Change and Challenge (1800—Present)
Charles Darwin.
CHRISTIANITY IN THE MODERN PERIOD
S CHOLARS debate when the modern era actually began. Some argue that it should be dated from the sixteenth-century Reformation The Reformation established a clear break from the medieval understanding of church and society. The secular state started to come into its own as the source of authority in society. The importance of the church and of religion in people's lives began to decrease. Individualism, subjectivism, and secularization became more important after the Reformation.
Others argue that the modern era really began in the nineteenth century. It was then that many of the trends that started in the Middle Ages and the Reformation began to be felt. Moreover, many trends inspired by the Enlightenment bore fruit in the 1800 s. At the same time, Kant's criticisms of reason and the negative aspects of the French Revolution had their strongest impact in the nineteenth century. In addition, capitalism, industrialization, urbanization, and the pressures from population increase, which are such a part of the modern scene, began to assert themselves in the nineteenth century.
Whenever the modern era actually started, it was obvious in the nineteenth century that a vastly different world was emerging. For at least the last two hundred years the church has faced the challenge of dealing with this new world. Some parts of the church have tried to "make peace" with this new world by submitting to it and incorporating its concerns into Christian doctrine and practice Others have rejected the modern world altogether, often demanding that modern Christians return to traditional ideas and practices that are thought to be vital to the faith.
This chapter establishes the background of the modern period by examining important trends and events of the last two centuries. We then review some of the ways that the Catholic church has operated in this environment. The following chapter concentrates on how Protestant churches have functioned in the last two centuries. It also assesses the state of Christianity as it nears the end of its twentieth century.
The nineteenth and twentieth centuries were a period of great advance for Western culture. A new phase of empire building spread Western influence Scientific discoveries continued to deepen the understanding of the universe Technology was used to solve problems, from increasing agricultural output, to conquering illness, to improving production. All of these advances led to a tremendous period of optimism in the nineteenth century. It seemed as if humans were on the verge of conquering problems that had plagued them since the beginning of time Human perfection seemed possible
CHANGE AND CHALLENGE (1800 - PRESENT)
Forces were operating that would bring this optimism to an end, however. Philosophy was moving toward nihilism in Europe Nihilism is the total rejection of the ability to understand any ultimate truth. It implied that there were no absolute morals or, at least, that humans could not discover them if they did exist. World War I was even more important to the destruction of nineteenth-century optimism. In World War I, the very science and technology that promised so much created terrible tools for death, which resulted in destruction and suffering never before known in human history. The years after World War I produced worldwide economic and political chaos. In World War II the forces of death and destruction obtained new heights. Since World War II, crises and new problems have caused many to despair of humanity's ability to deal rationally with a progressively hostile environment. In spite of some beams of hope, humanity seems in danger of being overwhelmed as it lives out the last decade of the twentieth century.
The American and French revolutions that occurred in the late eighteenth century had a strong effect on the first half of the nineteenth century. On the European Continent, the French Revolution was much more important than the American revolt. The French Revolution began in 1789 . It went through several phases over the next ten years. Many of the ideas underlying the revolution came from the Enlightenment. French citizens rallied around the cry "Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity" (brotherhood).
In spite of such high ideals, the revolution drifted into rule by terror in which thousands of suspected "counterrevolutionaries" were put to death. The leaders of the revolution saw themselves as the commanders of a new order in which science and reason would overcome superstition and religion. As the revolution turned more radical, Christianity was seen as a threat. The leaders sought to replace it with natural religion. Traditional worship was discouraged. Priests and other Christians eventually were persecuted. The revolution created its own religion with elaborate rituals around the "cult of reason" and the cult of the Supreme Being " A new non-Christian calendar was created. Liquor was poured out as offerings to statues of nature, which had been made a god. Political heros were substituted for saints. Churches were made "temples of reason."
The French Revolution was founded on democratic ideals, which had become a part of Western culture. These ideals would continue to have great influence into the twentieth century. However, the excesses that resulted from the revolution caused many to fear uncontrolled rationalism Many started appealing to the "purity" of feelings and longed for a simpler, more natural past. This sparked a movement among artists, writers, and poets called romanticism. The
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DATES |
EVENTS ' |
SECULAR LEADERS |
CHURCH PERSONS |
WRITINGS |
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1734 |
Great Awakening begins in America |
Edwards |
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1789 |
French Revolution begins |
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1792 |
Mission movement begins, Particular Baptist Society founded |
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1793 |
Protestant mission in India |
Carey |
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1797 |
Second Awakening begins in America |
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1799-1822 |
Liberal theology takes form |
Schleiermacher |
Speeches on Religion, Christian Faith |
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1830 |
Mormonism founded |
Smith |
Book of Mormon |
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1843 |
Existentialism begins |
Kierkegaard |
Either/Or, Attack upon Christendom |
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1848 |
Communism advocated |
Marx |
Communist Manifesto |
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1859 |
Evolutionary theory |
Darwin |
Origin of Species |
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1864 |
Many modern views condemned |
Pius IX |
Syllabus of Errors |
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1869-1870 |
Vatican I, dogma of papal infallibility |
Pius IX |
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1891 |
Problems of laborers addressed |
Leo XIII |
Rerum novarum |
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1895 |
Five fundamentals formed |
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1896 |
Nihilism advanced |
Nietzsche |
Thus Spake Zarathustra |
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1907 |
American Social Gospel |
Rauschenbusch |
Christianity and the Social Crisis |
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1909 |
Dispensationalism advanced |
Scofield |
Scofield Ref¬ erence Bible |
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DATES |
EVENTS |
SECULAR LEADERS |
CHURCH PERSONS |
WRITINGS |
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1914-1918 |
World War I |
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1917 |
Communist Revolution in Russia |
Lenin |
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1919 |
Neo-orthodoxy begins |
Barth |
Commentary on Romans |
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1922 |
Fascism in Italy |
Mussolini |
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1925 |
Height of early Fundamental¬ ist/Modernist controversy, Scopes "Monkey Trial" |
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1932-1967 |
Neo-orthodoxy advanced |
R Niebuhr |
Moral Man and Immoral Society |
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1932-1967 |
Neo-orthodoxy advanced |
Barth |
Church Dogmatics |
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1933 |
Fascism in Germany |
Hitler |
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1939-1945 |
World War II |
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1945 |
Nuclear attack on Hiroshima, Bonhoeffer killed in German prison, Cold War begins |
Letters from Prison |
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1948 |
World Council of Churches founded |
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1950 |
Assumption of Mary made dogma |
Pius XII |
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1961 |
Death of God theology emerges |
Vahanian |
The Death of God |
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1962-1965 |
Vatican II |
John XXIII |
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1965 |
Theology of hope appears |
Moltmann |
Theology of Hope |
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1970-1980 |
Fundamentalists and New Right become more active |
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1972 |
Liberation theology advanced |
Gutierrez |
A Theology of Liberation |
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1989 |
Berlin Wall torn down, new era between East and West begins |
romantics emphasized feeling over thinking. They glorified nature and advocated abandoning civilization because it was an artificial creation of humans. The closer one could live to nature the better one was.
In spite of such reactions, many ideas and goals of the French Revolution still had appeal They influenced liberalism, which spread throughout nineteenth-century Europe. Liberals generally drew on the ideas of the Enlightenment and the French Revolution in advocating the extension of the vote to more people, free speech, and, later in the century, protection of the less fortunate. These ideas sparked significant reform and revolts in the midnineteenth century in a number of European countries.
Two new nation-states arose in the late 1800s. Italy was finally unified under the leadership of King Victor Emmanuel II in 1861. Strong currents of nationalism had pushed the nation toward unification throughout the nineteenth century. The move was opposed by the Austrians, who controlled many of the states that made up the new nation. It also was radically opposed by the pope, who feared a further decline of his power
Germany achieved unification in 1871 under the direction of the Prussian ruler William I and his able chancellor, Otto Eduard Leopold von Bismarck. Bismarck took advantage of a wave of nationalism after defeating both the Austrians and French. Germany was then the most powerful nation on the Continent. It was a state dominated by military interests. Liberal opponents had been defeated by Bismarck. Germany set out to build empires.
By the late nineteenth century, most major world powers began a new phase of empire building. This time the expansion was into Africa, China, and the Middle East. Japan had been forced open by an American fleet in 1853. By the end of the century Japan also was engaged in expanding its empire into China, Korea, and other Asian nations. In addition, the United States had gone through its own Civil War. It was emerging as a major industrial, military, and colonial power.
While there certainly were pessimists, as is discussed later in this chapter, nineteenth-century leaders were largely optimistic. Liberalism tended to be optimistic It particularly believed in the ability to produce perfect people and perfect societies. Furthermore, almost everyone believed that Western civilization was humanity's highest achievement. The Western world felt a duty to share its enlightenment with the "backward" societies of the world Much of the Western world felt the white man's burden, which was that people of European background had a special obligation (if not a calling from God) to share the benefits of their advanced civilization with their brown brothers (East Indians, Africans, Native Americans, and other dark-skinned peoples) around the world The "brown brothers" were often seen as simple, uncivilized people who were incapable of ruling themselves effectively and who lived in societies characterized by superstition and immorality.
This attitude was (and probably still is) especially strong in the United States. From the time of the Pilgrims, some Americans felt that they had a special calling from God to be a light unto the world This attitude had its origins in the idea that America was to be God's "righteous nation" where the example of a holy society would be created. Democracy and capitalism later would be added to the definition of the righteous nation. Thus, America has felt that its mission was to spread the good news of the "holy trinity"—Christianity, Democracy, and Capitalism—to a needy world! The white man's burden was used by Western societies throughout the period of new imperialism to justify the taking of native lands and the destruction of indigenous cultures.
Three significant changes created a tremendous, worldwide social revolution during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries: industrialization, urbanization, and population growth. While they held out great promise, they also subjected societies to terrible stresses. Like societies in general, Christianity has had to adjust to the consequences of these changes. The faith is operating in a much different world in the later twentieth century than it was at the beginning of the nineteenth century.
The industrial revolution was a series of sweeping economic and social changes that began in England in the late eighteenth century. It eventually spread to the Continent, the United States, and much of the world. Industrial production moved to factories where larger groups of organized workers used machine power to increase output. An agricultural revolution had preceded the industrial revolution. Improved agricultural methods and scientific methods of food production allowed the production of more food by fewer people. The agricultural revolution both permitted sufficient food to be grown for expanding urban populations and freed large numbers of people from producing food to work in the new factories.
Industrial cities attracted people to work in the factories and mills. Many left the countryside hoping to find a better life. The population of the cities swelled. Great Britain became the first society to urbanize (more than one- half of its population lived in urban areas) in the nineteenth century. Other societies followed suit, but most industrialized nations did not urbanize until the twentieth century. Even the nonindustrial, or developing nations, are now urbanizing Urbanization is a major problem in some developing nations because many of their cities have increasing populations but few industrial jobs to support the people. Nevertheless, by the year 2000 the vast majority of the earth's people will live in urban areas.
It is important to recognize the changes urbanization has brought Throughout most of history, people have lived in rural tribal groups or small villages.
The Second Coming of Christ has been expected since the early church. Much of the speculation about his return has centered around the millennium. The millennium is the thousand years of peace that the Revelation of John in the New Testament seems to indicate is associated with Christs coming Three different understandings of how Christs return relates to the millennium have been present in church history.
The postmillennial (after the millennium) interpretation says life in this world will be getting better and better as the kingdom of God is progressively realized. Finally, things will be so good that a thousand years of peace and prosperity will result. After that, Christ will return and bring in the new heaven and new earth.
The premillennialists (before the millennium) believe conditions in the world will get worse and worse. Evil will become overwhelming. Christ will return, bind the devil, and establish the thousand years of peace. After the millennium, the devil will be loosened for a while to tempt all those who might still fall into his traps. He and his forces finally will be destroyed and thrown forever into torment. Then Christ will bring in the new heaven and new earth.
The amillennialists (no millennium) believe good and evil will continue to coexist until Christ's return. Life will get neither better nor worse There will be no literal millennium. Because of that, Christ can return at any time to establish the new heaven and new earth.
Postmillennial ideas tended to dominate in the optimism of the nineteenth century. Premillennial teachings have been more obvious in the more pessimistic times of the twentieth century.
People knew everyone they saw on a daily basis. On the one hand, they tended to help their neighbors in times of need On the other hand, it was fairly easy to know other people's "business" and to control their behavior Most people had the same or similar racial and ethnic backgrounds. They engaged in much the same activities and shared similar values. They had a sense of belonging to a common community In the West the church was often the center of this community
Many of these qualities changed with urbanization. For one thing, vast numbers of people were living together. It was impossible to know everyone in the city personally There was little sense of community. Methods of controlling people's behavior changed Societies relied on law and formal agents like police to make sure people obeyed the law People felt little responsibility
CHANGE AND CHALLENGE (1800 - PRESENT)
for helping one another. To further complicate matters, the city brought together people from different backgrounds who often did not share common values or life-styles. They were of different racial, ethnic, and religious groups.
Especially in its early phases, industrial capitalism exaggerated the differences between those who were wealthy and in control and laborers who were poor and often exploited. Urban slums grew and were often filled with poverty, crime, prostitution, violence, child abuse, and alcoholism. Christianity had to try to cope with the urban situation. Traditional church structures like the parish did not work very well in an environment where people had little sense of community. Traditional methods of winning new converts were not very successful either. Problems seemed overwhelming. New methods of reaching the lost, dealing with social problems, and ministering to needs had to be developed. Some new methods were developed in the nineteenth century as the church started to adjust to the urban world Much still needs to be done, however The church is still confronted with questions about how to extend the Gospel to the urban world.
Problems associated with industrialization and urbanization were enhanced by dramatic, worldwide population increases. Human population had increased very slowly ever since Homo sapiens (the scientific name for humans) first appeared on the scene about fifty thousand years ago. However, increased agricultural and industrial production and medical advances meant more and more people were surviving until their reproductive years. As a result, population started to skyrocket. It took until 1850 for the earth's population to reach one billion. Yet the second billion was added by the mid-1930s. The fourth billion was added by the mid-1960s. At present earth's population is between six and eight billion and is doubling every thirty to forty years. The population increase is most rapid in developing nations, where many people are crowding into already overpopulated, underindustrialized cities.
This rapid population increase has heightened existing concerns. Problems of poverty have been made even worse. Economic systems are struggling to meet the needs of ever-increasing numbers of people Pollution from people and the industries needed to support them is threatening the existence of life on this planet. Wars and famines, as well as the push toward new worldwide political and economic systems, are fueled partly by population pressures. The church is forced to confront all these problems. It is also finding itself in a world that is more and more non-Western and non-Christian because much of the population increase is in areas where Christianity has played a limited role.
World Wars I and II
During the late nineteenth century and the early twentieth century tensions increased between the European powers. The European nations and Russia
played dangerous games that brought them to the brink of war in Europe, Africa, and the Middle East. These were accompanied by a massive arms build-up
World War I and Its Aftermath. An incident in 1914 in the Balkans rapidly spread as the Central powers of Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey, and Bulgaria aligned themselves against the Allied powers of Great Britain, France, and Russia. World War I had begun. In time, Russia was forced to withdraw because of the 1917 communist revolution. However, more than thirty other countries eventually joined on the side of the Allies, including the United States
During the four years of the war 65 million men were under arms. More than 9 million of these died and more than 21 million were wounded. Civilian casualties probably were at least as high. The technology and industrial production that had given the West such hope in the nineteenth century was turned to destruction. New inventions, such as chemical warfare, the submarine, the airplane, and the machine gun, made war even more horrendous. Pessimism and self-doubt began to settle on the Continent, though the United States escaped much of these reactions until after World War II.
The treaty ending World War I was seen as just, if not lenient, by the Allies. But the Germans felt it placed an unduly heavy burden on them. Many felt resentful and desired an opportunity for revenge. The German people felt deprived of their “natural" place of dominance in the community of nations. To make matters worse, economic, political, and social unrest were common in Germany, other parts of Europe, and North America. Economies fluctuated wildly and the world economic system was unstable. Unemployment and inflation were high Labor unrest was widespread. When people feel threatened in such situations, the ground is fertile for the growth of political extremism.
The Rise of Fascism and World War II. That is exactly what happened. Fascism came to the forefront under these unstable conditions. It developed first in Italy under Benito Mussolini. Fascist movements soon appeared in Spain, Greece, Japan, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria. Adolph Hitler's Nazi Germany rapidly became the dominant fascist power in Europe The Fascists appealed to extreme nationalism and claimed that their nation had a special destiny to fulfill. They used racial, ethnic, and political minorities as scapegoats. This particular element was exploited most successfully in Nazi Germany where Hitler built upon the anti-Semitism that always had been part of the Christian West. Hitler offered a "final solution" to the existence of Jews and other "inferior" minorities in which he slaughtered several million innocent people. This shameful saga is known as the Holocaust. It is one of the saddest events in human history.
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CHANCE AND CHALLENGE (1800 - PRESENT)
Fascists also glorified war and hated the weakness of those who desired peace. Strength, power, and dominance were to be pursued. Democracy and liberalism were enemies. Individualism, human rights, free speech, the free press, and the arts were attacked. Totalitarian governments that were ruled by one party and that persecuted all those who disagreed took control where Fascists came into power. They often were unethical in dealing with other governments. Agreements and treaties were made only to be violated when it suited the Fascists. They operated under the principle "might makes right." The Fascists came to power by promising security, law, and order in the instability of the 1920s and 1930s. Many people were willing to exchange their rights for the promise of a stable, orderly society.
The Germans, Italians, and Japanese formed the Axis alliance and began a series of military conquests that resulted in World War II. The war actually started in September 1939. In the long run, the combined power of the Allies (Great Britain, France, the Soviet Union, the United States, and those countries fighting with them) proved too much for the Axis. The Italians were defeated in 1943. The Germans surrendered in May 1945 and the Japanese in August 1945. The final victory over Japan was hastened by the dropping of atomic bombs on the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki by the United States. The terrible destruction wrought by these weapons ushered in a new and frightening age
The victorious Allies were determined to prevent the economic and social instability that culminated in World War II from occurring again. The Soviet Union was given control of much of Eastern Europe. A liberal world economic order was created that stabilized currencies around the fixed price of gold and later around the value of the U S. dollar. Trade regulations were created in a series of international conferences that tried to ensure free trade. Eventually most of the Western countries, developing nations, and Japan were integrated into this system. The communist countries formed their own trading block, which had only limited contact with the liberal economic order dominated by the industrialized nations.
The Cold War. The cooperation between the capitalistic democracies of the West and the communist dictatorship in the Soviet Union had been a key to victory in World War II. However, this cooperation rapidly dissolved into hostility and mistrust. A peculiar mentality dominated thinking on both sides. Communist teachings advocated spreading the workers' revolution all over the world. Communist governments were installed in Eastern Europe A revolution in China brought that country into the communist sphere The West came to
believe (often incorrectly) that every move the Soviets and their allies made was aimed at world domination. On the other hand, the Soviets inherited the Russian fear of the West and the Chinese continued their centuries-old suspicion of outsiders. They, too, were convinced that the capitalists were trying to destroy them.
This mistrust led to the so-called Cold War between capitalist and communist powers. The Cold War supported a loud war of words in which each side threatened the other. A massive arms race was undertaken out of fear, which became particularly menacing when the Soviets also developed nuclear weapons in the 1950s. Arms were stockpiled to the point that each side could destroy the earth several times over. Strangely world peace was ensured by a doctrine called MAD (Mutually Assured Destruction)! The Cold War dominated the world scene for almost forty years.
In the United States, fear of the "communist menace" was whipped into a frenzy during the early 1950s by Senator Joseph McCarthy of Wisconsin. McCarthy had a following of millions of Americans and was convinced that the American government, defense industries, educational system, artistic community, and military were filled with Communists and their sympathizers. Fear and suspicion overcame the country. To be a liberal meant that one was a Communist. Hundreds were hauled before investigating committees or were harassed by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). Thousands lost their jobs. McCarthyism demonstrated that even a "Christian nation" dedicated to liberty and justice for all could be caught in extremism
Globalization and the Collapse of Communism. After World War II, most of the colonial powers freed their colonies or allowed colonies to establish their own freedom through revolution. Thus many new nations came into being. Most either were not yet industrialized or were in the process of industrializing. They were forced to compete in a world market dominated by the United States and other Western countries. That left many of them dependent on the very countries from whom they had so recently won freedom As a rule, nations in the Northern Hemisphere were industrialized and prosperous. Nations in the Southern Hemisphere tended to be nonindustrialized and poor.
For the most part the discrepancy in wealth has grown in the last forty years Efforts to improve the standard of living in many nonindustrialized, or "developing," nations have been overwhelmed by rapid population growth. At the same time, the world economy has become more and more integrated In many ways, the industrialized nations are as much dependent on the developing nations as the developing nations are dependent on them This trend toward interdependency has been fostered by political alliances and worldwide communications. Few societies are isolated There is little doubt that one of the most important qualities of the twentieth century is the creation of a truly global community. This process is referred to as globalization.
This process has advanced in recent years by the apparent collapse of part of the communist world. Shortages of basic goods, poor workmanship, and ineffective systems created a poor standard of living in most socialist countries. These shortcomings were multiplied in the Soviet Union and its trading block by the need to dedicate so much of its industry to the military in order to compete with the West, especially the United States. To make matters worse, some communist countries were totalitarian and denied many freedoms and human rights to their citizens.
In the late 1980s these shortcomings led to the collapse of the communist system in the Soviet Union, Eastern Europe, and other places. Most of the socialist nations are attempting to convert to some form of capitalism and have taken steps toward democratic reform. Many are attempting to integrate into the liberal economic order of the West. They are seeking Western help and emphasizing cooperation with capitalistic societies. While it is impossible to know just what it will look like, it appears that a new world order is emerging.
While there are hopeful trends, the last decade of the twentieth century also has such overwhelming problems that many are fearful and uncertain. Poverty and starvation are widespread. Natural resources are being depleted. The quality of the environment is deteriorating. Many nations are seeing a decline in their quality of life. Doubt and uncertainty seem to dominate the world scene. 1
PERSPECTIVES OF THE MODERN ERA
Christianity had to deal with new intellectual trends in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Many of these trends originated in earlier periods and came into full force in the modern era. Christianity had to adjust to these trends as it had to other cultural changes ever since its founding. Some Christian movements attempted to adjust by practically surrendering to the changes. Others attempted to adopt new ideas while still maintaining the essentials of their faith. Still others rejected new concepts altogether.
Political liberalism was one such set of ideas that affected Christianity Liberals advocated individual rights, free speech, and democracy They were suspicious of the type of hierarchical authority upon which monarchies and many denominations had depended. 2 Eventually they would advocate the extension of the vote to all men and women To some extent, liberals saw contemporary troubles such as poverty, divorce, crime, and alcoholism as societal problems rather than as individual failures. As a result, they advocated government protection of the poor as well as government involvement in creating new
Pentecostalism is a movement that gets its name from the New Testament outpouring of the Spirit at Pentecost (Acts 2: 1-4). Pentecostals emphasize direct contact with the Spirit of God that results in receiving spiritual gifts. One of the most desired gifts is speaking in tongues, which is seen as a sure sign of the outpouring of the Spirit. Pentecostals also are characterized by a strict morality, an emphasis on missions and evangelism, and a belief in healing by faith alone
Pentecostalism developed out of the nineteenth-century Holiness movement, which was comprised of Christians who believed in the possibility of complete sanctification or sinless living. Holiness tendencies were found in many denominations, but were especially strong in Methodism because of Wesleys stress on sanctification
Direct outpourings of the Spirit were experienced within many nineteenth-century Holiness groups. In the early twentieth century, moderates within the movement moved away from the emotional, ecstatic experiences while retaining the Holiness emphasis. These formed into groups like the Church of the Nazarene. More radical believers continued to stress the direct experience of the Spirit and formed such Pentecostal groups as the Assemblies of God. The Holiness movement remained scattered in a number of relatively small denominations. However, the Pentecostals have been remarkably successful at rural and urban evangelism. Their missionaries have spread their version of the Gospel to other lands. They have been very successful in Latin and South America.
A different phase of Pentecostalism began in the 1960s with the emergence of the charismatic movement Charismatics seek the Pentecostal outpouring of the Spirit. However, most charismatics stayed within their own denominations and tried to renew their denominations through their spirit-filled worship At the same time, they often participated in ecumenical events with charismatics from other denominations. Almost all denominations, including Catholics, now have a charismatic element.
programs to deal with social problems created by industrial, capitalistic society. Protecting human rights became a major issue for many liberals.
Some saw these liberal concepts as a challenge to Christianity. If humans were evil, then they could not be trusted to make just decisions. Free speech could not be tolerated when new ideas opposed traditional Christian teachings Democracy challenged the understanding that God spoke only to those in the hierarchy It opened the possibility that there could be no absolute
truth, but many different opinions. In addition, determining matters of faith and morals by popular vote undermined the control of popes, bishops, and ministers.
The idea that deviance could be rooted in societal problems seemed to deny individual responsibility for personal sins. It also placed the remedy for these problems in the realm of secular programs rather than through personal spiritual redemption. The churches were challenged to regard sin as having corporate as well as personal dimensions, meaning that sin creates unholy societies as well as personal impurity. Finally, the church had to examine its relation to the rich and powerful. Traditionally, the church had sided with the powerful against the powerless, just as Luther had sided with the princes against the peasants' revolt in the sixteenth century. Some groups accepted the concepts of political liberalism while others rejected them.
Advances in modern science were even more troubling to some Christians. In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries atomic theory came to the front: the universe is composed of tiny atoms, each like a tiny solar system, with negatively charged electrons that orbit around a nucleus. Atomic theory seemed to open the possibility that all the secrets of the universe could be discovered. The work of Albert Einstein (1879—1955) proved even more challenging. Einstein provided the formula that opened the power of the atom and became the basis of the atomic bomb. He also developed his theory of relativity, which made time, space, and motion relative to each other and to the point of view of the observer. Thus, time and space were not absolutes as they had been thought to be. This theory of relativity contributed to the idea that morals and philosophical and theological concepts might be relative to the community that held them. Perhaps there were no absolutes in these areas, either.
Evolution presented an even greater threat to traditional Christian beliefs. Evolution simply means change. It indicates that all life goes through a gradual process of change. Evolutionary ideas had been around since the time of the ancient Greeks. However, the nineteenth-century rise of science caused a deepening desire to understand the origins of life based on empirical observation rather than religious myths. Recent geological discoveries had indicated that earth had existed for much longer than the six thousand years that the church had come to accept. 3 The discovery of dinosaur bones and other fossils buried in deep layers of ancient soil held out the possibility that life had changed gradually on the earth over long periods of time
By the mid-nineteenth century, many educated people were open to the idea of evolution. In 1859 Charles Darwin published On the Origin of Species in
which he presented an evolutionary theory. According to him the various species of plant and animal life evolved over aeons. Life began with simple forms and became more and more complex and diversified In part, this evolution was accomplished through natural selection, in which animals and plants that were most fit survived while those that were less well adapted to their environment did not continue On the Origin of Species rapidly became one of the most important books in history. It was important not just because Darwin was the first to present evolutionary ideas but because he had systematically gathered vast amounts of observational information to support his theory. In 1871 Darwin published The Descent of Man in which he showed that humans had evolved from earlier species like other forms of life.
While certain elements of Darwin's thought were challenged (and continue to be challenged) in the scientific community, his basic theory rapidly became the chief explanation of the origin of life. Few scientists today question whether evolution has occurred Before long, evolutionary ideas were being applied to all sorts of phenomenon. For instance, F-lerbert Spencer published his massive System of Synthetic Philosophy in which human social development was placed in an evolutionary framework. According to this framework, societies evolved from simple, primitive communities to complex, advanced societies. Moreover, within societies only the fittest survive. The most fit worked their way to the top while the less fit floundered at the bottom. This approach came to be known as "social Darwinism." In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, it was used as a "natural" justification for "advanced" Western societies dominating "primitive" colonial cultures and for the continued exploitation of the poor by the wealthy It also confirmed the belief that society was becoming progressively better—a belief that was widely accepted in the late 1800s.
Darwin refused to apply his ideas to religion. F-Iowever, that was not the case with Thomas F-luxley (1825-1895). Huxley was a distinguished British scientist who used evolutionary ideas to attack the claims of Christianity directly. His attacks were so devastating that he soon became known as "Darwin's bulldog." Though many scientific advances were challenging Christianity, evolution became the focus of the battle between science and religion More than anything else it moved the fight from the world of intellectuals to the world of ordinary people Although some scientific issues are almost too complex to understand, almost everyone could see the implications of evolution.
It directly challenges literal understandings of the biblical account of creation. Creation did not occur in seven days as Genesis says, but over aeons. There is no need for a Creator who wills life into being. Evolution operates by chance according to the natural laws of selection and the survival of the fittest. Finally, humans are not the peak of creation only slightly "lower than angels." They are just another random species that has survived for a brief time and
that may be destined to disappear as so many species had before Although many Christians tried to reshape their understanding of creation on the basis of the new ideas, others saw evolution as a direct threat to Christianity and rejected it. To them, the fight against evolution was nothing less than a battle for the Bible and their faith This fight has continued into the twentieth century.
The rise of social sciences also presented a challenge to religion. Sociology and psychology tended to look for explanations of human behavior in natural phenomena, not in supernatural battles between good and evil. Some social scientists believed that religion was nothing but superstition that had to be eliminated if humans were to progress and deal with their problems. Other social scientists recognized some positive sociological or psychological functions for religion, but had no special place for Christianity. It was but one of many religions that operated by the same observable dynamics as other faiths. In the twentieth century, the social sciences have become widely accepted as legitimate tools for understanding human behavior. Christianity has had to confront their perspective.
The study of history made giant strides in the nineteenth century Before then there had been some advances in critical history where efforts were made to separate fact from fiction. Much written history had been a mixture of truth and legend That changed when German scholars began emphasizing writing objective history. Leopold von Ranke (1795-1886) was one of the leaders of this movement. He insisted on applying scholarly rigor to the study of history. He believed that the recording of history should be based on extensive study of documents and other source materials. Events should be assessed within the context of the time in which they occurred. They should not be understood from the point of view of later times. As much as possible, subjective interpretations of historical events should be eliminated so the events could be seen as they really were.
The methods of the German scholars were somewhat revolutionary They quickly spread over the Continent and to the United States. Before long, they were applied to the Bible and Christian history. Objective study of source material quickly demonstrated that many cherished beliefs were based as much on legend and later interpretations as on what actually happened For better or worse, modern people came to expect written history to be based on objective facts. History was expected to "tell it like it really was." 4
Philosophy also was undergoing significant changes that would affect the modern mind. G. W. F. Hegel (1770—1831) disagreed with Kant (see Chapter 10) about the ability to know the reality behind observable phenomena.
He felt that there was an absolute spirit, or reason, that lies behind all occurrences. This spirit becomes known through a process of a thesis (a supposed truth) generating an antithesis (its opposite, which is also supposed to be true). The combination of thesis and antithesis formed a new synthesis that was a greater truth than either the original thesis or antithesis This synthesis then became a thesis that in turn created another antithesis and so on. As the process continued, greater insight was reached into the underlying reason Finally, all differences would be resolved and the absolute spirit would be apparent. 5
Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860) was another student of Kant who reached quite different conclusions than Hegel. He held that behind this world there is a great irrational "will." The world people know is an illusion. Nothing as we know it actually exists. The best people can do is to end their struggle, cease to be, and be absorbed back into the great will. Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900) was a student of Schopenhauer who eventually rejected much of his teaching He felt that the thing that dominated life was the will to power. Ideas of good, beauty, humility, and love were rejected as illusory. Nietzsche considered them a part of the slave mentality that dominated the Jews. Through Jews these ideas had infected Christianity and through it Western civilization The sooner the West rid itself of these concepts the better. His hero was the Ubermensch (superman), who ruthlessly pursued power. Nietzsche's teachings contributed greatly to the German mindset that led to World Wars 1 and IF They also implied that life is meaningless. Only might makes right. This thinking has added to the moral confusion of the twentieth century.
One other significant twentieth-century philosopher was Karl Marx (1818 — 1 883), who wrote against the problems of early capitalism. In so doing, he developed a systematic understanding of history based on Hegel's ideas about the process by which truth is discovered. Marx saw history as a constant battle between the wealthy and those they exploited. The conflicts between industrialists and their workers were the latest and final phase of that battle He felt history was moving toward a communistic state where the workers of the world would unite, overthrow the capitalists, and establish a classless society in which each person's needs would be met. There would be no private property in this paradise as well as no greed and no wants.
Marx saw religion as being connected with the human alienation that resulted from the workers not having control of production. Religion was both a cry against this alienation and a factor that helped to produce it. On the one hand, religion helped give people hope in spite of the terrible conditions in which most lived in capitalistic society. In this sense, it was the "opiate of the masses"—a narcotic that made the pain bearable
On the other hand, religion contributed to alienation God was nothing but a projection of human desires for good, equality, justice, and so on. Yet by projecting these desires into a supernatural realm, people were alienated
CHANGE AND CHALLENGE (1800 - PRESENT)
from themselves and often prevented from taking steps to make their lives better. For example, they waited for God to meet their needs in the hereafter but did not rebel against those who were exploiting them in this world Religion also was used by those in power to control the oppressed It emphasized obedience to authority and acceptance of one's lot in life For these reasons, Marx felt that the communistic paradise would have to be atheistic (denying the existence of God). Yet he did not advocate trying to destroy religion. Instead he felt that in communistic society alienation would be conquered Religion would disappear because it would no longer be needed. 6
THE CATHOLIC REACTION TO THE MODERN WORLD
The political liberalism, scientific theories, and philosophical perspectives discussed above were all part of the modern mindset that was developing in the nineteenth century. Some Catholic theologians attempted to accommodate these by adopting methods and viewpoints present in the culture. They were called Modernists. Much of their work was eventually rejected and they were condemned by the papacy. Most of the confirmed Modernists left the Catholic church while others chose to ignore papal dictates.
Most nineteenth- and twentieth-century popes held to a philosophy called ultramontanism, which maintains that Rome alone has the right to determine matters of doctrine, morals, and culture. This attitude directly conflicted with trends that arose during the Reformation and that advocated a lessening of church authority. Ultramontanist ideas had existed since the twelfth century, but they reached their height in the late 1800s.
The nineteenth century involved a long series of battles between the papacy and the secular states. The papacy eventually lost all of its civil authority. The battles reached their climax during the reign of Pius IX (1 846- 1 878) Pius fought both the efforts to unify Italy and the attacks of Bismarck on the rights of the church. In both cases he lost. His rule marked the end of the political power of the pope. In the long run, the pope was left to rule over only the Vatican City, a small papal state within Rome.
As his political power declined, Pius seemed determined to assert his spiritual authority. In 1854, he proclaimed the dogma of the Immaculate Conception of Mary. According to this doctrine, Mary was protected from all sin, even original sin, because she was chosen to be the mother of Jesus. It was the first time in history that a pope had taken it upon himself to proclaim a doctrine without first consulting a council
Another important step was taken in 1864 when Pius issued a Syllabus of Errors listing eighty propositions that Catholics must reject. These included modern tendencies such as rationalism, communism, liberalism, freedom of
worship, freedom of speech, national churches without papal authority, the recognition of religions other than Catholicism, democracy, marriage as a civil institution, and secular schools provided by the state. The document rejected the idea that the papacy could be reconciled to progress, liberalism, and modern civilization.
Ultramontanism peaked at the First Vatican Council. This council was the first ecumenical council since Trent. It was convened by Pius in 1870 and he tightly controlled it. While many issues were discussed, the most important was the doctrine of papal infallibility. The council overwhelmingly approved a limited form of this doctrine The pope is considered infallible only when speaking ex cathedra , which means the pope is infallible when he is speaking in his official capacity as the "pastor and teacher" of Christians in defining matters of faith and morals. In ordinary matters of faith, morals, or church administration, the pope is not considered infallible. The pope has spoken ex cathedra only once since Vatican I. In 1950, Pius XII proclaimed the dogma of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary, which holds that Mary was bodily taken to heaven at the end of her life
The popes after Pius IX held ultramontanist views but were forced to make concessions to modern culture One of the more positive of these was the bull Rerum novarum issued by Leo XIII (reigned 1878-1903). Rerum novarum dealt with problems resulting from the exploitation of laborers by capitalists. It recognized the injustice that allowed some to accumulate vast fortunes built upon the poverty of so many. It called for laws to protect workers and the formation of Catholic trade unions. On the other hand, Pius XI (1922-1939) and Pius XII (1939—1958) both sought to accommodate totalitarianism. Pius XI made treaties with Mussolini and Hitler only to be betrayed by both. Pius XII was condemned by many because he did not take a firm stand against the slaughter of millions of Jews and others during the Holocaust
A new phase in Catholicism's efforts to relate to the modern world was opened when Pope John XXIII (1958-1963) called the Second Vatican Council. Vatican II met from 1962 to 1965 and sought to build a bridge between the church and the modern world. The council issued decrees on a wide variety of administrative, moral, religious, and social issues. It dictated that the liturgy be said in the language of the people, not in Latin. It attempted to ensure greater participation of the laity in the life of the church. It supported freedom of conscience in religious matters. Protestants were recognized as fellow Christians, although they remained estranged from the church Efforts were made to address problems of the poor and powerless. However, the church did not change its basic doctrine or attempt to accommodate Protestant teachings. It left unchanged church teachings on such issues as the ordination of women and the use of birth control.
Since Vatican II, the Catholic church has tended to remain conservative on theological issues but has been more liberal on social issues. Tensions
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between Protestants and Catholics have lessened in many parts of the world Protestants and Catholics often have cooperated at least on local levels on different projects. Catholicism remains strong in Latin America. Interestingly, it is also powerful in some of the former communist countries of Eastern Europe. In fact, it was one of the forces that helped overthrow communism in Eastern nations
Many Catholics in the West do not feel that Vatican II went far enough, however. It failed to stop the flow of people who were leaving the church in industrialized societies. In these societies, the Catholic church now faces many problems, including declining membership, few new people entering the priesthood and orders, and the feeling of many that the church hierarchy is not in touch with their needs. In recent years, the hierarchy has taken steps to silence many critics, including a number of well-known theologians . 7
CONCLUSIONS
The modern era has produced many new challenges for Christianity. Political liberalism, individualism, subjectivism, and new scientific discoveries undermined many traditional beliefs. Urbanization, industrialization, and nationalism created a world in which the Catholic church was increasingly ill at ease.
During the nineteenth century, the Catholic church became even stronger in its negative reaction to modernism. The church continued its ultramontanist pronouncements in the twentieth century but gradually made accommodations to existing political and social conditions. The Second Vatican Council was convened to update the church. Significant changes were made, but many Catholics in industrial societies still feel the church has little understanding of their needs. Participation in the church has continued to decline.
The following chapter looks at major developments in Protestantism and the Orthodox church as they try to operate in the contemporary world.