This book has argued that the Protestant Reformation helped give rise to contemporary secular society. The sociologist Max Weber presented an argument that Protestantism contributed significantly to the creation of modern capitalism. Although Webers ideas have been hotly debated, they deserve repeating
Weber holds that Calvinism played a key role in the emergence of capitalistic society. Calvin's doctrine of predestination meant that God in his sovereignty chose who was to be saved and who was to be damned. Nothing a person could do would change his or her eternal destiny. But people still had a duty to work hard for the glory of God. Moreover, each person had a particular "calling." This calling meant that the primary place where a person was to work for God was in his or her occupation. People also were to help their neighbors and to faithfully carry out any task assigned. At the same time, pleasure and idleness were to be avoided.
Yet all of these acts did not ensure salvation. People were uncertain about their eternal state While people could not be sure if they were to be saved or damned, they could have some idea whether they were among the elect should God seem to be working through their efforts. One expression of God's favor was in their work. If people prospered financially, then God must be blessing them and they must be among the chosen. This presented another difficulty. When the "chosen" became wealthy, what were they to do with their excess money? Certainly it should not be spent on expensive material goods or pleasure. Instead, it should be invested to produce more goods and more profits! In a reversal of the traditional Christian teachings of sharing, the accumulation of wealth became a religious duty.
Weber argues that this Protestant ethic (work ethic) is apparent in modern society. True, it has lost much of its religious meaning. Nevertheless, "it rattles around in the gilded cage of capitalism like the ghost of some long-dead canary."
Source: Max Weber, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism , trans. Talcott Parsons (New York: Scribners, 1958).
warfare in the Netherlands, where Philip II of Spain (1556-1598) was ruler. The Netherlands were attracted to Protestantism, especially Calvinism. Philip hated Protestantism and was determined to stop its advance in his northern territories. A rebellion began in 1565 over high taxes and Spanish interference in religious freedom It resulted in a long, bloody conflict that did not end
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until 1609 The southern areas (Belgium) remained Catholic. The northern regions (Holland) were left in the Protestant camp. Philip also attacked Elizabeth 1 and Protestants in England. England defeated Spain and destroyed the Spanish Armada in 1588. Philip's defeat not only preserved Protestantism but also left England a major seafaring military power
Although France was strongly Catholic, a significant Protestant minority existed there. These mainly Calvinistic Protestants were known as the Huguenots and were made up of nobles and common people alike. At times the Huguenots were persecuted. The fact that many nobles joined the Protestants made them a political threat. Queen Mother Catherine de' Medici plotted with Catholic leaders to suppress this threat in 1572. Protestant nobles were to attend an important wedding in Paris on Saint Bartholomew's Day (August 24). When the group was assembled, a church bell rang and the Catholics attacked the unarmed Protestants. Mobs soon entered the action and men, women, children, and infants were slaughtered. Cartloads of bodies were dumped in the River Seine. The killings soon spread to the surrounding countryside Huguenot homes and churches were attacked. About eight thousand Reformers were killed in Paris and another twenty thousand died in the surrounding regions. A civil war resulted and dragged on until 1593. In 1598 the king issued the Edict of Nantes, which called for forgetting the horrors of the past and guaranteed religious freedom for the Huguenots. Harassment of Protestants continued in the seventeenth century, however, and in 1685, the Edict of Nantes was revoked The persecution that resulted caused thousands of Huguenots to flee to England, America, and Germany.
THE ORTHODOX CHURCH DURING THE REFORMATION
During the Reformation, the part of the Orthodox church dominated by the Ottoman Turks languished The Turks continued to use church officials as tools of their rule. Occasionally a church official would resist the Turks by opposing some immoral activity on the part of the rulers. But for the most part, the leaders were docile and the church marked time. Perhaps it is remarkable that Orthodoxy survived at all In spite of corruption in the upper levels of the church hierarchy, parish life was active Many of the Orthodox faithfully continued their rich tradition However, most of the advancement in Orthodoxy during the sixteenth century occurred in the Russian church
The Third Rome Theory received great attention when Ivan IV (1530-1584), known as Ivan the Terrible,'' came to power. Ivan busied himself with expanding
his empire, which was centered in Moscow. Whenever he was successful, Orthodoxy also expanded In 1547 he had himself proclaimed tsar and claimed to be the successor of the Christian emperors of Constantinople. Ivan saw himself as the protector of the church and, like the Byzantine emperors, expected support from it. Many Orthodox leaders willingly rallied to Ivan's cause Partly because of religious conviction and partly because of political concerns, they strongly advanced the idea that Moscow was the third Rome. Moscow was granted the status of patriarchate in 1590. The new patriarchate of Moscow would soon become the most important in the Orthodox world.
The Russian church did experience some internal controversies during the sixteenth century. The most important was the split between the Possessors and the non-Possessors. It developed out of two trends that were at the heart of Orthodox monasticism—to do social work among the needy and to retreat from the world for prayer and meditation. By the sixteenth century, monasteries owned about one-third of the land in Russia. At a church council in 1503, Nilus of Sora (ca. 1433-1508) challenged the practice. He argued that the duty of monks was to retreat from the world for mystical prayer and to set an example for society. The laity were to be concerned for charity. Monks were not. Monasteries must detach themselves from landowning so they could perform their proper duty. Those who supported him came to be known as non-Possessors.
Nilus was opposed by Joseph, abbot of Volokalamsk (1439-1515). Joseph argued that monks had social obligations to care for the poor, show hospitality, and teach. Monasteries needed money for these good purposes. They held their riches in trust for the poor. Those who supported him came to be called Possessors, or Josephites. The Josephites dominated the council and the non-Possessors were defeated Moreover, because the Possessors generally supported the activity of the tsar, they were able to call upon the power of the state to persecute the non-Possessors.
The Protestant Reformation had little impact on the sixteenth-century Orthodox church. The Orthodox certainly were aware of the work of the Reformers. Ideas filtered through to Eastern Christianity by a variety of means. Many Orthodox went to the West to study. Western embassies from Protestant and Catholic countries not only represented their nations in the East but also spread religious concepts
Still, the Orthodox showed little interest in Protestant thought A good example of this disinterest was the dialogue between a group of Lutheran theologians and the patriarch of Constantinople, Jeremias II The discussion began in 1573 when the Lutherans presented the patriarch with a copy of the Augsburg Confession translated into Greek. Jeremias responded with three sets of
Answers in which he addressed the issues raised by the Protestants. All of his replies retained their Orthodox character and made few concessions to the Reformers. After the third set of replies, the patriarch ended the dialogue He felt there was nothing else to say. Jeremias's Answers were the first systematic critique of Protestantism from the Orthodox perspective.
The Catholic Reformation had a greater impact on the Orthodox church The Counter-Reformation produced a renewal of efforts to bring all Christians, including Eastern Christians, into submission to the pope. The Jesuits were especially active in this offensive. The main region where Catholics and Orthodox clashed was the Ukraine After the Tartars captured Kiev, Russia lost the city and the rest of the Ukraine. It came under the domination of Poland and Lithuania. (These two countries had been united under a single crown in 1386.) This union left a Catholic majority in the region ruling over an Orthodox minority.
The Roman Catholic authorities made periodic efforts to force the Orthodox into obedience to the pope. This pressure heightened with the arrival of Jesuits in 1564. The Jesuits secretly negotiated with Orthodox leaders to reunify Orthodoxy with Catholicism. However, when a council was called in 1596 at Brest-Litovsk to finalize the union, the Orthodox hierarchy was divided and many delegates wanted to remain Orthodox. In spite of opposition, a Uniate church was declared in Poland. The Uniate church officially submitted to the pope, but was allowed to keep the Orthodox liturgy and to maintain many Eastern practices. Most Greek Christians accepted the Uniate church at least outwardly. Those who rejected the Uniate church and wished to remain strictly Orthodox were severely persecuted. The Eastern faith was kept vital by Orthodox brotherhoods that were composed of priests and laypeople who taught, published, and performed charitable activity. Interestingly, efforts to resist Catholic intrusion in Poland drove the Orthodox patriarch of Constantinople closer to Protestantism in the early seventeenth century.
THE CHURCH AT THE CLOSE OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY
The sixteenth century was one of the most significant times in church history. The combination of widespread abuses within the church and political and social upheavals produced dramatic changes. The most obvious was the rift between Protestants and Catholics. This schism left the church divided into three main parts. Eastern Orthodox, Roman Catholic, and Protestant. Strong efforts were not made to heal this division until the twentieth century.
Protestants and Catholics shared many beliefs and traditions. For instance, they generally looked to the Scripture as a base for Christian authority, taught justification by faith, and accepted the definitions of the Trinity established by
the early church councils. They differed over such concerns as the nature of the Eucharist, the place of "works" in salvation, and the marriage of the clergy. However, the most important differences centered around the role of the church and its hierarchy in the Christian faith. The Catholics insisted that salvation occurs only in the church and comes to humans through the seven sacraments. Protestants held that humans have direct access to God, though some did not reject the sacraments altogether The Catholics maintained that church tradition had equal authority with the Bible in directing Christian life Protestants felt that Scriptures alone should be the authority for Christians. Catholics taught that Scriptures could be interpreted only by the church hierarchy, while Protestants believed that individual Christians had the ability to interpret the Bible
After the sixteenth-century Reformation, Protestantism was divided into four main branches: Lutheranism, Calvinism, Anglicanism, and Anabaptists. There was a great deal of competition among these groups. Ever since its beginnings, Protestantism has tended to fragment into more and more denominations. There are sociological and psychological bases for this fragmentation but theology also plays a major role. If each Christian has the right to interpret the Scriptures, then there are potentially as many interpretations as there are Christians. When each interpreter is convinced that his or her understanding is the correct one as revealed by the Holy Spirit, there is little room for compromise People break into groups and pursue their own definitions of truth Early leaders such as Calvin and Luther recognized this problem and tried to guard against it.
The Catholic church evolved into a stronger faith at the end of the sixteenth century. There was a renewed spiritual vigor in the church. The Council of Trent clarified many issues. It produced a more unified liturgy and theology. It took steps to enforce a new uniformity in worship and other practices. Many abuses, such as simony and pluralism, were limited. Limits also were placed on indulgences and relics. Clerical marriage and concubinage were practically eliminated from the church.
On the other hand, Trent also helped to establish a Catholicism that would react negatively to many theological and social changes that would occur over the next four centuries. Catholicism would resist many forms of nationalism and capitalism and artificial birth control. This resistance would leave many faithful Catholics choosing between their societies and their religion. It would result in many feeling that the church hierarchy had little understanding of or appreciation for their daily needs. To some, religion would seem more and more irrelevant.
The warfare between Protestants and Catholics had a similar result Neither side won Many on both sides were disgusted by the bloodshed in the name of the Prince of Peace (Christ) The state, rather than the church, came
FURTHER REFORM AND REACTION (1500 - 1 600 c.E.)
to be seen as the legitimate authority in determining "morals" and dispensing justice. The real winner in the Reformation was the state!
In spite of all the changes and upheaval, the church spread It spread into places such as India, China, and Japan, and it followed explorers into entirely new territories. The sixteenth century was a great age of colonization. Portuguese and Spanish were busy establishing vast empires. New settlements were established by European powers in Africa, North and South America, and Southeast Asia, and many Jesuit, Franciscan, and Dominican missionaries went along to "evangelize" the indigenous peoples. Catholic missionaries established an especially powerful influence in the New World. Much of Canada, the southern United States, Mexico, Central America, and South America were converted to Catholicism. Sometimes conversion was done by force. Often the church sided with the European conquerors and assisted in exploiting the indigenous people. Other times church officials became their defenders and assisted in limiting their abuse. This shift between supporting the powerful and defending the weak has characterized the Latin and South American church to the present (see Chapter 12). 4
CONCLUSIONS
The Reformation instigated trends that would reach fulfillment in the following centuries. In many ways, it laid the foundation for the modern world. While the Christendom of medieval society was built on Catholicism, the secularization of the last four hundred years has part of its foundation in Protestantism. The individualism and mistrust of authority that characterizes modern life may well have a base in the Reformers. The dominance of the state, which started to be obvious in the sixteenth century, is now a main characteristic of contemporary life. We will see how some of these trends evolved in the following chapters.
1. For a good discussion of the English Reformation, see Kenneth Scott Latourette, A History of Christianity, vol. 2, Reformation to the Present, rev. ed. (New York: Harper and Row, 1975), 797-835.
2. For a good discussion of the Anabaptists, spiritualists, and rationalists, see Latourette, vol. 2, 778-796.
3. For a good discussion of the Catholic Reformation, see Latourette, vol 2, 840—883, and Clyde L. Manschreck, A History of Christianity in the World, 2d ed. (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1985), 194-209
4. For a good discussion of the church in Latin and South America, see Justo L Gonzalez, The Story of Christianity, vol. 1 , The Early Church to the Dawn of the Reformation (San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1984), 379-412
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Barthel, Manfred The Jesuits. History and Legend of the Society of Jesus. Translated by Mark Howson. New York: Morrow, 1984
Bender, H S. Menno Simons Life and Writings: A Quadricentennial Tribute { 536-1936 Scottsdale, Pa : Mennonite, 1936
Bennett, John W Hutterian Brethren. Palo Alto: Stanford University Press, 1967 Burnes, E. M The Counter-Reformation. Princeton. Princeton University Press, 1964 Clissold, Stephen. The Saints of South America. London: Knight, 1972 Daniel-Rops, Henry. The Catholic Reformation. New York: Dutton, 1962 Dickens, A. G. The English Reformation. New York: Schocken, 1964
Dunne, George H. Generation of Giants. The Story of Jesuits in China in the Last Generations of the Ming Dynasty. London: Burns and Oats, 1962 Furcha, E J , ed and trans. Selected Writings of Hans Denck. Lewiston, N Y: Mellen Press, 1989
Knappen, Marshall M. Tudor Puritanism: A Chapter in the History of Idealism. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1939
Loyola, Ignatius. The Spiritual Exercises. Translated by Anthony Mottola New York: Doubleday, 1964
Olin, John C. The Catholic Reformation: Savonarola to Ignatius Loyola. New York: Harper and Row, 1969
Parkman, Francis The Jesuits in North America in the Seventeenth Century. 1895 Reprint. Wil- liamstown, Mass.: Corner House, 1970 Ridley, Jasper Thomas Cranmer. Oxford: Clarendon, 1962 Stayer, James M Anabaptist and the Sword Lawrence, Kans.: Coronado, 1976.
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Williams, George H The Radical Reformation. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1962.
CHAPTER TEN