The Synod of Dort was called to deal with the challenges presented by Jacobus Arminius and his followers. The organizers hoped to secure the support not only of the Dutch Reformed church but also of Calvinists from all of Europe As a result, delegates attended from Great Britain, Switzerland, and Germany. The synod met from November 1618 to May 1619. Arminius was condemned. The synod spelled out its theology in several canons and these became the heart of Calvinistic orthodoxy. The essence of the synod's teachings is referred to as TULIP theology after the first letters in the key doctrines: Total depravity, Unconditional election, Limited atonement, Irresistible grace, and Perseverance of the saints.
Total depravity means that because of Adam's fall humans are totally bound to sin. Even if some "light" exists in this world, humans are incapable of responding to it Unconditional election means that being elected by God is predestined. It is not based on God's foreknowledge of who will respond to the call for salvation. Limited atonement teaches that Christ died only for the elect, not for all humankind Irresistible grace goes back to the teachings of Augustine, as do many of the ideas surrounding predestination. It holds that predestination is so powerful it is impossible for people to resist the grace of God once it is given to them. Perseverance of the saints means that once a person is saved he or she can not then be lost. It is impossible to fall from grace.
By the seventeenth century, this evolution was well under way in Lutheranism and Calvinism. Both Calvin and Luther had powerful conversion experiences that influenced their work. Although Calvin produced a great systematic theology, some argue that what drove his thought and action was the experience of justification by grace Luther's thought was not as systematic. It came out of his personal encounter with the Gospel Through a number of controversies, Calvinist and Lutheran theologians were defining the fine points of their theology and writing "creeds" to be accepted by the faithful
For instance, a distinguished Calvinist Dutch pastor and professor, Jacobus
Arminius (1560—1609), came to doubt that God elected people for salvation
*
or damnation "before the foundations of the earth were lain " In fact, God had decreed the salvation of all humanity through Christ. Some would choose to accept this salvation and others would not Predestination was not a sovereign decree of God about the fate of individuals It was God's foreknowledge of
who would choose to be saved and who would reject Christ. Arminius's teachings came to be called Arminianism
These teachings produced a long-running conflict that extended after Arminius's death. Finally the Synod of Dort (1618-1619) defined five teachings that were the core of orthodox Calvinism This came to be known as TULIP Calvinism after the first letters in the key words of the five doctrines. TULIP theology was supplemented by the more detailed Westminster Confession developed in England The heart of Reformed orthodoxy was formed in the work of Dort and Westminster. Arminius's teachings had their greatest impact on the Methodists and certain Baptist groups who were noted for their efforts to convert the lost.
Lutheranism was taking a similar course. Through the seventeenth and most of the eighteenth centuries, Lutherans operated under what scholars call Protestant Scholasticism." Theologians fought Calvinists and Catholics, as well as one another, over who was most rigidly following the teachings of Luther. They refined their thinking by developing long, carefully reasoned systematic theologies. All of these efforts defined what Lutherans must believe.
Fox and the Quakers
The emphasis on orthodoxy, or correct belief, produced a religion that appealed to the intellect but that had little room for the feelings of the heart. Such a one-sided religion created reactions stressing the experiences of the Spirit. One of the earliest of these reactions is seen in the work of George Fox (1624-1691). Fox became disillusioned with the lack of spirituality and low morals he saw in the religion of his day Fie felt called by the Lord to correct this lack. He wandered about the English countryside searching for true spirituality and would attend church services. When he found them lacking, he would stand and proclaim the truth he had received.
This public proclamation led him to be arrested and thrown into jail On one occasion he and some of his followers were thrown into the lowest levels of the prison at Launceston There they were forced to stand in the excrement of other prisoners. When they set straw on fire to help control the smell, the jailors dumped pots of excrement on them from above to extinguish the fire. In spite of this persecution, Fox continued to preach in England, Ireland, the West Indies, North America, and Holland Followers gathered around him In 1668 he founded the Society of Friends, or Quakers as their enemies called them. The term Quaker was used because Fox's followers often appeared to quake when they were possessed by the Spirit
The Quakers were pacifists who held for the equality and brotherhood of all They believed that all revelation was produced by the Spirit The Spirit
gives inward revelations that are necessary for the forming of true religion. Revelations are superior to either Scripture or natural reason. The Spirit is available to everyone. If it is not resisted, it will produce true holiness. The Quakers rejected the outward sacraments and argued, for example, that true baptism was inward They also rejected an organized ministry along with customs that catered to inequality, such as bowing to superiors.
The Pietists
Pietism was another movement that emphasized the importance of religious feelings. It developed around the work of Philipp Jacob Spener (1635-1705). Spener was a Lutheran who became convinced that the ministry was lax and overly concerned with worldly status as well as dry orthodoxy. The established church called people to live a comfortable life in which people did little more than conform to the accepted morality of the day. Spener believed that Christian morality went far beyond simply doing what was good in the eyes of society The old issue of Christ and culture plays an important role in Pietism Right belief was useless unless it was accompanied by true piety (sincere devotion accompanied by acts of love). Spener did not disagree with Lutheran doctrine, but taught that right feeling was as important as right belief. The Christian faith must be a deep and personal living faith.
Spener wrote the Pia Desideria ("Devout Wishes") as a guide for attaining piety. It advocated a number of things to increase devotion, including active participation of laypeople in the priesthood of the believer by ministering to one another, intense study of the Bible, and a return to strong evangelical preaching Increased piety in pastors as well as in professors and students at universities also was recommended. The movement spread partly because of small circles of believers who came together for prayer, Bible study, and increasing devotion. These gatherings were called colleges of piety. Spener saw these as the method for reviving the church
An important figure in early Pietism was August Hermann Francke (1663 — 1727). Francke was from a well-to-do Lutheran family He came to have teachings very similar to Spener but insisted to an even greater degree that the Christian life was a heartfelt, joyous experience. His ideas got him fired from teaching positions at the universities at Erfurt and Leipsig. He eventually secured a job at the new University of Halle, which he turned into the center for Pietism Hundreds of young men were educated in pietistic ways and placed in pastorates throughout Germany
Halle also became the source of the first Protestant mission movement. During the eighteenth century, sixty missionaries were sent from Halle to foreign lands Francke developed social programs for the needy and a system
of education for young children that brought them into the pietistic tradition Pietism also deeply influenced German Lutheran and Reformed traditions It had an impact on Roman Catholicism as well. It eventually spread throughout Europe and was one idea that influenced the Great Awakening in America discussed in Chapter 127
Moravians and Methodists
Pietism had a significant influence on Count Zinzendorf ( 1700- 1760) Zinzen- dorf was raised in a pietistic home and educated at Halle. After traveling widely and studying law, he received an appointment at the court of Dresden. There he met a group of Bohemian Anabaptists who were fleeing persecution in Moravia. Zinzendorf gave these pilgrims refuge on his lands. In 1722 the brethren founded a community at Herrnhut. Zinzendorf dreamed of making Herrnhut a college of piety to revitalize the Lutheran church. He left his job to join the community. He soon became the head of Herrnhut.
Zinzendorf stressed a religion of the heart and ethics based on the Sermon on the Mount. The community soon became caught in missionary zeal. Before long, the Moravians were sending missionaries to many places in the Old and New Worlds. Zinzendorf himself went to America where he founded Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, as a Moravian settlement. The Moravians were never a large group, but their missionary zeal helped inspire the great nineteenth- century mission efforts. However, they greatly influenced John Wesley and the Methodists.
John Wesley ( 1703 - 1791 ) had been raised in a devout home. He attended Oxford University where he distinguished himself as a scholar. He joined a religious club founded by his brother Charles. The group was ridiculed by nonmembers as the "holy club" or "methodists" because of the methodical way they organized their lives and devotion.
Wesley was ordained an Anglican priest. Early in his career he took a pastorate in Georgia in the New World where he hoped to convert the Indians. The pastorate was a disaster, but on the trip he had several encounters with Moravians that changed the course of his life. A Moravian missionary challenged Wesley, "Do you know Christ [personally]?" This query caused Wesley to confront the state of his soul.
After returning to England, Wesley sought direction from other Moravians. Finally, on May 24, 1738, he had an experience at a prayer meeting at Aldersgate that changed his life In this experience, he came to know beyond doubt that he was saved. Wesley eventually parted company with both the Moravians and the Calvinists. He did not believe in extreme predestination. He accepted the Arminian idea that Christ died for all, not just the elect If
that were not the case, then preaching was wasted. He desired to promote a vital practical religion that would generate Christians who would have the life of God increased in their souls.
Wesley soon found it difficult to find Anglican pulpits in which to preach. He was encouraged by an old friend from the Oxford holy club to adopt a different method George Whitefield (1714—1770) was an Anglican priest who had an experience similar to Wesley's Aldersgate encounter Whitefield pas- tored a church in Georgia but made frequent preaching trips back to England. In Georgia he had taken to preaching outside. He successfully adopted this method in England and came to be recognized as one of the great eighteenth- century preachers.
Wesley followed his friend's example. He began preaching in open fields and drew lots of people, many of whom experienced soul-wrenching conversions. His work was especially effective in the industrial city of Bristol where members of Methodist "societies'' were organized by lay leaders to continue to develop their own inner spirituality Because people did not have to be wealthy or educated to serve as leaders, new possibilities for lay participation opened up that had not existed for many in the Church of England
Whitefield's and Wesley's efforts were particularly effective in reaching urban workers who had migrated to the cities from traditional farming communities. This migration had uprooted them from their traditional life-styles and from the parish structure that was a big part of Anglicanism Some scholars argue that the Methodist movement was one of the forces that prevented the type of political revolutions that would occur later in France, Russia, and elsewhere
Whitefield and Wesley disagreed over Whitefield's strict Calvinism The Methodist movement was left firmly in the hands of John Wesley and to a lesser degree his brother Charles. (Charles is best known for the many moving hymns he wrote ) John had no intention of breaking with the Anglican church. Throughout Wesley's life Methodism remained within the Anglican camp. As the movement grew, John rode thousands of miles each year on horseback, preaching and organizing his followers. The movement soon was organized into circuits under the direction of a superintendent 8 Lay preachers, including women, provided leadership Wesley's own example formed the basis for "circuit riders" who rode from place to place and preached to widely scattered congregations
This approach proved particularly effective on the American frontier John was especially concerned with the New World In 1771 he sent a lay preacher, Francis Asbury (1745—1816), to preach in America Asbury was a powerful force in spreading Methodism on the American frontier. In 1784 he ordained Thomas Coke (1747-1814) as the first superintendent in America Asbury also was made a superintendent later More superintendents were designated
for other countries. Before long Asbury and Coke were calling themselves bishops, consequently, American Methodism has bishops and superintendents while in other places it only has superintendents. Wesley remained in the Anglican church all of his life and resisted efforts by other Methodists to withdraw from the Church of England. By the time of his death, however, Methodism was well on its way to becoming a separate denomination 9
THE SMILE OF REASON
Pietism, with its stress on feeling, was one of the trends that shaped the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Another influential movement was rationalism, the belief that reason alone can comprehend all truth and is sufficient to guide morals. The belief in reason had been growing for several centuries and reached its high point in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Proving theological doctrines by reason alone was a major point in Scholasticism The reintroduction of Aristotle, with his trust of information gathered by the senses, opened the door to study of the natural world The process progressed through the Renaissance and the humanistic movement. While Protestantism did not abandon religion, many argue that evangelical thought tended to make religion more reasonable and understandable than it had been in the great mysteries of Catholicism. Gradually the universe came to be seen as a material realm governed by understandable,natural laws, not by the mysterious will of God. Understanding these laws would allow people to control the world around them and to build a bright future. The rise of science was one area where confidence in reason would bear much fruit.
The Scientific Revolution
A few thinkers contributed to the rise of modern science, none was more important than Nicolaus Copernicus (1473—1543). Copernicus used mathematical models to turn the universe upside down. Since the days of Aristotle, Western society had accepted the idea that the earth was the center of the universe. The stars, sun, and moon revolved around the earth, locked forever in a hierarchy of spheres. This idea had its impact on theology. The earth and humans were the center of God's concern. Copernicus argued that the sun was the center of the universe and the earth as well as other heavenly bodies revolved around it. He was afraid to publish his findings until the last year of his life. After his views were published, Protestant and Catholic authorities condemned them as incorrect and a threat to the Christian faith
Another important step toward modern science was taken by Galileo Galilei (1564—1642). Galileo contributed to the science of experimental physics
by calculating the speed of falling bodies. Galileo turned to astronomy using a telescope he built He discovered the moons of Jupiter, sun spots, and imperfections on the moon His observations supported Copernicus's. They also demonstrated that the universe was uniform and ordered. The earth was not special and different from other bodies in the solar system. Galileo was brought before the Inquisition for his views and forced to deny them.
The shift toward a new understanding of the universe was completed in the work of Sir Isaac Newton (1642—1727). Newton also used mathematics to study the fundamental structure of the universe He is credited with showing that the material universe is held together by the attraction of gravity. He also set forth the four rules for reasoning, which became the foundation for all later scientific investigation. Newton's universe was an ordered one that operated according to measurable cause and effect laws. The universe was in essence a "machine" whose principles of operation could be understood by the human mind.
By the time of Newton, science was beginning to be widely accepted. Though Copernicus and Galileo had found themselves in trouble for their ideas, Newton was knighted for his! Most European governments were racing to form national science academies. They were competing with one another for new scientific discoveries. Discoveries were made in mathematics, physics, chemistry, astronomy, anatomy, and a host of other disciplines. Catholic church officials generally reacted negatively to the new science but Protestants were more accepting
By the end of the seventeenth century, the worldview that had formed the basis for society from the time of Aristotle had been replaced by the Copernican-Newtonian understanding of the universe. This understanding had wide-ranging implications for religion and philosophy and for politics and psychology If the universe and its laws were understandable by reason, then there was no need for revelation or old authorities such as Scripture and church fathers who claimed special revelation. In fact, anyone claiming special revelation or miracles was just spreading superstition.
Theological doctrines were not worth fighting over Many thought that reason alone could grasp the truth and would lead reasonable people to agreement and toleration, not conflict. Social ills and individual problems could be solved by the power of reason. If government was no longer ordained by God, then its basis must be a democratic contract between reasonable people designed to ensure individual rights. There was no need for God, the Bible, or revelation The smile of reason spread over the eighteenth century. The eighteenth century is often referred to as the Enlightenment or the Age of Reason.
Rationalism in Philosophy and Religion
Rationalism also had a strong impact on religion and philosophy Rene Descartes (1596-1650) was a great believer in the power of the mind. He felt
WAR, PIETY, AND REASON (1600 - l 8 00 c e )
there was nothing beyond human comprehension provided proper mental discipline was used The correct method was to doubt everything until one reached the point that proof could be obtained with mathematical certainty. Searching for a firm foundation for his philosophy, Descartes doubted everything until he concluded that the only thing he could not doubt was the fact he was doubting. This realization gave him the starting point of his philosophy-—"I think, therefore I am."
Descartes built his philosophical system from this unshakable base God's existence was "proven" by the fact that the idea of God existed For Descartes, the idea of a "more perfect being" could not have been produced by the mind itself God must have put it there. Because God exists, the material world and the thinking mind must both have their origins in God. F-luman minds, like Lrods, can comprehend the laws that make the universe work. Nothing seemed beyond human grasp.
John Locke (1632-1704) was another figure who advanced the cause of rationalism Locke wrote a number of important works, one of which was An Essay Concerning Human Understanding. Locke argued that at birth the human mind is a tabula rasa (blank page, white sheet of paper), which is then written upon by experience People can know with certainty only three things: the existence of the self, the existence of things that are immediately before them, and God, upon whom the self depends and of whom people's ongoing experiences confirm.
For Locke, another great concept was probability. Probability allows us to function not on the basis of absolute certainty, but on judgments. For instance, individuals can not prove with certainty that things not in our presence continue to exist. FJowever, because they appear in the same place each time a person is there, individuals make the judgment that they continue to exist. This thinking has implications for faith. Faith is based on revelation, not reason. Revelation may be shown to be probably true but can not be shown to be absolutely true. Many religious fanatics confuse faith with empirical reason. They wrongly think that revelation proves the tenets of faith with absolute certainty. Because this certainty is impossible, toleration must be extended to a wide variety of beliefs.
In the Reasonableness of Christianity , Locke held that there is nothing that is incredible or improbable in Christianity. Christianity is a simple, harmonious, and reasonable religion. Even miracles and revelation are not unreasonable Yet Locke did not believe that Christianity added anything of importance that could not already be known by judgment and reason.
This type of thinking had been around for some time It eventually emerged in a religion called Deism. Lord FJerbert of Cherbury (1583-1648) studied world religions and concluded that all religions contained five common ideas: (1) there is a God, (2) God should be worshiped, (3) virtue is the key part of this worship, (4) repenting for sin is a duty, and (5) there is an afterlife
for reward and punishment. He found these to be the true essence of all religion
The next important work in Deism's development came out in 1696 when John Toland (1670-1722) published Christianity Mot Mysterious. Toland contended that there was nothing mysterious in Christianity. The idea that mystery is found in such doctrines as baptism and the Eucharist was promoted by church officials who had a self-interest in maintaining the air of mystery. Reason came before Christ and must be used to judge all doctrines. In 1730 Matthew Tindal (1657—1733) wrote Christianity as Old as Creation. In it he taught that all people need is the religion revealed in the natural order. God created an orderly universe. He gave humans reason to understand the laws by which the universe runs. Reason is all that is needed by humans for salvation and to guide their behavior.
Deists saw God as creating a perfect universe. He then withdrew from it. Because God had no further involvement with the material world, such things as miracles and incarnation were impossible. Humans had the capacity to comprehend the physical and moral laws on which the universe operates. Christ was to be respected only because he had lived according to these laws. Moral laws might include human rights or the law of sowing and reaping. Some held there was no judgment or hereafter. People could only reap what they had sown in this world. God may be understood as the Great Watchmaker who creates the perfect watch (the material world), winds it up, and lets it run on its own!
Deistic thought became widespread especially on the Continent. In France, it and other Enlightenment ideas were included in the thinking of Voltaire (1694-1778) and Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778), which gave rise to the French Revolution. In America, some of the founders of the Republic, including Thomas Jefferson and Thomas Paine, were Deists. It may surprise some to know that the Creator who endowed Americans with inalienable rights was the remote God of the Deists, not the compassionate God of Christ ,0
Opponents of Rationalism
Rationalism was a major influence on Western thought in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Yet it was not without its critics, an important one being David Hume (1711-1776). Hume was very pessimistic about reason's ability to grasp absolute truth He thought that people learned through experience Experience comes from observation, but observation does not give insight into the actual nature of things Observations themselves are colored by the irrational mental customs. For example, people talk in terms of cause and effect, but no one can actually observe one thing causing another. Nor can a person
_ 25 1 _
WAR, PIETY, AND REASON (1600 - 1 8 00 c.E.)
actually observe the substance (essence) of a thing. All people have is a series of observations that are linked together in the mind
These arguments undermined much of rationalistic thought, including the arguments used by the Deists. The Deists argued that the material world was a world of cause and erfect. If the world existed, then it must have a cause That cause was God. Hume showed that cause and effect had no basis in reality. Should that be the case, then one could not demonstrate the logical need for God. While the inability to demonstrate a logical need for God did not mean there is no God, it did show that the existence of God could not be proven. Neither doctrines, revelation, the superiority of the Bible, nor claims for church authority could be shown to be true without question Humes thought left people with little but skepticism (questioning) toward the natural world and their religion.
The deathblow to simple rationalism was dealt by Immanuel Kant (1724- 1804). His Critique of Pure Reason, published in 1781, caused a tremendous stir in the intellectual world. He contended that people have no direct knowledge of things-in-themselves. They only "know" what they receive through their five senses. The mind organizes input from the senses in terms of time and space in twelve categories such as causality, existence, and substance. Knowledge of nature is limited by these categories. We can only guess about religion as it is beyond the realm of pure reason (that is, time and space). That means that reason can not actually know such things as the existence of God, the soul, or eternity.
Kant's other major works include Critique of Practical Reason , Critique of Judgment, and Religion Within the Limits of Reason Alone. In these he deals with questions about morality and the existence of God and other issues. Just as people can have no real knowledge of nature, people can not have an absolute knowledge of right and wrong. But if there is only limited knowledge of right and wrong, then even in trying to do right a person might actually do wrong. What standard should a person use to guide behavior? Kant answers this question with his categorical imperative. He says each person should act as if his or her behavior would become a universal rule By this standard, such things as murder, stealing, and lying would not be good as they would destroy society. On the other hand, such things as love, justice, and assisting the needy would be good
While one can not prove things beyond the realm of time and space, such things as the existence of God, freedom, the soul, and immortality are demanded by "practical reason"—it is such constructs that make life meaningful If people are to be saved from meaninglessness, then virtue must be rewarded and evil punished. Yet in this world just the opposite often happens. A hereafter is thus demanded where evil is punished and good is rewarded. Moreover, there must be a judge to ensure this happens Jesus was important to Kant
because he was ruled by the categorical imperative. He reduced religion to the categorical imperative and to those concepts that could be derived from it.
THE SEVENTEENTH- AND EIGHTEENTH- CENTURY ORTHODOX CHURCH
Much of the Orthodox world defended itself against the Muslims and Western Catholicism during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The rivalry between the Orthodox church and the Western church was particularly intense in Poland Pamphlets and other religious literature were printed presenting Greek positions. Orthodox schools that rivaled those of the Jesuits were established. Cyril Lucaris (1572-1638) carried on one interesting line of defense. As a young man, Cyril had been a representative at the Council of Brest that declared the Uniate union of Orthodoxy and Catholicism in Poland and the Ukraine Later he became the patriarch of Constantinople He then made it his lifelong mission to combat Roman influences in the Turkish Empire. He turned to the embassies from Protestant countries in Constantinople for aid. In the process, he fell under the influence of Calvinism. In 1629 he published his Confession , which was definitely Calvinistic in its teachings. Cyriis Confession was rejected in a series of Orthodox councils.
Church and State in Russia
The Russian church remained the most active part of Orthodoxy. As in the past, it played a significant role in affairs of state. In the late sixteenth century and the early seventeenth century there was a period of turmoil in Russia known as "the time of trouble" The death of Ivan IV's childless son left the throne without a successor A number of contenders presented themselves and civil war resulted One contender received aid from the Poles and the Jesuits. The Jesuits saw an opportunity to bring the whole Russian church into submission to Rome The Poles invaded, capturing Moscow.
During this time of trial, the Orthodox church served as a rallying point in resisting the foreigners and the attack by Rome After the Poles were finally ejected, an assembly was called to restore order to the country. In 1613 the assembly elected the sixteen-year-old Michael Romanov as tsar. Romanov became the head of the dynasty that ruled Russia for the next three hundred years Michael's father, Philaret, was chosen patriarch of Moscow. For the next twenty-four years, state and church leaders worked cooperatively to assist the country in recovery and reform.
The situation changed at Michael's death. Alexis became tsar. One of the most capable men in Russian Orthodox history, Nikon (1605—1681), was
eventually made patriarch of Moscow. Nikon undertook changes on many levels. For one thing, he was dissatisfied with the relationship between church and state. In theory, the Russian church operated under the same system of symphonia found in the old Byzantine Empire. In fact, however, the Russian church was dominated by the state, a condition Nikon found intolerable He demanded absolute authority in religious matters and reserved the right to intervene in affairs of state. He even took the title "Great Lord," which had previously been applied only to the tsar
At first Alexis submitted to Nikon's demands, but he soon came to resent the patriarch. Nikons reforms in the liturgy were resisted by many religious people, as is discussed below. Alexis asked for a council to deal with the patriarch. The council met in Moscow during 1666—1667. It deposed Nikon, but kept many of his religious reforms. It also affirmed the Greek system of symphonia. However, this balance of church and state was not to last long.
When Peter the Great (1682—1725) became tsar, he was determined to break the power of the patriarch. Upon the death of the latest patriarch in 1700, Peter refused to appoint another. In 1721 he issued the Spiritual Regulation, which eliminated the patriarchate and placed the regulation of the church under the direction of a Holy Synod (also known as the Spiritual College). The synod was made up of twelve members composed of bishops, heads of monasteries, and married clergy. The tsar was seen as the "Supreme Judge of the Spiritual College The Spiritual Regulation made the church a department of the state. The Russian church operated under this system until the Communist revolution in 1917.
The Old Believers Controversy
When Orthodoxy was accepted in Russia, the Greek liturgy was translated into Russian. In the process, a number of errors were made. As a result, Russian practices and rituals differed somewhat from those in Greece and other parts of the Orthodox world. For some time, attempts had been made to prepare new liturgy books that would be more in line with those in Greece. These attempts were resisted by many lower clergy and common people who saw them as a way of destroying their tradition The reforms also were resisted by Josephites and other supporters of the Third Rome Theory who believed the Greek church was corrupt and the Russian church was the true bearer of Orthodox heritage
Nikon was an admirer of the Greeks. As patriarch, he had sponsored new Greek translations of the liturgy. He then tried to impose these throughout the Russian church The hierarchy generally supported the use of the new liturgy books and their revisions of Russian rituals, but many parish clergy, ordinary monks, and common people joined the Josephites in opposing them
The turmoil produced by Nikon's efforts to reform the liturgy helped lead to the council that resulted in his downfall
Although the Moscow council deposed Nikon, it accepted his reforms in the liturgy In turn, it tried to impose the new worship practices on the Russian church Those who held to the old ways were ordered to submit or face ex- communication and prison. This action inspired further resistance These resisters came to be called the Old Believers, or Raskolniks. The Raskolniks were mainly drawn from the lower classes of society. The Old Believers controversy was, in part, a rebellion of the "have-nots" against the powerful.
The state vigorously persecuted the Old Believers. Thousands were hanged or burned at the stake Many others chose to end their own lives instead of submitting to the new rituals. In spite of extensive persecution and many deaths, the Old Believers persisted. They became fragmented into numerous groups with different beliefs and practices, but still remained a major division within Russian Orthodoxy (or perhaps alongside it). Their appeal to the dispossessed was one way the common people expressed their religious faith.
Even in the face of internal controversies and threats from Islam, Catholicism, and Protestantism, many Orthodox remained faithful to their beliefs. They continued to see themselves as the proper guardians of the true, ancient, apostolic Christian faith. 11
THE CHURCH AT THE CLOSE OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY
At the end of the eighteenth century Europe was permanently divided into Protestant and Catholic sections. The religious wars that followed the Reformation failed to produce a clear victory for either side, and they left large sections of Europe devastated Many became so disgusted with the fighting that they began to feel people might be better off without religion. Parts of Europe are less openly religious to this day than are other parts of the world, especially the United States. On the other hand, a "lasting peace" between Protestants and Catholics had been established. While Protestants and Catholics alike continue to experience discrimination and scattered violence, there has been no return of large-scale religious warfare between the groups. Instead the tendency has been toward increasing toleration and cooperation
In spite of reactions against it, Protestant Scholasticism remained strong. The Catholics engaged in their own forms of conservatism built around the reforms of the Council of Trent Much of this conservatism centered around obedience to the pope and the rejection of Protestantism Conservative Catholicism was supported by a powerful educational system that not only taught many students but also helped to keep the faithful in the fold Pietism and
similar movements reacted against orthodoxy by insisting that right belief was not enough. Right feeling (deep devotion, the experience of Christ in the heart) was needed also. These could be fostered by disciplined living, prayer, and Scripture reading. These ideas influenced Catholics and most Protestant denominations. Pietism also became the forerunner of feeling-based movements such as romanticism.
Christianity followed the conquerors and colonists as empires spread The Puritans tried to establish a godly society in North America Protestant missions began as Moravians and Pietists took up the challenge of sharing the Gospel. Methodists soon attempted to win converts on the American frontier and in other distant lands. These efforts would reach their high point in the great Protestant mission movement of the nineteenth century.
At the same time, other changes were occurring that would remake the world. Industrialization and urbanization were underway and Britain was the first to experience these powerful social forces, which would have worldwide impact in the twentieth century. The urban industrial world was vastly different from the rural farming world in which Christianity had functioned for so long. Democracy was on its way to becoming a widely accepted political system. Equality, the right to vote, and human rights came to be expected and desired by many—a far cry from the hierarchical structure that dominated medieval society. Countries that are mainly Protestant have been more effective in adapting to democracy than have countries that are predominantly Catholic.
Rationalism also left a strong mark on religion and society. Many came to think of traditional doctrine as superstition. A religious person was often seen as narrow-minded. Solutions to human problems came through rational efforts, not divine intervention. The rise of modern science accompanied the stress on rationalism. New discoveries opened the universe to humans. There was little need for revelation. Moreover, some scientific discoveries seemed to conflict with religious teachings. For example, the discovery of geological strata (layers of dirt and sediment deposited age after age) demonstrated that earth was millions of years old, not a few thousand years old as the church had traditionally taught. Fossils and dinosaur bones were discovered in early strata, which raised speculation about evolution as a means of producing life on earth.
Scientific discoveries resulted in issues that unbalanced the theological world. Copernican and Newtonian theories radically changed views on the material world and the place of humans in it. The universe was no longer limited and centered on earth where God could be passionately involved with human affairs. Instead it was limitless. Earth was not the center of the universe but simply one of many planets. F~Iumans did not have the same importance they had in an earth-centered universe Perhaps humans were just one of many intelligent species on a multitude of inhabited planets scattered in the vast
expanse of space If that were the case, how could Christians then claim that the death of Christ had implications for the salvation of all? As long as humans were the center of the universe, the death of Christ and human redemption seemed to have great importance But what was the impact of the death of this would-be Jewish Messiah on a small planet of a small star in an infinite universe? As the scientific model of the universe unfolded, humans and the Christian Savior would seem less important in the scheme of things. The criteria for evaluating the correctness of things became more rational and scientific, not more religious.
Yet Kant had demonstrated that science and reason could no more discover absolute truth than could religion. Whether dealing with science, reason, religion, the future life, or morals, it was impossible to be totally objective. Kant opened the door to the subjectivism and relativism that characterize the twentieth century. Subjectivism suggests each person has her or his own definition of truth. Relativism suggests there are no truths that are correct in all times and situations. Rather truth is always related to the time, place, or culture in which it is taught.