior. The bitter warfare that arose during the Reformation left many in Europe feeling that they were better off without religion. After the Reformation the secular state became the primary source of authority over people's lives and the agent chiefly concerned with their welfare The role of religion in most daily concerns of people decreased These results of the Reformation, combined with the rise of rationalism, the Enlightenment, modern science, and industrialization, tended to move the modern world toward secularization. In many ways, Christianity and society were never the same after the Reformation.
We examine the Reformation in the course of two chapters. This chapter looks at the world in which the Reformation occurred. It then reviews the histories of two major branches of the Protestant Reformation—-Lutheranism and Calvinism The following chapter looks at two other branches of the Reformation—Anglicanism and Anabaptists—-and then explores the aftermath of the Protestant revolt
The Reformation occurred within the numerous social, economic, and political changes that were reshaping Europe and the rest of the world The nationstate was becoming established as the dominant political force in the world
A WATERSHED IN HISTORY (1500 - 1600 c E )
Capitalism had increased the desire for both stable nations and stable government policies to protect the interests of merchants and traders However, the new capitalism also caused social unrest as peasants were removed from their lands. Feudal lords lost both economic and political power Capitalism combined with the discovery of new lands to stimulate the desire for empires and led to the abuse of conquered peoples. This section briefly reviews the interplay of sixteenth-century religious movements with the nation-states, capitalism, and expanding empires.
The great period of the nation-states began in the fifteenth century. What is now Spain struggled to free that region from domination by the Muslim Moors. The feudal landholdings were united gradually into four large regions: Castile, Aragon, Granada, and Navarre. The marriage of Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile in 1469 united the largest portions of Spain under a single monarchy. By the end of their rule in 1516, the regions of Granada and Navarre had been conquered and Spain was at last united 1
Monies from the expanding Spanish empire in the New World gave Ferdinand and Isabella considerable power. They freed themselves from control by nobles. The "Catholic Sovereigns," as they were called, undertook an aggressive program of extinguishing heresy throughout their lands. With the help of the Spanish Inquisition led by Cardinal Ximenes (1436-1517), Jews, Muslims, and other dissenters were systematically persecuted. They were converted to Catholicism by force, killed, or driven into exile. The Inquisition successfully kept Protestants out of the country. The Spanish Inquisition not only vigorously persecuted dissenters but also undertook programs of reform and education within the church. It left Spain "the most Catholic" of countries and became a model for reform used throughout the Roman Catholic church Portugal was one of the most powerful of the nation-states during the early sixteenth century. It had successfully freed itself from domination by Spain, had developed its own language as a source of unity, and had created a vast overseas empire as a base for its power. It too successfully persecuted Jews, Muslims, and Protestants, remaining firmly in the Catholic faith
Louis XI (1461-1483) is often considered the first ruler of the modern nation-state of France. He built upon the feelings of nationalism created by the expulsion of the English from the Continent in the Hundred Years' War Using the middle class as a source of power, he successfully limited the control of the feudal nobility. He built roads, ports, and other waterways and promoted commerce and successfully extended the borders of his kingdom Through warfare he captured such regions as Burgundy, Picardy, and a portion
|
DATES |
EVENTS |
SECULAR LEADERS |
CHURCH PERSONS |
WRITINGS |
|
1466-1535 |
Humanism advanced |
Erasmus |
s |
Handbook of the Christian Soldier, The Praise of Folly, Greek New Testament |
|
1492 |
European discovery of New World |
Columbus, Isabella, Ferdinand |
||
|
Muslims expelled from Spain |
Cardinal Ximenes |
|||
|
1506 |
Construction begins on St. Peter's Basilica |
Pope Julius II |
||
|
1509-1547 |
King Henry of England |
Henry VIII |
||
|
1517 |
Selling of indulgences spurs Reformation |
Pope Leo X, Luther |
Ninety-five Theses |
|
|
1519-1556 |
Holy Roman Emperor Charles V |
Charles V |
||
|
1519 |
Leipzig Disputation |
Luther, Eck |
Exsurcje Domine |
|
|
Reform begun in Zurich |
Zwingli |
|||
|
1521 |
Diet of Worms places Lu¬ ther under imperial ban |
German Bible begun |
||
|
1521 |
Lutheran theology takes shape |
Melanchthon |
Loci communes |
|
|
1524-1525 |
German Peasant's War, Luther recommends use of force |
|||
|
1525 |
Beginning of Swiss Brethren |
Grebel, Manz, Blaurock |
||
|
1529 |
Marburg Colloquy |
Luther, Zwingli |
||
|
Diet of Speier, Evangeli¬ cals called Protestants |
|
DATES |
EVENTS |
SECULAR LEADERS |
CHURCH PERSONS |
WRITINGS |
|
1530 |
Diet of Augsburg |
Luther, Eck, Zwingli |
Augsburg Confession |
|
|
1531 |
Battle of Kappel, Zwingli dies |
Zwingli |
||
|
King becomes head of church |
King Henry VIII of England |
|||
|
1534 |
England breaks with Rome |
|||
|
1534-1535 |
Kingdom of Saints in Munster |
Matthys, Bockelson |
||
|
1536 |
Calvin begins work in Geneva |
Calvin |
Institutes of Christian Religion |
|
|
1540 |
Jesuits recognized |
Pope Paul III, Loyola |
||
|
1545-1563 |
Council of Trent |
|||
|
1547-1553 |
Reform extended in England |
Edward VI |
Cranmer |
Book of Common Prayer |
|
1553-1558 |
Catholicism restored in England |
Mary Tudor |
||
|
1555 |
Peace of Augsburg |
|||
|
1558-1603 |
Elizabethan settlement |
Elizabeth I |
||
|
1565 |
Religious wars in Netherlands |
|||
|
1572 |
St. Bartholomew's Day massacre of French Huguenots |
|||
|
1598 |
Edict of Nantes tempo¬ rarily ends persecution of Huguenots |
THE REFORMATION
of Flanders. At the same time, he did little to help the lower classes, which he taxed heavily to support his projects. That left the lower class very dissatisfied.
The fifteenth century was a period of great turmoil in England The hundred Years' War weakened the country. To make matters worse, it was followed by the War of the Roses ( 1455 - 1484 ) between the Lancasters and the Yorks, which nearly ruined the country. F-lenry VII ( 1485 - 1509 ) of the house of Lancaster ended this bloody conflict when he defeated the York king, Richard III Henry married Elizabeth of York and established the Tudor dynasty He handed down a united and strong kingdom to his son Henry VIII ( 1509 — 1547 ), who would play an important role in the Reformation. His granddaughter Elizabeth ( 1558 - 1603 ) established England as a first-rate power
The situation was much different in Germany and Italy. Though these regions had supposedly been controlled by the Holy Roman emperor since Otto the Great, the reality was much different. While other rulers were extending control over their nations, the German ruler was losing control over much of his. The Holy Roman emperor was never successful in subduing the states in Italy. By the sixteenth century, Italy was divided into six kingdoms that claimed little allegiance to the emperor.
In Germany, the emperor was unsuccessful in controlling the local nobles. By the time of the Reformation, seven of the most important nobles had won the right to elect the emperor. He had little ability to demand taxes or command the loyalty of his army. The emperor during the early stages of the Reformation, Charles V ( 1519 - 1558 ), technically controlled vast expanses, including Germany, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, Spain, the Mediterranean, and Spain's overseas colonies. He had great trouble maintaining his reign, however. Even the German nobles resisted his control. To make matters worse, he was opposed by the king of France and was under constant pressure from the Muslim Ottoman Turks in the East.
Switzerland was far from unified. It was divided into several competing cantons (states). This patchwork of cantons would eventually leave the area divided between Protestant and Catholic interests after the Reformation.