The Anabaptists frequently faced martyrdom with great courage. They exhibited a patient love toward their enemies that often baffles modern people. At the same time, it is difficult for us to understand why the Anabaptists' opponents objected so fiercely to them. Nowhere is the courage and gentleness of the Anabaptists more apparent than in the following passages. These are excerpts from a moving letter from Elizabeth, a Dutch Anabaptist martyr, to her one-month-old daughter. Elizabeth was in prison for her faith and died soon after writing the letter.
[Testament] written to Janneken my own dearest daughter, while 1 was (unworthily) confined for the Lord's sake, in prison, at Antwerp, A.D. 1573
My dear little child, I commend you to the almighty, great and terrible God, who is wise, that He will keep you, and let you grow up in His fear, or that He will take you home in your youth, this is my hearts request of the Lord: you who are yet so young, and whom I must leave here in this wicked, evil, perverse world ... I will commend you to the Lord, let Him do with you according to His holy will.
Hence, my dear lamb, 1 who am imprisoned and bound here for the Lord's sake, can help you in no other way, I had to leave your father for the Lord's sake, and could keep him only a short time. We were permitted to live together only half a year, after which we were apprehended, because we sought the salvation of our souls.
Since 1 am now delivered up to death, and must leave you here alone, I must through these lines cause you to remember, that when you have attained your understanding, you endeavor to fear God, and see and examine why and for whose name we both died: and be not ashamed to confess us before the world, for you must know that it is not for the sake of any evil. Hence be not ashamed of us, it is the way which the prophets and the apostles went, and
the narrow way which leads into eternal life, for there shall no other way be found by which to be saved.
If you seek your salvation, it is easy to perceive which is the way that leads to life, or the way that leads into hell. Above all things seek the kingdom of heaven and His righteousness . . . conduct yourself well and honestly, so that no one need have cause to complain of you . . . see that you like to work.
Hence, my dear Janneken, do not accustom your mouth to filthy talk, nor to ugly words that are not proper, not to lies, for a liar has no part in the kingdom of heaven . . . run not in the street as other bad children do,- rather take up a book, and learn to seek there that which concerns your salvation.
And where you have your home, obey those whose bread you eat. If they speak evil, do you speak well. And learn always to love to be doing something,- and do not think yourself too good for anything, nor exalt yourself, but condescend to the lowly, and always honor the aged wherever you are.
My dear Iamb, we can merit nothing, but must through grace inherit salvation,- hence always endeavor to fear God, for the fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom, and he that fears the Lord will do good, and it will be well with him in this world and in that which is to come.
And now, Janneken, my dear lamb, who are yet very little and young, I leave you this letter . . . and this I leave you for a perpetual adieu, and for a testament,- that you may remember me by it.
. . . And I herewith bid you adieu, my Dear Janneken Munst- dorp, and kiss you heartily . . . with a perpetual kiss of peace. Follow me and your father, and be not ashamed to confess us before the world, for we were not ashamed to confess our faith, since it is the true evangelical faith, another than which shall never be found.
Found in Thieleman van Braght, The Bloody Theater, or The Martyrs Mirror. Quoted in Hans J Hillerbrand, ed , The Protestant Reformation (New York: Harper & Row, 1968), 147-149, 151, 152 Reprinted by permission of Harper & Row
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THE REFORMATION
movement One was Menno Simons (1496-1561). Simons was a Catholic priest who joined a Dutch Anabaptist group He was a capable preacher and organizer who collected a large following, eventually his followers would be called Mennonites. Menno was persecuted but survived to preach in Holland and surrounding areas. His teachings were similar to the Swiss brethren. He was a pacifist who urged his followers to submit to civil authorities as long as they were not required to do anything that contradicted the Bible In spite of their moderation, the Mennonites were persecuted They were driven out of Holland to Poland, then to Russia, and then to North America where they sought to practice their religion in freedom.
Even in Russia and North America, Mennonites encountered difficulties with authorities, mainly because of their refusal to serve in the military. In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries many moved to South America, seeking places isolated from the rest of society. Today many people respect Mennonites because of their efforts at social service The Mennonites have organized themselves to perform various kinds of relief services and reiy on volunteers from their denomination. During natural disasters such as floods, the Mennonites are often the first to arrive and the last to leave, offering help to the needy regardless of their national origin, race, or religious beliefs.
Jacob Huter (d. 1536) became the leader of another group of Anabaptists. Huter was a Swiss pastor who fled to Moravia to join Anabaptists there The groups settled at Bruderhofs and established a communal society where they lived simply and practiced the Gospel. Although the group was pacifistic, Huter was burned at the stake and the "Hutterites" were persecuted The group survived, however, and eventually they spread to the New World in the quest for religious freedom
The spiritualists were a group of Anabaptists. They were so different in their views that it is difficult to make general comments about them They tended to be mystical and several of their leaders were influenced by Erasmus. To them the work of the Spirit of Christ was more important than either the church or the Scriptures. The child of God was guided by direct revelations from the Spirit to the heart. This revelation was an "inner light" that gave direction and assurance of salvation It challenged individuals to simple and strict, but loving, life-styles. Many spiritualists, but not all, rejected the authority of both the church and the state Most wanted to return to the true faith of the early church. Caspar Schwenckfeld (1489- 1561), Sebastian Franck (ca. 1499—1542), and Juan de Valdes (ca. 1500—1541) were among the most influential of the spiritualists In the seventeenth century, George Fox (1649— 1691) adapted spiritualist ideas and formed the Society of Friends of the Truth, or the Quakers as they are better known
A different approach was taken by a group of dissenters sometimes called the rationalists. The rationalists disagreed with traditional doctrines mainly be-
FURTHER REFORM AND REACTION (1500 -1600C.E.)
cause they thought certain teachings were unreasonable or contradicted Scripture. Some rationalists also had spiritualist traits Several were convinced that the doctrine of the Trinity was not reasonable and was not found in the Bible. Michael Servetus was one of the most important rationalists Even though Servetus was deeply religious, he still came to believe the doctrine of the Trinity was wrong. He was from Spain and there Trinitarian teachings were problematic for Jews and Muslims. This Moorish influence, combined with his humanism and Protestant efforts to return to original sources, led him to reject the Trinity. He fled the Spanish Inquisition only to be burned at the stake by Calvin in Geneva. Servetuss anti-Trinitarian concepts were embraced by other Anabaptists. The most important of these was Faustus Socinus (1539-1604), who took anti-Trinitarianism to Poland where he won a number of followers. After his death Socinuss disciples wrote down his ideas in the Rakovian Catechism. Socinus's ideas had a strong impact on the emergence of Unitarianism in seventeenth-century England . 2
THE CATHOLIC REFORMATION
Some refer to the changes in the Catholic church during the sixteenth century as the Counter-Reformation. Much of what went on was a reaction against Protestantism. In some ways, the Catholic church came out of the century as a highly conservative institution. It would react negatively to almost every major change in religion and society over the next four hundred years. A genuine renewal of the church did occur, however. The problems and abuses the Protestants rebelled against were widely recognized, and many who remained in the Catholic church sought to remedy them Efforts to reform the church took several directions, a few of which we examine below.
One early reform effort was undertaken by Girolamo Savonarola ( 1452- 1498) in Florence. Savonarola was active during the reign of one of the most corrupt Renaissance popes, Alexander VI (1492—1503). Conditions were so bad in Rome that they were a scandal throughout the church Preachers commonly spoke against the corruption. Savonarola was a Dominican friar who settled in Florence. His fiery preaching became so popular that for a time he virtually controlled the city. He attempted to produce such a strong discipline that even marriage was discouraged. People were encouraged to burn such vanities as art, books, and elaborate clothing Many did so His activities produced anger among the local politicians and the papacy. He was burned as a heretic in 1498, but he remained a popular hero The politicians and church officials
disliked him so vehemently that the bell at Saint Mark's Church, which called people to hear his preaching, was removed, publicly flogged, and banished from the city forever!
A move toward lasting renewal was instigated in Spain by Cardinal Ximenes with the support of Queen Isabella. Ximenes was an austere Franciscan devoted to spiritual renewal. He eventually became confessor to the queen and a Spanish cardinal Ximenes undertook a wide-ranging program of reform that increased discipline and education among the clergy He founded the University of Alcala, which advanced humanistic studies, theology, and medicine. He was a staunch conservative who hated anything that departed from orthodoxy or threatened the unity of the church. Ximenes led Crusades against Muslims, Jews, and Judaizers (converted Jews who continued to practice Judaism). He formed the Spanish Inquisition to abolish heresy. The Inquisition started a violent campaign against dissenters that resulted in twenty-five hundred being killed, forty thousand being imprisoned and tortured, and as many as two hundred thousand being sent into exile. The Spanish reform became a model for the rest of the church.
A less violent renewal took the form of numerous spiritual movements in the Catholic church. A significant one was the Oratory of Divine Love founded in Rome in 1517. The oratory was a group of sixty clergy and lay- people who committed themselves to reforming their lives and those around them They dedicated themselves to discipline and met frequently for prayer, discussion, and preaching They also dedicated themselves to almsgiving and care for the needy and founded orphanages and hospitals. The oratory taught against simony, pluralism, worldly bishops, and lax living.
Their beliefs generated oratories throughout Europe Several people became leaders in the church Gasparo Contarini (1483-1542) attempted humanistic reforms and advocated reconciliation with the Protestants. He even met with Melanchthon and worked out a program for reuniting Lutherans and Catholics. The program was rejected on both sides. Caraffa was another member of the oratory who represented the opposite extreme. He became Pope Paul IV (1555-1559) and was noted for his staunch conservatism, his total rejection of Protestantism, and his support of the use of force against dissenters.
Mystics also were active in renewing spirituality throughout Europe Saint Teresa of Avila (1515- 1582) and Saint John of the Cross (1542- 1591) were two well-known mystics. Teresa, a native of Avila, probably was the most important woman in Spanish history. She joined the Carmelite convent just outside Avila but was dissatisfied with the quality of the spiritual life there She dedicated herself to study of devotional books to find a deeper spirituality but found little comfort there and received little assistance from her confessors In her distress, she had the first of several visions of Jesus. She eventually experienced mystical union, or "spiritual marriage," with him. She undertook a significant reform of the Carmelites, which resulted in the founding of a
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FURTHER REFORM AND REACTION (1500 -1600 c E.)
stricter order She also founded a male order of Carmelites, and, in so doing, was the only woman ever to form a monastic order for men. Her Autobiography and The Way of Perfection are two of the greatest mystical works.
Teresa was assisted in her work by Saint John of the Cross. John believed that for the soul to be filled with God it must first empty itself With great insight into human nature, he detailed the painful process this fulfillment involved. John believed that only a few could reach the spiritual heights he thought were possible. Nevertheless, his works, including the Ascent of Mount Carmel, the Dark Night of the Soul, and the Living Flame of Love, served as profound guides to the mystical life for untold numbers. He and Teresa were made saints and doctors of the church.
The new monastic orders founded by Saint Teresa and Saint John were but two of many that were created in the sixteenth century. The most important of these to the later history of the church was one founded by Ignatius of Loyola (1491-1556). Loyola was a Spanish noble who had dreamed of obtaining fame and fortune in the military. His leg was broken by a cannonball in 1521 during a fight against the French. His long, painful recovery was difficult because his leg had to be rebroken and reset A piece of bone that was sticking through the skin had to be sav/n off. These procedures were done without anesthesia.
Loyola felt great turmoil during his recovery. He read a life of Christ by a Saxon Carthusian and a volume on the lives of the saints. These, along with his own meditations, led him to a fateful event. One night he had a vision of Mary and the Holy Christ Child in which all the torment of his soul temporarily was erased. He vowed that he would become such a soldier of Christ that he would surpass all of the deeds of the saints He journeyed to the Benedictine abbey at Montserrat where he diligently confessed his sins, gave away his mule, clothes, dagger, and sword and dressed in the sackcloth of a pilgrim. His spiritual struggle continued at the Dominican house in Manresa. While there he prayed, took confession, and read spiritual works, including a Kem- pis's Imitation of Christ. This book would have a profound impact upon him. Eventually he felt God was leading him to Jerusalem to minister to the poor and convert the Muslims. The Franciscans who were already in Jerusalem feared the fiery newcomer and soon drove him out.
When he returned to France he studied theology so he could be better prepared for God's work In only four years, he advanced from a boys school to the University of Paris where he earned a master of arts degree. In Paris several men were attracted by his zeal and spiritual discipline Others were suspicious, however He was investigated three times by the Inquisition but that did not stop him. In 1534 he and a group of his followers took solemn
vows of poverty and chastity. They resolved to go to the Holy Land to aid the poor. When ministry in the Holy Land proved impossible, they decided to form themselves into a new religious order at the disposal of the pope. After some hesitation the pope approved their new order, the Society of Jesus, in 1540. The order would be better known as the Jesuits. The new order's close relation to the pope made it a very useful tool
Loyola's disciples were using a set of spiritual exercises that he had created and that would eventually become his well-known Spiritual Exercises. The exercises have been used extensively by Jesuits and laypeople alike to deepen their spiritual life. The exercises are dedicated to the idea that the goal of life is completely to serve God and others. This life of service is a means to save the soul. The will is free to serve whomever it chooses It may be disciplined into serving God and the church. Obedience is expected to the church hierarchy If there are doubts, they should be expressed in private. The exercises are intended to lead to an in-depth examination of the soul so that it may be brought into complete submission to the Lord. The exercises originally involved a rigorous four-week program, though shortened versions were developed later.
The Jesuits soon became a prime tool for combating heresy. To combat heresy, they developed an extensive system of education that started in grade school and extended through the university level. Students were taught a carefully limited curriculum in Latin. Books used in class were thoroughly examined and any heretical ideas were removed. The Jesuits' system encouraged thinking, but it also was intended to bring conformity to orthodox Catholic doctrine The Jesuits brought a new uniformity and discipline to international education Their educational system spread throughout Europe It successfully prevented many areas from falling to the Protestants and even reclaimed some regions that had been lost.
The Jesuits also were active in world missions. Francis Xavier ( 1506- 1552) became a successful missionary to India, the Malay Peninsula, and Japan. Mat- teo Ricci ( 1552-1610) realized Xavier's dream of evangelizing China. Missions also were established in Southeast Asia, the Philippines, and Africa as well as North and South America Although the Jesuits were successful, they won a reputation for ruthlessness and lying that left them hated by many Protestants and Catholics. In 1773 the pope dissolved the Society of Jesus. It was not reinstated until 1814.
Devoted Catholics had been hoping for a council to deal with abuses in the church since the fifteenth century The events of the sixteenth century exaggerated the calls for a council. Papal hesitancy and political intrigue delayed a council until midway through the century Early in the century, moderates in
FURTHER REFORM AND REACTION (1500 - 1 600 c E )
the church seemed to dominate. If these moderates had been in charge of the council, the Protestants might have been won back. By the time the council was finally called, conservatives who took a hard line toward dissenters were in control. Their uncompromising stance left little hope that the church could be brought back together.
Pope Paul III (1534-1549) was finally forced to call a council in 1545 to deal with issues raised by Protestants and Reformers in the Catholic church. This council met off and on at Trent (and other places) until 1563 The Council of Trent was one of the most important in church history, and in many ways it marks the beginning of the modern Catholic church The questions raised by the Protestants were so extensive that the council had to examine much of the church's theology and practices. Powerful efforts were made to ensure uniformity in doctrine and practice throughout the church Clerical celibacy was enforced. Steps were taken to eliminate pluralism and simony. Seminaries were established to train priests. There had been no educational requirements for the priesthood until then.
The council responded negatively to almost all of the main objections of the Protestants. It affirmed justification by faith, but said that faith had to be supported by good works. It put tradition on the same level as the Bible as a source of authority. Christian tradition as established by the church fathers and the councils were a means of God's revelation, as was the Bible. It held that the Latin Vulgate with the Apocrypha was the official Scripture for the church. It upheld papal authority and the seven sacraments as the means of bringing grace to humans. It affirmed transubstantiation and the Mass as a sacrifice that benefited the living and the dead. The cup was withheld from the laity. Latin was to be the language of the Mass. Thomas Aquinas became the ''official" theologian of the church. 3
The Council of Trent sealed the division between Protestants and Catholics. Many events helped widen the schism. The office of the Inquisition was revived in 1542 to become a powerful tool in the hands of papal forces, especially the Jesuits. Many would-be Reformers were imprisoned, tortured, or burned at the stake by inquisitors. Unfortunately, many innocent people also died simply by being suspected of heresy. There was practically no way to prove one's innocence. In 1557, the Inquisition issued the Index of Forbidden Books , which was a list of books that could not be read by the faithful The Index continued in one form or another until 1966
The Reformation also resulted in extensive warfare between Protestants and Catholics. One example of this interfaith strife was the Schmalkaldic War (1546-1547) in Germany (see Chapter 8) that was ended by the Peace of Augsburg, which gave stability to Germany for some time There was also