Notes

PREFACE

1     Alan Greenspan, The Age of Turbulence: Adventures in a New World (New York: Penguin Press, 2007), p. 95.

EPIGRAPH

Fernand Braudel, A History of Civilizations, translated by Richard Mayne (New York: The Penguin Press, 1994), p. 17.

Chapter 1: DISPARITIES AND PREREQUISITES

1     A sharp reduction in the probability of success, when there are multiple factors required in a given endeavor, even when the prerequisites are few and common, is just one of the things making equality of outcomes less likely. Other factors may be influences without being prerequisites, and yet the increased multiplicity of factors—both prerequisites and other influences—increases the number of possible combinations and permutations affecting outcomes, thereby reducing the likelihood of equality of successful outcomes. A concrete example of an influence that is not a prerequisite is that being left-handed is an advantage for a baseball player who is playing first base. Even though there have been a number of right-handed first basemen who have been excellent fielders, nevertheless left-handers have tended to be over-represented among first basemen.

2     The chances of having one, two, three, four or five of the prerequisites may be normally distributed, as in a bell curve, but the outcomes will not be. If the distribution of outcomes is plotted on a graph, with the number of prerequisites measured on the horizontal axis and successful outcomes measured on the vertical axis, all those people with one, two, three and four of the prerequisites will have zero successes, represented by a line that coincides with the horizontal axis. At five prerequisites, this line will rise at right angles to the horizontal axis, representing various degrees of success. This is clearly nothing like a bell curve.

3     World Illiteracy At Mid-Century: A Statistical Study (Paris: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 1957), p. 15.

4     As of 1940, just under half of the women in the Terman group were employed full time. Lewis M. Terman, et al., The Gifted Child Grows Up: Twenty-Five Years’ Follow-Up of a Superior Group (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1947), p. 177.

5     Malcolm Gladwell, Outliers: The Story of Success (New York: Little, Brown and Company, 2008), p. 111.

6     Ibid., pp. 89–90. See also Joel N. Shurkin, Terman’s Kids: The Groundbreaking Study of How the Gifted Grow Up (Boston: Little, Brown & Company, 1992), p. 35; Wolfgang Saxon “William B. Shockley, 79, Creator of Transistor and Theory on Race,” New York Times, August 14, 1989, p. D9; J.Y. Smith; “Luis Alvarez, Nobel-Winning Atomic Physicist, Dies,” Washington Post, September 3, 1988, p. B6.

7     Malcolm Gladwell, Outliers, pp. 111–112.

8     Ibid., p. 112.

9     Distinguished economist Richard Rosett was another example. See Thomas Sowell, The Einstein Syndrome: Bright Children Who Talk Late (New York: Basic Books, 2001), pp. 47–48. The best-selling author of Hillbilly Elegy was another. See J.D. Vance, Hillbilly Elegy: A Memoir of a Family and Culture in Crisis (New York: HarperCollins, 2016) pp. 2, 129–130, 205, 239.

10   Charles Murray, Human Accomplishment: The Pursuit of Excellence in the Arts and Sciences, 800 B.C. to 1950 (New York: HarperCollins, 2003), pp. 98–99.

11   Ibid., p. 99.

12   James Corrigan, “Woods in the Mood to End His Major Drought,” The Daily Telegraph (London), August 5, 2013, pp. 16–17.

13   Charles Murray, Human Accomplishment, p. 102.

14   Ibid., pp. 355–361.

15   John K. Fairbank and Edwin O. Reischauer, China: Tradition & Transformation (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1978), p. 17.

16   William D. Altus, “Birth Order and Its Sequelae,” Science, Vol. 151 (January 7, 1966), p. 45.

17   Ibid.

18   Julia M. Rohrer, Boris Egloff, and Stefan C. Schmukle, “Examining the Effects of Birth Order on Personality,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, Vol. 112, No. 46 (November 17, 2015), p. 14225. These differences in median IQs are not necessarily large. However, even modest differences in median IQs can translate into large disparities in the representation of different groups at IQs of 120 and above—which are the kinds of IQs found among people in elite occupations that attract major attention. Most observers are far less interested in what kinds of people qualify to work behind the counter of fast-food restaurants than they are in what kinds of people are qualified to work in chemistry labs or as engineers or physicians.

19   Lillian Belmont and Francis A. Marolla, “Birth Order, Family Size, and Intelligence,” Science, Vol. 182, No. 4117 (December 14, 1973), p. 1098.

20   Sandra E. Black, Paul J. Devereux and Kjell G. Salvanes, “Older and Wiser? Birth Order and IQ of Young Men,” CESifo Economic Studies, Vol. 57, 1/2011, pp. 103–120.

21   Lillian Belmont and Francis A. Marolla, “Birth Order, Family Size, and Intelligence,” Science, Vol. 182, No. 4117 (December 14, 1973), pp. 1096–1097; Sandra E. Black, Paul J. Devereux and Kjell G. Salvanes, “Older and Wiser? Birth Order and IQ of Young Men,” CESifo Economic Studies, Vol. 57, 1/2011, p. 109.

22   Sidney Cobb and John R.P. French, Jr., “Birth Order Among Medical Students,” Journal of the American Medical Association, Vol. 195, No. 4 (January 24, 1966), pp. 172–173.

23   William A. Layman and Andrew Saueracker, “Birth Order and Sibship Size of Medical School Applicants,” Social Psychiatry, Vol. 13 (1978), pp. 117–123.

24   William D. Altus, “Birth Order and Its Sequelae,” Science, Vol. 151 (January 7, 1966), pp. 44–49. See also Robert S. Albert, “The Achievement of Eminence: A Longitudinal Study of Exceptionally Gifted Boys and Their Families,” Beyond Terman: Contemporary Longitudinal Studies of Giftedness and Talent, edited by Rena F. Subotnik and Karen D. Arnold (Norwood, New Jersey: Ablex Publishing Corporation, 1994), p. 293.

25   Alison L. Booth and Hiau Joo Kee, “Birth Order Matters: The Effect of Family Size and Birth Order on Educational Attainment,” Journal of Population Economics, Vol. 22, No. 2 (April 2009), p. 377.

26   Robert J. Gary-Bobo, Ana Prieto and Natalie Picard, “Birth Order and Sibship Sex Composition as Instruments in the Study of Education and Earnings,” Discussion Paper No. 5514 (February 2006), Centre for Economic Policy Research, London, p. 22.

27   Jere R. Behrman and Paul Taubman, “Birth Order, Schooling, and Earnings,” Journal of Labor Economics, Vol. 4, No. 3, Part 2: The Family and the Distribution of Economic Rewards (July 1986), p. S136.

28   Philip S. Very and Richard W. Prull, “Birth Order, Personality Development, and the Choice of Law as a Profession,” Journal of Genetic Psychology, Vol. 116, No. 2 (June 1, 1970), pp. 219–221.

29   Richard L. Zweigenhaft, “Birth Order, Approval-Seeking and Membership in Congress,” Journal of Individual Psychology, Vol. 31, No. 2 (November 1975), p. 208.

30   Astronauts and Cosmonauts: Biographical and Statistical Data, Revised August 31, 1993, Report Prepared by the Congressional Research Service, Library of Congress, Transmitted to the Committee on Science, Space, and Technology, U.S. House of Representatives, One Hundred Third Congress, Second Session, March 1994 (Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1994), p. 19.

31   Daniel S.P. Schubert, Mazie E. Wagner, and Herman J.P. Schubert, “Family Constellation and Creativity: Firstborn Predominance Among Classical Music Composers,” The Journal of Psychology, Vol. 95, No. 1 (1977), pp. 147–149.

32   Arthur R. Jensen, Genetics and Education (New York: Harper & Row, 1972), p. 143.

33   R.G. Record, Thomas McKeown and J.H. Edwards, “An Investigation of the Difference in Measured Intelligence between Twins and Single Births,” Annals of Human Genetics, Vol. 34, Issue 1 (July 1970), pp. 18, 19, 20.

34   “By age 3, the average child of a professional heard about 500,000 encouragements and 80,000 discouragements. For the welfare children, the situation was reversed: they heard, on average, about 75,000 encouragements and 200,000 discouragements.” Paul Tough, “What it Takes to Make a Student,” New York Times Magazine, November 26, 2006, p. 48. See also Betty Hart and Todd R. Risley, Meaningful Differences in the Everyday Experience of Young American Children (Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co., 1995), p. 253. See also Edward C. Banfield, The Unheavenly City: The Nature and Future of Our Urban Crisis (Boston: Little, Brown, 1970), pp. 224–229.

35   “Choose Your Parents Wisely,” The Economist, July 26, 2014, p. 22.

36   See, for example, Kay S. Hymowitz, Marriage and Caste in America: Separate and Unequal Families in a Post-Marital Age (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 2006), pp. 78–82; Betty Hart and Todd R. Risley, Meaningful Differences in the Everyday Experience of Young American Children, p. 253; Edward C. Banfield, The Unheavenly City, pp. 224–229. It is painful to contemplate the prospects of a child born to a single mother on welfare who has failed to finish high school. Lacking the interactions of a father is not without consequences. “We find that after accounting for parental education, skills, and income, both a father’s and a mother’s time investment in the first five years of a child’s life have a large effect on the child’s completed education.” George-Levi Gayle, Limor Golan, and Mrhmet A. Soytas, “Intergenerational Mobility and the Effects of Parental Education, Time Investment, and Income on Children’s Educational Attainment,” Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Review, Volume 100, No. 3 (Third Quarter 2018), p. 292.

37   For examples and a fuller discussion of social mobility see Thomas Sowell, Wealth, Poverty and Politics, revised and enlarged edition (New York: Basic Books, 2016), pp. 178–183, 360–375, 382–390.

38   Henry Thomas Buckle, On Scotland and the Scotch Intellect (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970), p. 52.

39   Irokawa Daikichi, The Culture of the Meiji Period, translated and edited by Marius B. Jansen (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985), p. 7.

40   Joel Mokyr, A Culture of Growth: The Origins of the Modern Economy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2017), p. 256.

41   Steven Beller, “Big-City Jews: Jewish Big City—the Dialectics of Jewish Assimilation in Vienna, c. 1900,” The City in Central Europe: Culture and Society from 1800 to the Present, edited by Malcolm Gee, Tim Kirk and Jill Steward (Brookfield, Vermont: Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 1999), p. 150.

42   Charles Murray, Human Accomplishment, pp. 280, 282.

43   Charles O. Hucker, China’s Imperial Past: An Introduction to Chinese History and Culture (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1975), p. 65; Jacques Gernet, A History of Chinese Civilization, second edition, translated by J.R. Foster and Charles Hartman (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996), p. 69.

44   David S. Landes, The Wealth and Poverty of Nations: Why Some Are So Rich and Some So Poor (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1998), pp. 93–95; William H. McNeill, The Rise of the West: A History of the Human Community (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991), p. 526.

45   David S. Landes, The Wealth and Poverty of Nations, pp. 94–95.

46   See, for examples, Thomas Sowell, Wealth, Poverty and Politics, revised and enlarged edition, especially Part I; Ellen Churchill Semple, Influences of Geographic Environment (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1911), pp. 144, 175, 397, 530, 531, 599, 600. By contrast, she refers to “the cosmopolitan civilization characteristic of coastal regions.” Ibid., p. 347.

47   Andrew Tanzer, “The Bamboo Network,” Forbes, July 18, 1994, pp. 138–144; “China: Seeds of Subversion,” The Economist, May 28, 1994, p. 32.

48   Richard Rhodes, The Making of the Atomic Bomb (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1986), pp. 13, 106, 188–189, 305–314; Silvan S. Schweber, Einstein and Oppenheimer: The Meaning of Genius (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2008), p. 138; Michio Kaku, Einstein’s Cosmos: How Albert Einstein’s Vision Transformed Our Understanding of Space and Time (New York: W.W. Norton, 2004), pp. 187–188; Howard M. Sachar, A History of the Jews in America (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1992), p. 527; American Jewish Historical Society, American Jewish Desk Reference (New York: Random House, 1999), p. 591.

49   Quoted in Bernard Lewis, The Muslim Discovery of Europe (New York: W.W. Norton, 1982), p. 139.

50   Giovanni Gavetti, Rebecca Henderson and Simona Giorgi, “Kodak and the Digital Revolution (A),” 9–705–448, Harvard Business School, November 2, 2005, pp. 3, 11.

51   “The Last Kodak Moment?” The Economist, January 14, 2012, pp. 63–64.

52   Mike Spector and Dana Mattioli, “Can Bankruptcy Filing Save Kodak?” Wall Street Journal, January 20, 2012, p. B1.

53   Henry C. Lucas, Jr., Inside the Future: Surviving the Technology Revolution (Westport, Connecticut: Praeger, 2008), p. 157.

54   Giovanni Gavetti, Rebecca Henderson and Simona Giorgi, “Kodak and the Digital Revolution (A),” 9–705–448, Harvard Business School, November 2, 2005, p. 4.

55   Ibid., p. 12.

56   More than half a century before the collapse of Eastman Kodak, economist J.A. Schumpeter pointed out that the most powerful economic competition is not that between producers of the same product, as so often assumed, but the competition between old and new technologies and methods of organization. In the case of Eastman Kodak, it was not the competition of Fuji film, but the competition of digital cameras, that was decisive. For Schumpeter, it was not the competition of firms producing the same products, as in economics textbooks, that was decisive. In Schumpeter’s words, “it is not that kind of competition which counts but the competition from the new commodity, the new technology, the new source of supply, the new type of organization (the largest-scale unit of control, for instance)—competition which commands a decisive cost or quality advantage and which strikes not at the margins of the profits and the outputs of the existing firms but at their foundations and their very lives.” Joseph A. Schumpeter, Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy, third edition (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1950), p. 84. Among other examples were the A&P chain of grocery stores that was for years the largest chain of retail stores of any kind, anywhere in the world. Eventually new competitors “competed against A&P not by doing better what A&P was the best company in the world at doing,” but by organizing their businesses in very different ways that all but obliterated A&P. Richard S. Tedlow, New and Improved: The Story of Mass Marketing in America (New York: Basic Books, 1990), p. 246.

57   Darrell Hess, McKnight’s Physical Geography: A Landscape Appreciation, eleventh edition (Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc., 2014), p. 200.

58   Africa: Atlas of Our Changing Environment (Nairobi, Kenya: United Nations Environment Programme, 2008), p. 29; Rachel I. Albrecht, Steven J. Goodman, Dennis E. Buechler, Richard J. Blakeslee and Hugh J. Christian, “Where Are the Lightning Hotspots on Earth?” Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, November 2016, p. 2055; The New Encyclopædia Britannica (Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 2005), Volume 3, p. 583.

59   Darrell Hess, McKnight’s Physical Geography, eleventh edition, p. 198.

60   Alan H. Strahler, Introducing Physical Geography, sixth edition (Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley, 2013), pp. 402–403.

61   Bradley C. Bennett, “Plants and People of the Amazonian Rainforests,” BioScience, Vol. 42, No. 8 (September 1992), p. 599.

62   Ronald Fraser, “The Amazon,” Great Rivers of the World, edited by Alexander Frater (Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1984), p. 111.

63   Karen Kaplan, “Man, Chimp Separated by a Dab of DNA,” Los Angeles Times, September 1, 2005, p. A12; Rick Weiss, “Scientists Complete Genetic Map of the Chimpanzee,” Washington Post, September 1, 2005, p. A3; “A Creeping Success,” The Economist, June 5, 1999, pp. 77–78.

64   David S. Landes, The Wealth and Poverty of Nations, p. 6.

65   A.H.M. Jones, The Later Roman Empire 284–602: A Social and Administrative Survey (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1964), Volume 2, pp. 841–842.

66   Ellen Churchill Semple, The Geography of the Mediterranean Region: Its Relation to Ancient History (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1931), p. 5.

67   Jack Chen, The Chinese of America (San Francisco: Harper & Row Publishers, 1980), pp. 65–66.

68   See, for example, Ellen Churchill Semple, Influences of Geographic Environment, pp. 20, 280, 281–282, 347, 521–531, 599, 600; Fernand Braudel, The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II, translated by Siân Reynolds (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), Vol. I, pp. 34, 35; Thomas Sowell, Wealth, Poverty and Politics, revised and enlarged edition, pp. 45–54.

69   James S. Gardner, et al., “People in the Mountains,” Mountain Geography: Physical and Human Dimensions, edited by Martin F. Price, et al (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2013), pp. 288–289; J.R. McNeill, The Mountains of the Mediterranean World: An Environmental History (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992), pp. 223, 225–227; Ellen Churchill Semple, Influences of Geographic Environment, pp. 578–579.

70   See, for example, Frederick R. Troeh and Louis M. Thompson, Soils and Soil Fertility, sixth edition (Ames, Iowa: Blackwell, 2005), p. 330; Xiaobing Liu, et al., “Overview of Mollisols in the World: Distribution, Land Use and Management,” Canadian Journal of Soil Science, Vol. 92 (2012), pp. 383–402; Darrel Hess, McKnight’s Physical Geography, eleventh edition, pp. 362–363.

71   Andrew D. Mellinger, Jeffrey D. Sachs, and John L. Gallup, “Climate, Coastal Proximity, and Development,” The Oxford Handbook of Economic Geography, edited by Gordon L. Clark, Maryann P. Feldman and Meric S. Gertler (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), p. 169. Nearly a century earlier, a geographic treatise declared that, as a general rule, “the coasts of a country are the first part of it to develop.” Ellen Churchill Semple, Influences of Geographic Environment, p. 280.

72   See, for documented examples, Thomas Sowell, Wealth, Poverty and Politics, revised and enlarged edition, Section I. See also Ellen Churchill Semple, Influences of Geographic Environment, especially chapters on coastal peoples (VIII), island peoples (XIII), peoples in river valleys (XI) and peoples in hills and mountains around the world (XV and XVI).

73   James S. Gardner, et al., “People in the Mountains,” Mountain Geography, edited by Martin F. Price, et al., p. 268.

74   The world population in 2014 was 7.2 billion people. The population of the United States that year was 323 million people, while the population of Italy was 61 million people. The Economist, Pocket World in Figures: 2017 edition (London: Profile Books, 2016), pp. 14, 240.

75   Edward C. Banfield, The Moral Basis of a Backward Society (New York: The Free Press, 1958), pp. 35, 46–47.

76   Fernand Braudel, A History of Civilizations, translated by Richard Mayne (New York: The Penguin Press, 1994), p. 17.

77   Donald L. Horowitz, Ethnic Groups in Conflict (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985), p. 677.

78   Myron Weiner, “The Pursuit of Ethnic Equality Through Preferential Policies: A Comparative Public Policy Perspective,” From Independence to Statehood, edited by Robert B. Goldmann and A. Jeyaratnam Wilson (London: Frances Pinter, 1984), p. 64.

79   Cynthia H. Enloe, Police, Military and Ethnicity: Foundations of State Power (New Brunswick: Transaction Books, 1980), p. 143.

80   Angelo M. Codevilla, The Character of Nations: How Politics Makes and Breaks Prosperity, Family, and Civility (New York: Basic Books, 1997), p. 50.

81   Charles Murray, Human Accomplishment, p. 298.

82   Ibid., pp. 304, 305.

83   U.S. Bureau of the Census data show the median household income of people aged 45 to 54 to be double that of the median household income of people less than 25 years old. But white household income is less than double that of black household income. Kayla Fontenot, Jessica Semega and Melissa Kollar, “Income and Poverty in the United States: 2017,” Current Population Reports, P60–263 (Washington: U.S. Census Bureau, 2018), Table 1, p. 2. So are median weekly earnings of full-time workers. “Usual Weekly Earnings of Wage and Salary Workers First Quarter 2017,” U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, April 18, 2017, Table 3.

84   See U.S. Census Bureau, S0201, Selected Population Profile in the United States, 2016 American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates, downloaded from the Census website on July 9, 2018: https://factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=ACS_16_1YR_S0201&prodType=table.

85   For documented specifics, see Thomas Sowell, Intellectuals and Race (New York: Basic Books, 2013), Chapter 3.

86   Thomas C. Leonard, “Eugenics and Economics in the Progressive Era,” Journal of Economic Perspectives, Vol. 19, No. 4 (Fall 2005), p. 216.

87   Sidney Webb, “Eugenics and the Poor Law: The Minority Report,” Eugenics Review, Vol. II (April 1910-January 1911), p. 240; Thomas C. Leonard, “Eugenics and Economics in the Progressive Era,” Journal of Economic Perspectives, Vol. 19, No. 4 (Fall 2005), p. 216; Richard Overy, The Twilight Years: The Paradox of Britain Between the Wars (New York: Viking, 2009), pp. 93, 105, 106, 107, 124–127; Donald MacKenzie, “Eugenics in Britain,” Social Studies of Science, Vol. 6, No. 3–4 (September 1975), p. 518; Jakob Tanner, “Eugenics Before 1945,” Journal of Modern European History, Vol. 10, No. 4 (2012), p. 465.

88   For documented specifics, see Thomas Sowell, Intellectuals and Race, pp. 29–35.

89   Leon J. Kamin, The Science and Politics of I.Q. (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1974), p. 6.

90   Carl C. Brigham, A Study of American Intelligence (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1923), p. 190.

91   The World Almanac and Book of Facts: 2013 (New York: World Almanac Books, 2013), p. 335.

92   E.A. Pearce and C.G. Smith, The Times Books World Weather Guide (New York: Times Books, 1984), pp. 279, 380, 413.

93   Ibid., pp. 132, 376. In none of the winter months—from December through March—is the average daily low temperature in Washington warmer than in London, and the lowest temperature ever recorded in Washington is lower for each of those winter months than in London.

94   For documented specifics, see Thomas Sowell, Wealth, Poverty and Politics, revised and enlarged edition, pp. 62–64.

95   Steven Pinker, The Better Angels of Our Nature: Why Violence Has Declined (New York: Viking, 2011), pp. 85–87.

96   “Solving Murder,” The Economist, April 7, 2018, p. 9.

Chapter 2: DISCRIMINATION: MEANINGS AND COSTS

1     Harry J. Holzer, Steven Raphael, and Michael A. Stoll, “Perceived Criminality, Criminal Background Checks, and the Racial Hiring Practices of Employers,” Journal of Law and Economics, Vol. 49, No. 2 (October 2006), pp. 452, 473. See also Gail L. Heriot, “Statement of Commissioner Gail Heriot in the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights’ Report, “Assessing the Impact of Criminal Background Checks and the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission Conviction Records Policy,” Legal Studies Research Paper Series, Research Paper No. 17–251 (San Diego: University of San Diego Law School, 2013); Jennifer L. Doleac and Benjamin Hansen, “The Unintended Consequences of ‘Ban the Box’: Statistical Discrimination and Employment Outcomes When Criminal Histories Are Hidden,” Social Science Research Network, last revised August 22, 2018.

2     See, for example, Zy Weinberg, “No Place to Shop: Food Access Lacking in the Inner City,” Race, Poverty & the Environment, Vol. 7, No. 2 (Winter 2000), pp. 22–24; Michael E. Porter, “The Competitive Advantage of the Inner City,” Harvard Business Review, May-June 1995, pp. 63–64; James M. MacDonald and Paul E. Nelson, Jr., “Do the Poor Still Pay More? Food Price Variations in Large Metropolitan Areas,” Journal of Urban Economics, Vol. 30 (1991), pp. 349, 350, 357; Donald R. Marion, “Toward Revitalizing Inner-City Food Retailing,” National Food Review, Summer 1982, pp. 22, 23, 24.

3     David Caplovitz, The Poor Pay More: Consumer Practices of Low-Income Families (New York: The Free Press, 1967), p. xvi.

4     See, for example, “Democrats Score A.&P. Over Prices,” New York Times, July 18, 1963, p. 11; Elizabeth Shelton, “Prices Are Never Right,” Washington Post, December 4, 1964, p. C3; “Gouging the Poor,” New York Times, August 13, 1966, p. 41; “Overpricing of Food in Slums Is Alleged at House Hearing,” New York Times, October 13, 1967, p. 20; “Ghetto Cheats Blamed for Urban Riots,” Chicago Tribune, February 18, 1968, p. 8; “Business Leaders Urge Actions to Help Poor,” Los Angeles Times, April 11, 1968, p. C13; Frederick D. Sturdivant and Walter T. Wilhelm, “Poverty, Minorities, and Consumer Exploitation,” Social Science Quarterly, Vol. 49, No. 3 (December 1968), p. 650.

5     Donald R. Marion, “Toward Revitalizing Inner-City Food Retailing,” National Food Review, Summer 1982, pp. 23–24. “Sales in urban stores are 13 percent lower by volume, and operating costs are 9 percent higher. Profits, before taxes, are less than half of the suburban stores. Labor costs are higher, shrinkage costs are greater, sales per customer are lower, insurance and repair costs are higher, and losses due to crime are more than doubled in the inner-city stores.” Hearings Before the Subcommittee on Agricultural Production, Marketing, and Stabilization of Prices of the Committee on Agriculture and Forestry, United States Senate, Ninety-Fourth Congress, Second Session, June 23 and 25, 1976 (Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1976), p. 57. See also pp. 116, 124–125.

6     Dorothy Height, “A Woman’s Word,” New York Amsterdam News, July 24, 1965, p. 34.

7     Ray Cooklis, “Lowering the High Cost of Being Poor,” Cincinnati Enquirer, May 28, 2009, p. A7.

8     Jonathan Gill, Harlem: The Four Hundred Year History from Dutch Village to Capital of Black America (New York: Grove Press, 2011), p. 119.

9     See U.S. Census Bureau, S0201, Selected Population Profile in the United States, 2016 American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates, downloaded from the Census website on July 9, 2018: https://factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=ACS_16_1YR_S0201&prodType=table.

10   “Choose Your Parents Wisely,” The Economist, July 26, 2014, p. 22. “We find that after accounting for parental education, skills, and income, both a father’s and a mother’ time investment in the first five years of a child’s life have a large effect on the child’s completed education.” George-Levi Gayle, Limor Golan, and Mehmet A. Soytas, “Intergenerational Mobility and the Effects of Parental Education, Time Investment and Income on Children’s Educational Attainment,” Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Review, Volume 100, No. 3 (Third Quarter 2018), pp. 291–292.

11   The Chronicle of Higher Education: Almanac 2017–2018, August 18, 2017, p. 46.

12   Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, Selected Correspondence 1846–1895, translated by Dona Torr (New York: International Publishers, 1942), p. 476.

13   Adam Smith, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (New York: Modern Library, 1937), p. 423.

14   Adam Smith denounced “the mean rapacity, the monopolizing spirit of merchants and manufacturers” and “the clamour and sophistry of merchants and manufacturers,” whom he characterized as people who “seldom meet together, even for merriment and diversion, but the conversation ends in a conspiracy against the public.” As for policies recommended by such people, Smith said: “The proposal of any new law or regulation of commerce which comes from this order, ought always to be listened to with great precaution, and ought never to be adopted till after having been long and carefully examined, not only with the most scrupulous, but with the most suspicious attention. It comes from an order of men, whose interest is never exactly the same with that of the public, who have generally an interest to deceive and even to oppress the public, and who accordingly have, upon many occasions, both deceived and oppressed it.” Adam Smith, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, pp. 128, 250, 460. Karl Marx wrote, in the preface to the first volume of Capital: “I paint the capitalist and the landlord in no sense couleur de rose. But here individuals are dealt with only in so far as they are the personifications of economic categories, embodiments of particular class-relations and class-interests. My stand-point, from which the evolution of the economic formation of society is viewed as a process of natural history, can less than any other make the individual responsible for relations whose creature he socially remains, however much he may subjectively raise himself above them.” In Chapter X, Marx made dire predictions about the fate of workers, but not as a result of subjective moral deficiencies of the capitalist, for Marx said: “As capitalist, he is only capital personified” and “all this does not, indeed, depend on the good or ill will of the individual capitalist.” Karl Marx, Capital: A Critique of Political Economy (Chicago: Charles H. Kerr & Company, 1909), Vol. I, pp. 15, 257, 297.

15   William Julius Wilson, The Declining Significance of Race: Blacks and Changing American Institutions, third edition (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2012), pp. 52–53, 54–55, 59.

16   Robert Higgs, Competition and Coercion: Blacks in the American Economy 1865–1914 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1977), pp. 47–49, 130–131.

17   In many cases, they did not have to literally go anywhere because, in an era where many blacks in the rural South had no access to either public or private transportation, white landlords or employers either went, or sent an emissary, to where black workers were congregated, and announced what work was available and on what terms. Even in some urban settings today, similar recruitment patterns occur in the hiring of casual day laborers.

18   Robert Higgs, Competition and Coercion, pp. 102, 144–146.

19   Ibid., p. 117.

20   Walter E. Williams, South Africa’s War Against Capitalism (New York: Praeger, 1989), pp. 101, 102, 103, 104, 105. See also Brian Lapping, Apartheid: A History (New York : G. Braziller, 1987), p. 164; Merle Lipton, Capitalism and Apartheid: South Africa, 1910–1984 (Aldershot, Hants, England: Gower, 1985), pp. 152, 153.

21   The book that resulted from this research was Walter E. Williams, South Africa’s War Against Capitalism.

22   Ibid., pp. 112, 113.

23   See, for example, Thomas Sowell, Applied Economics: Thinking Beyond Stage One, revised and enlarged edition (New York: Basic Books, 2009), Chapter 7; Thomas Sowell, Economic Facts and Fallacies (New York: Basic Books, 2008), pp. 73–75, 123, 170–172.

24   Jennifer Roback, “The Political Economy of Segregation: The Case of Segregated Streetcars,” Journal of Economic History, Vol. 46, No. 4 (December 1986), pp. 893–917.

25   Ibid., pp. 894, 899–901, 903, 904, 912, 916.

26   Kermit L. Hall and John J. Patrick, The Pursuit of Justice: Supreme Court Decisions that Shaped America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006), pp. 59–64; Michael J. Klarman, From Jim Crow to Civil Rights: The Supreme Court and the Struggle for Racial Equality (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), p. 8.

27   Bernard E. Anderson, Negro Employment in Public Utilities: A Study of Racial Policies in the Electric Power, Gas, and Telephone Industries (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1970), pp. 73, 80.

28   Ibid., pp. 93–95.

29   Venus Green, Race on the Line: Gender, Labor, and Technology in the Bell System, 1880–1980 (Durham: Duke University Press, 2001), p. 210.

30   Bernard E. Anderson, Negro Employment in Public Utilities, pp. 84–87, 150, 152.

31   Ibid., pp. 150, 152. During the 1950s, the percentage of male employees in the telecommunications industry who were black actually fell in such Southern states as Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas and Virginia. Ibid., pp. 84–87.

32   Ibid., pp. 114, 139.

33   Michael R. Winston, “Through the Back Door: Academic Racism and the Negro Scholar in Historical Perspective,” Daedalus, Vol. 100, No. 3 (Summer 1971), pp. 695, 705.

34   Milton & Rose D. Friedman, Two Lucky People: Memoirs (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998), pp. 91–92, 94–95, 105–106, 153–154.

35   Greg Robinson, “Davis, Allison,” Encyclopedia of African-American Culture and History, edited by Colin A. Palmer (Detroit: Thomson-Gale, 2006), Volume C–F, p. 583; “The Talented Black Scholars Whom No White University Would Hire,” Journal of Blacks in Higher Education, No. 58 (Winter 2007/2008), p. 81.

36   George J. Stigler, “The Economics of Minimum Wage Legislation,” American Economic Review, Vol. 36, No. 3 (June 1946), p. 358.

37   Walter E. Williams, Race & Economics: How Much Can Be Blamed on Discrimination (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 2011), pp. 42–43.

38   Ibid.; Edward C. Banfield, The Unheavenly City: The Nature and Future of Our Urban Crisis (Boston: Little, Brown, 1970), p. 98.

39   Charles Murray, Losing Ground: American Social Policy, 1950–1980 (New York: Basic Books, 1984), p. 77; Walter E. Williams, Race & Economics, p. 44.

40   Chas Alamo and Brian Uhler, California’s Housing Costs: Causes and Consequences (Sacramento: Legislative Analyst’s Office, 2015), pp. 9, 11–12, 14.

41   Sandra Fleishman, “High Prices? Cheaper Here Than Elsewhere,” Washington Post, January 8, 2005, p. F1; Jason B. Johnson, “Making Ends Meet: Struggling in Middle Class,” San Francisco Chronicle, October 16, 2005, p. A11.

42   Stephen Coyle, “Palo Alto: A Far Cry from Euclid,” Land Use and Housing on the San Francisco Peninsula, edited by Thomas M. Hagler (Stanford: Stanford Environmental Law Society, 1983), pp. 85, 89.

43   Leslie Fulbright, “S.F. Moves to Stem African American Exodus,” San Francisco Chronicle, April 9, 2007, p. A1.

44   Bureau of the Census, 1990 Census of Population: General Population Characteristics California, 1990 CP–1–6, Section 1 of 3, pp. 27, 28, 31; U.S. Census Bureau, Profiles of General Demographic Characteristics 2000: 2000 Census of Population and Housing, California, Table DP–1, pp. 2, 20, 42.

45   Gilbert Osofsky, Harlem: The Making of a Ghetto, Negro New York 1890–1930 (New York: Harper & Row, 1966), pp. 106–110; Jonathan Gill, Harlem, pp. 180–184.

46   Gilbert Osofsky, Harlem, p. 110.

Chapter 3: SORTING AND UNSORTING PEOPLE

1     Joses C. Moya, Cousins and Strangers: Spanish Immigrants in Buenos Aires, 1850–1930 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998), pp. 119, 145–146. Similarly, most of the Italian immigrants to Australia, between 1881 and 1899, came from places containing only 10 percent of the population of Italy. Helen Ware, A Profile of the Italian Community in Australia (Melbourne: Australian Institute of Multicultural Affairs and Co.As.It Italian Assistance Association, 1981), p. 12.

2     Australia’s eminent historian of immigration, Professor Charles A. Price, pointed out long ago that “immigrants rarely come in equal proportions from all parts of the country of origin, but rather in bunches from a few districts here and there. One of the main reasons for this is chain migration, the process whereby one member of a family, village, or township successfully establishes himself abroad and then writes to one or two friends and relatives at home encouraging them to come and join him, frequently helping with housing, jobs, and passage expenses. The few who join him then write home in their turn, so setting off a ‘chain’ system of migration that may send hundreds of persons from one small district of origin to one relatively confined area in the country of settlement.” Charles A. Price, Jewish Settlers in Australia (Canberra: The Australian National University, 1964), p. 21.

3     Jonathan Gill, Harlem: The Four Hundred Year History from Dutch Village to Capital of Black America (New York: Grove Press, 2011), p. 140; Charles A. Price, Southern Europeans in Australia (Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1963), p. 162; Philip Taylor, The Distant Magnet: European Emigration to the USA (New York: Harper & Row, 1971), pp. 210, 211; Dino Cinel, From Italy to San Francisco: The Immigrant Experience (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1982), pp. 28, 117–120; Samuel L. Baily, “The Adjustment of Italian Immigrants in Buenos Aires and New York, 1870–1914,” American Historical Review, April 1983, p. 291; John E. Zucchi, Italians in Toronto: Development of a National Identity, 1875–1935 (Kingston, Ontario: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1988), pp. 41, 53–55, 58.

4     Moses Rischin, The Promised City: New York’s Jews 1870–1914 (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1962), pp. 76, 85–108, 238–239.

5     Annie Polland and Daniel Soyer, Emerging Metropolis: New York Jews in the Age of Immigration, 1840–1920 (New York: New York University Press, 2012), p. 31; Tyler Anbinder, City of Dreams: The 400-Year Epic History of Immigrant New York (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2016), pp. 174–175, 178, 356, 358; Stephen Birmingham, “The Rest of Us”: The Rise of America’s Eastern European Jews (Boston: Little, Brown, 1984), pp. 12–24.

6     Louis Wirth, The Ghetto (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1956), pp. 182–184; Irving Cutler, “The Jews of Chicago: From Shetl to Suburb,” Ethnic Chicago: A Multicultural Portrait, fourth edition, edited by Melvin G. Holli and Peter d’A. Jones (Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1995), pp. 127–129, 134–135, 143–144.

7     Fred Rosenbaum, Visions of Reform: Congregation Emanu-El and the Jews of San Francisco, 1849–1999 (Berkeley: Judah L. Magnes Museum, 2000), pp. 59–60, 184.

8     William A. Braverman “The Emergence of a Unified Community, 1880–1917,” The Jews of Boston, edited by Jonathan D. Sarna, Ellen Smith and Scott-Martin Kosofsky (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2005), p. 66. Both the German Jews and the Polish Jews moved out when the Russian Jews moved in. The Polish Jews in this case were from German-ruled areas, there being no Poland at the time, and were apparently more culturally like German Jews than like Russian Jews.

9     Daniel J. Elazar and Peter Medding, Jewish Communities in Frontier Societies: Argentina, Australia, and South Africa (New York: Holmes & Meier, 1983), pp. 263–264, 332–334; Hilary L. Rubinstein, The Jews in Victoria: 1835–1985 (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1986), Chapters 10–12. One sign of these internal differences was a saying among Australian Jews that Sydney was a warm city with cold Jews, while Melbourne was a cold city with warm Jews. Hilary Rubinstein, Chosen: The Jews in Australia (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1987), p. 220.

10   H.L. van der Laan, The Lebanese Traders in Sierra Leone (The Hague: Mouton & Co., 1975), pp. 237–240; Louise L’Estrange Fawcett, “Lebanese, Palestinians and Syrians in Colombia,” The Lebanese in the World: A Century of Emigration, edited by Albert Hourani and Nadim Shehadi (London: The Centre for Lebanese Studies, 1992), p. 368.

11   Tyler Anbinder, City of Dreams, pp. 176–177.

12   Teiiti Suzuki, The Japanese Immigrant in Brazil: Narrative Part (Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press, 1969), p. 109.

13   Tyler Anbinder, City of Dreams, p. 185.

14   Charles A. Price, The Methods and Statistics of ‘Southern Europeans in Australia’ (Canberra: The Australian National University, 1963), p. 45.

15   E. Franklin Frazier, “The Negro Family in Chicago,” E. Franklin Frazier on Race Relations: Selected Writings, edited by G. Franklin Edwards (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1968), pp. 122–126.

16   E. Franklin Frazier, “The Impact of Urban Civilization Upon Negro Family Life,” American Sociological Review, Vol. 2, No. 5 (October 1937), p. 615.

17   David M. Katzman, Before the Ghetto: Black Detroit in the Nineteenth Century (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1973), p. 27.

18   Kenneth L. Kusmer, A Ghetto Takes Shape: Black Cleveland, 1870–1930 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1978), p. 209.

19   Jonathan Gill, Harlem, p. 284.

20   Andrew F. Brimmer, “The Labor Market and the Distribution of Income,” Reflections of America: Commemorating the Statistical Abstract Centennial, edited by Norman Cousins (Washington: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 1980), pp. 102–103.

21   Rakesh Kochhar and Anthony Cilluffo, Income Inequality in the U.S. Is Rising Most Rapidly Among Asians (Washington: Pew Research Center, 2018), p. 4. See also William Julius Wilson, When Work Disappears: The World of the New Urban Poor (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1996), p. 195.

22   Horace Mann Bond, A Study of Factors Involved in the Identification and Encouragement of Unusual Academic Talent among Underprivileged Populations (U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, January 1967), p. 147. [Contract No. SAE 8028, Project No. 5–0859].

23   Ibid.

24   See, for example, Willard B. Gatewood, Aristocrats of Color: The Black Elite, 1880–1920 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1990), pp. 188–189, 247; David M. Katzman, Before the Ghetto, Chapter V; Theodore Hershberg and Henry Williams, “Mulattoes and Blacks: Intra-Group Differences and Social Stratification in Nineteenth-Century Philadelphia,” Philadelphia: Work, Space, Family, and Group Experience in the Nineteenth Century, edited by Theodore Hershberg (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1981), pp. 392–434.

25   Stephen Birmingham, Certain People: America’s Black Elite (Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1977), pp. 196–197. As a personal note, I delivered groceries to people in that building during my teenage years, entering through the service entrance in the basement, rather than through the canopied front entrance with its uniformed doorman and ornate lobby. My own home was in a tenement apartment some distance away.

26   St. Clair Drake and Horace R. Cayton, Black Metropolis: A Study of Negro Life in a Northern City, revised and enlarged edition (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993), pp. 73–74; James R. Grossman, “African-American Migration to Chicago,” Ethnic Chicago, fourth edition, edited by Melvin G. Holli and Peter d’A. Jones, pp. 323, 332, 333–334; Henri Florette, Black Migration: Movement North, 1900–1920 (Garden City, New York: Anchor Press, 1975), pp. 96–97; Allan H. Spear, Black Chicago: The Making of a Negro Ghetto, 1890–1920 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1967), p. 168.

27   James R. Grossman, “African-American Migration to Chicago,” Ethnic Chicago, fourth edition, edited by Melvin G. Holli and Peter d’A. Jones, pp. 323, 330, 332, 333–334; Willard B. Gatewood, Aristocrats of Color, pp. 186–187, 332; Allan H. Spear, Black Chicago, p. 168; E. Franklin Frazier, The Negro in the United States, revised edition (New York: Macmillan, 1957), p. 284; Henri Florette, Black Migration, pp. 96–97; Gilbert Osofsky, Harlem: The Making of a Ghetto, Negro New York 1890–1930 (New York: Harper & Row, 1966), pp. 43–44; Ivan H. Light, Ethnic Enterprise in America: Business and Welfare Among Chinese, Japanese, and Blacks (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1972), Figure 1 (after p. 100); W.E.B. Du Bois, The Black North in 1901: A Social Study (New York: Arno Press, 1969), p. 25.

28   James R. Grossman, “African-American Migration to Chicago,” Ethnic Chicago, fourth edition, edited by Melvin G. Holli and Peter d’A. Jones, p. 331. See also Ethan Michaeli, The Defender: How the Legendary Black Newspaper Changed America (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2016), p. 84.

29   Willard B. Gatewood, Aristocrats of Color, pp. 186–187; James R. Grossman, “African-American Migration to Chicago,” Ethnic Chicago, fourth edition, edited by Melvin G. Holli and Peter d’A. Jones, pp. 323, 330; St. Clair Drake and Horace R. Cayton, Black Metropolis, revised and enlarged edition, pp. 73–74.

30   E. Franklin Frazier, The Negro in the United States, revised edition, p. 643.

31   According to Professor Steven Pinker, “the North-South difference is not a byproduct of the white-black difference. Southern whites are more violent than northern whites, and southern blacks are more violent than northern blacks.” Steven Pinker, The Better Angels of Our Nature: Why Violence Has Declined (New York: Viking, 2011), p. 94.

32   Davison M. Douglas, Jim Crow Moves North: The Battle over Northern School Segregation, 1865–1954 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), pp. 2–5, 61–62; Willard B. Gatewood, Aristocrats of Color, p. 250; E. Franklin Frazier, The Negro in the United States, revised edition, p. 441.

33   Willard B. Gatewood, Aristocrats of Color, pp. 64, 65, 300–301; E. Franklin Frazier, The Negro in the United States, revised edition, pp. 250–251.

34   Davison M. Douglas, Jim Crow Moves North, pp. 128, 129; Kenneth L. Kusmer, A Ghetto Takes Shape, pp. 57, 64–65, 75–76, 80, 178–179. In St. Louis and Chicago, the number of restrictive covenants skyrocketed during the great migrations at around the time of the First World War. Michael Jones-Correa, “The Origins and Diffusion of Racial Restrictive Covenants,” Political Science Quarterly, Vol. 115, No. 4 (Winter 2000–2001), p. 558.

35   Davison M. Douglas, Jim Crow Moves North, pp. 130–131; Willard B. Gatewood, Aristocrats of Color, p. 147.

36   James N. Gregory, The Southern Diaspora: How the Great Migrations of Black and White Southerners Transformed America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005), p. 123; Isabel Wilkerson, The Warmth of Other Suns: The Epic Story of America’s Great Migration (New York: Random House, 2010), p. 291; Carl Wittke, The Irish in America (New York: Russell & Russell, 1970), pp. 101–102; Oscar Handlin, Boston’s Immigrants (New York: Atheneum, 1970), pp. 169–170; Jay P. Dolan, The Irish Americans: A History (New York: Bloomsbury Press, 2008), pp. 118–119; Irving Howe, World of Our Fathers: The Journey of the East European Jews to America and the Life They Found and Made (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1976), pp. 229–230.

37   Daniel J. Elazar and Peter Medding, Jewish Communities in Frontier Societies, pp. 282–283.

38   Marilynn S. Johnson, The Second Gold Rush: Oakland and the East Bay in World War II (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993), p. 198.

39   Douglas Henry Daniels, Pioneer Urbanites: A Social and Cultural History of Black San Francisco (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1980), pp. 50, 75, 77, 97.

40   Marilynn S. Johnson, The Second Gold Rush, p. 52.

41   Ibid., p. 55.

42   Douglas Henry Daniels, Pioneer Urbanites, p. 165.

43   Marilynn S. Johnson, The Second Gold Rush, pp. 95–96, 152, 170; E. Franklin Frazier, The Negro in the United States, revised edition, p. 270; Douglas Henry Daniels, Pioneer Urbanites, pp. 171–175.

44   E. Franklin Frazier, The Negro in the United States, revised edition, p. 270.

45   Gunnar Myrdal, An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1944), p. 965.

46   Arthur R. Jensen, Genetics and Education (New York: Harper & Row, 1972), pp. 106–107, 129–130.

47   Mya Frazier, “After the Walmart Is Gone,” Bloomberg Businessweek, October 16, 2017, p. 59.

48   William Julius Wilson, More Than Just Race: Being Black and Poor in the Inner City (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2009), pp. 1–2.

49   Walter E. Williams, Race & Economics: How Much Can Be Blamed on Discrimination (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 2011), p. 117.

50   So did Paul R. Williams in the early twentieth century, when he decided to become an architect, at a time when such a career seemed all but impossible for a black man. He said: “White Americans have a reasonable basis for their prejudice against the Negro race, and if that prejudice is ever to be overcome it must be through the efforts of individual Negroes to rise above the average cultural level of their kind. Therefore, I owe it to myself and to my people to accept this challenge.” He went on to have a highly successful career as an architect, designing everything from banks and churches to mansions for Hollywood movie stars. See Karen E. Hudson, Paul R. Williams, Architect: A Legacy of Style (New York: Rizzoli International Publications, 1993), p. 12.

51   See, for example, Christopher Silver, “The Racial Origins of Zoning in American Cities,” Urban Planning and the African American Community: In the Shadows, edited by June Manning Thomas and Marsha Ritzdorf (Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, 1997), pp. 23–42; Michael Jones-Correa, “The Origins and Diffusion of Racial Restrictive Covenants,” Political Science Quarterly, Vol. 115, No. 4 (Winter 2000–2001), pp. 541–568.

52   See Abbot Emerson Smith, Colonists in Bondage: White Servitude and Convict Labor in America 1607–1776 (Gloucester, Massachusetts: Peter Smith, 1965), pp. 3–4.

53   E. Franklin Frazier, The Negro in the United States, revised edition, pp. 22–26; John Hope Franklin, From Slavery to Freedom: A History of American Negroes, second edition (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1947), pp. 70–72.

54   St. Clair Drake and Horace R. Cayton, Black Metropolis, revised and enlarged edition, pp. 44–45.

55   David M. Katzman, Before the Ghetto, pp. 35, 69, 102, 200.

56   Ibid., p. 160; Willard B. Gatewood, Aristocrats of Color, p. 125.

57   W.E.B. Du Bois, The Philadelphia Negro: A Social Study (New York: Schocken Books, 1967), pp. 7, 41–42, 305–306.

58   Jacob Riis, How the Other Half Lives: Studies among the Tenements of New York (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1970), p. 99; David M. Katzman, Before the Ghetto, pp. 35, 37, 138, 139, 160; St. Clair Drake and Horace R. Cayton, Black Metropolis, revised and enlarged edition, pp. 44–45; Willard B. Gatewood, Aristocrats of Color, p. 125.

59   Davison M. Douglas, Jim Crow Moves North, p. 3.

60   Jacob Riis, How the Other Half Lives, p. 99.

61   Davison M. Douglas, Jim Crow Moves North, p. 3.

62   Ibid., pp. 155–156.

63   Ibid., pp. 154.

64   For documentation, see Thomas C. Leonard, Illiberal Reformers: Race, Eugenics & American Economics in the Progressive Era (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2016), pp. 119–124; Thomas Sowell, Intellectuals and Race (New York: Basic Books, 2013), pp. 24–43.

65   See, for example, Jacqueline A. Stefkovich and Terrence Leas, “A Legal History of Desegregation in Higher Education,” Journal of Negro Education, Vol. 63, No. 3 (Summer 1994), pp. 409–410.

66   Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, 347 U.S. 483 (1954), at 495.

67   Ibid., at 494.

68   T. Rees Shapiro, “Vanished Glory of an All-Black High School,” Washington Post, January 19, 2014, p. B6. “The year the Supreme Court decisions came down, Dunbar sent 80 percent of its graduates to college, the highest percentage of any Washington school, white or Negro. That same year it had the highest percentage attending college on scholarship: one in four.” Alison Stewart, First Class: The Legacy of Dunbar, America’s First Black Public High School (Chicago: Lawrence Hill Books, 2013), p. 173.

69   Henry S. Robinson, “The M Street High School, 1891–1916,” Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Washington, D.C., Vol. LI (1984), p. 122; Report of the Board of Trustees of Public Schools of the District of Columbia to the Commissioners of the District of Columbia: 1898–99 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1900), pp. 7, 11.

70   Mary Gibson Hundley, The Dunbar Story: 1870–1955 (New York: Vantage Press, 1965), p. 75.

71   Ibid., p. 78. Mary Church Terrell, “History of the High School for Negroes in Washington,” Journal of Negro History, Vol. 2, No. 3 (July 1917), p. 262.

72   Louise Daniel Hutchison, Anna J. Cooper: A Voice from the South (Washington: The Smithsonian Institution Press, 1981), p. 62; Jervis Anderson, “A Very Special Monument,” The New Yorker, March 20, 1978, p. 100; Alison Stewart, First Class, p. 99; “The Talented Black Scholars Whom No White University Would Hire,” Journal of Blacks in Higher Education, No. 58 (Winter 2007/2008), p. 81.

73   Tucker Carlson, “From Ivy League to NBA,” Policy Review, Spring 1993, p. 36.

74   See “Success Academy: #1 in New York,” downloaded from the website of Success Academy Charter Schools: http://www.successacademies.org/app/uploads/2017/08/sa_1_in_new_york.pdf. See also “New York Attacks Success,” Wall Street Journal, August 23, 2017, p. A14; Katie Taylor, “Struggling City Schools Improve Their Test Scores, but Not All Are Safe,” New York Times, August 23, 2017, p. A16.

75   See, for example, Alex Kotlowitz, “Where Is Everyone Going?” Chicago Tribune, March 10, 2002; Mary Mitchell, “Middle-Class Neighborhood Fighting to Keep Integrity,” Chicago Sun-Times, November 10, 2005, p. 14; Jessica Garrison and Ted Rohrlich, “A Not-So-Welcome Mat,” Los Angeles Times, June 17, 2007, p. A1; Paul Elias, “Influx of Black Renters Raises Tension in Bay Area,” The Associated Press, December 31, 2008; Mick Dumke, “Unease in Chatham, But Who’s at Fault?” New York Times, April 29, 2011, p. A23; James Bovard, “Raising Hell in Subsidized Housing,” Wall Street Journal, August 18, 2011, p. A15; Frank Main, “Crime Felt from CHA Relocations,” Chicago Sun-Times, April 5, 2012, p. 18.

76   Alex Kotlowitz, “Where Is Everyone Going?” Chicago Tribune, March 10, 2002.

77   Mary Mitchell, “Middle-Class Neighborhood Fighting to Keep Integrity,” Chicago Sun-Times, November 10, 2005, p. 14.

78   Mick Dumke, “Unease in Chatham, But Who’s at Fault?” New York Times, April 29, 2011, p. A23.

79   Gary Gilbert, “People Must Get Involved in Section 8 Reform,” Contra Costa Times, November 18, 2006, p. F4.

80   Geetha Suresh and Gennaro F. Vito, “Homicide Patterns and Public Housing: The Case of Louisville, KY (1989–2007), Homicide Studies, Vol. 13, No. 4 (November 2009), pp. 411–433.

81   Alex Kotlowitz, “Where Is Everyone Going?” Chicago Tribune, March 10, 2002.

82   Ibid.

83   J.D. Vance, Hillbilly Elegy: A Memoir of a Family and Culture in Crisis (New York: HarperCollins, 2016), p. 140.

84   Ibid., p. 141.

85   Lisa Sanbonmatsu, Jeffrey R. Kling, Greg J. Duncan and Jeanne Brooks-Gunn, “Neighborhoods and Academic Achievement: Results from the Moving to Opportunity Experiment,” The Journal of Human Resources, Vol. 41, No. 4 (Fall, 2006), p. 682.

86   Jens Ludwig, et al., “What Can We Learn about Neighborhood Effects from the Moving to Opportunity Experiment?” American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 114, No. 1 (July 2008), p. 148.

87   Jeffrey R. Kling, et al., “Experimental Analysis of Neighborhood Effects,” Econometrica, Vol. 75, No. 1 (January 2007), p. 99.

88   Jens Ludwig, et al., “Long-Term Neighborhood Effects on Low-Income Families: Evidence from Moving to Opportunity,” American Economic Review, Vol. 103, No. 3 (May 2013), p. 227.

89   Lawrence F. Katz, Jeffrey R. Kling, and Jeffrey B. Liebman, “Moving to Opportunity in Boston: Early Results of a Randomized Mobility Experiment,” Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 116, No. 2 (May 2001), p. 648.

90   Moving To Opportunity for Fair Housing Demonstration Program: Final Impacts Evaluation, Summary (Washington: U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, November 2011), p. 3.

91   “HUD’s Plan to Diversify Suburbs,” Investor’s Business Daily, July 23, 2013, p. A12.

92   Ibid.

93   During the Great Depression of the 1930s, for example, the Secretary of the Treasury, Henry Morgenthau, was appalled by a program run by the Secretary of Agriculture, Henry Wallace, who was trying to get farmers to produce less, and to dispose of existing surpluses at a time when, in Morgenthau’s words, “there’s people going hungry in America, all over America.” Morgenthau’s plan to give more of the surplus to people who were hungry was vetoed by presidential advisor Harry Hopkins. According to Morgenthau’s diary: “The minute I turned my back Harry went to Wallace and said they couldn’t do it because that is admitting everything you have done is wrong.… If we feed the undernourished the surplus food stuffs, that was admitting the plan was a flop, and we’d better not do it.” Wallace in turn told Morgenthau that giving more surplus food to the hungry would be “bad politics.” Janet Poppendieck, Breadlines Knee-Deep in Wheat: Food Assistance in the Great Depression, updated and expanded (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2014), pp. 238, 239–240.

94   See, for example, Raj Chetty, Nathaniel Hendren, and Lawrence F. Katz, “The Effects of Exposure to Better Neighborhoods on Children: New Evidence from the Moving to Opportunity Experiment,” American Economic Review, Vol. 106, No. 4 (April 2016), pp. 857, 899; Lawrence F. Katz, Jeffrey R. Kling, and Jeffrey B. Liebman, “Moving to Opportunity in Boston: Early Results of a Randomized Mobility Experiment,” Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 116, No. 2 (May 2001), pp. 607, 611–612, 648.

95   Equal Employment Opportunity Commission v. Sears, Roebuck & Company, 839 F.2d 302 at 311, 360; Peter Brimelow, “Spiral of Silence,” Forbes, May 25, 1992, p. 77.

96   Paul Sperry, “Background Checks Are Racist?” Investor’s Business Daily, March 28, 2014, p. A1.

97   Harry J. Holzer, Steven Raphael, and Michael A. Stoll, “Perceived Criminality, Criminal Background Checks, and the Racial Hiring Practices of Employers,” Journal of Law and Economics, Vol. 49, No. 2 (October 2006), pp. 451–480.

98   Jason L. Riley, “Jobless Blacks Should Cheer Background Checks,” Wall Street Journal, August 23, 2013, p. A11; Paul Sperry, “Background Checks Are Racist?” Investor’s Business Daily, March 28, 2014, p. A1.

99   Douglas P. Woodward, “Locational Determinants of Japanese Manufacturing Start-ups in the United States,” Southern Economic Journal, Vol. 58, Issue 3 (January 1992), pp. 700, 706; Robert E. Cole and Donald R. Deskins, Jr., “Racial Factors in Site Location and Employment Patterns of Japanese Auto Firms in America,” California Management Review, Fall 1988, pp. 17–18.

100 Philip S. Foner, “The Rise of the Black Industrial Working Class, 1915–1918,” African Americans in the U.S. Economy, edited by Cecilia A. Conrad, et al (Lanham, Maryland: Rowman and Littlefield, 2005), pp. 38–43; Leo Alilunas, “Statutory Means of Impeding Emigration of the Negro,” Journal of Negro History, Vol. 22, No. 2 (April 1937), pp. 148–162; Carole Marks, “Lines of Communication, Recruitment Mechanisms, and the Great Migration of 1916–1918,” Social Problems, Vol. 31, No. 1 (October 1983), pp. 73–83; Theodore Kornweibel, Jr., Railroads in the African American Experience: A Photographic Journey (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2010), pp. 174–180; Peter Gottlieb, Making Their Own Way: Southern Blacks’ Migration to Pittsburgh, 1916–1930 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987), pp. 55–59; Sean Dennis Cashman, America in the Twenties and Thirties: The Olympian Age of Franklin Delano Roosevelt (New York: New York University Press, 1989), p. 267.

101 August Meier and Elliott Rudwick, Black Detroit and the Rise of the UAW (New York: Oxford University Press, 1979), pp. 9–11; Milton C. Sernett, Bound for the Promised Land: African American Religion and the Great Migration (Durham: Duke University Press, 1997), pp. 148–149.

Chapter 4: THE WORLD OF NUMBERS

Epigraph

Mark Twain, Mark Twain’s Autobiography (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1924), Volume I, p. 246.

1     United States Commission on Civil Rights, Civil Rights and the Mortgage Crisis (Washington: U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, 2009), p. 53.

2     Ibid. See also page 61; Robert B. Avery and Glenn B. Canner, “New Information Reported under HMDA and Its Application in Fair Lending Enforcement,” Federal Reserve Bulletin, Summer 2005, p. 379; Wilhelmina A. Leigh and Danielle Huff, “African Americans and Homeownership: The Subprime Lending Experience, 1995 to 2007,” Joint Center for Political and Economic Studies, November 2007, p. 5.

3     Jim Wooten, “Answers to Credit Woes are Not in Black and White,” Atlanta Journal-Constitution, November 6, 2007, p. 12A.

4     Harold A. Black, M. Cary Collins and Ken B. Cyree, “Do Black-Owned Banks Discriminate Against Black Borrowers?” Journal of Financial Services Research, Vol. 11, Issue 1–2 (February 1997), pp. 189–204. Here, as elsewhere, it should not be assumed that two unexamined samples are equal in the relevant variables. In this case, there is no reason to assume that those blacks who applied to black banks were the same as those blacks who applied to white banks.

5     Robert Rector and Rea S. Hederman, “Two Americas: One Rich, One Poor? Understanding Income Inequality in the United States,” Heritage Foundation Backgrounder, No. 1791 (August 24, 2004), pp. 7, 8.

6     The number of people in the various quintiles in 2015 was computed by multiplying the number of “consumer units” in each quintile by the average number of people per consumer unit. See Table 1 in Veri Crain and Taylor J. Wilson, “Use with Caution: Interpreting Consumer Expenditure Income Group Data,” Beyond the Numbers (Washington: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, May 2017), p. 3.

7     Ibid.

8     U.S. Census Bureau, “Table HINC–05. Percent Distribution of Households, by Selected Characteristics within Income Quintile and Top 5 Percent in 2016,” from the Current Population Survey, downloaded on July 11, 2018: https://www.census.gov/data/tables/time-series/demo/income-poverty/cps-hinc/hinc-05.html

9     Herman P. Miller, Income Distribution in the United States (Washington: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 1966), p. 7.

10   Rose M. Kreider and Diana B. Elliott, “America’s Family and Living Arrangements: 2007,” Current Population Reports, P20–561 (Washington: U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2009), p. 5.

11   W. Michael Cox and Richard Alm, “By Our Own Bootstraps: Economic Opportunity & the Dynamics of Income Distribution,” Annual Report, 1995, Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas, p. 8.

12   Richard V. Reeves, “Stop Pretending You’re Not Rich,” New York Times, June 11, 2017, Sunday Review section, p. 5.

13   Mark Robert Rank, Thomas A. Hirschl and Kirk A. Foster, Chasing the American Dream: Understanding What Shapes Our Fortunes (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014), p. 105.

14   U.S. Department of the Treasury, “Income Mobility in the U.S. from 1996 to 2005,” November 13, 2007, pp. 2, 4, 7.

15   Peter Saunders, Poor Statistics: Getting the Facts Right About Poverty in Australia (St. Leonards, Australia: Centre for Independent Studies, 2002), pp. 1–12; David Green, Poverty and Benefit Dependency (Wellington: New Zealand Business Roundtable, 2001), pp. 32, 33; Jason Clemens and Joel Emes, “Time Reveals the Truth about Low Income,” Fraser Forum, September 2001, The Fraser Institute in Vancouver, Canada, pp. 24–26; Niels Veldhuis, et al., “The ‘Poor’ Are Getting Richer,” Fraser Forum, January/February 2013, p. 25.

16   U.S. Department of the Treasury, “Income Mobility in the U.S. from 1996 to 2005,” November 13, 2007, p. 4.

17   Danny Dorling, “Inequality in Advanced Economies,” The New Oxford Handbook of Economic Geography, edited by Gordon L. Clark, et al (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018), p. 41.

18   Thomas A. Hirschl and Mark R. Rank, “The Life Course Dynamics of Affluence,” PLoS ONE, January 28, 2015, p. 1.

19   U.S. Department of the Treasury, “Income Mobility in the U.S. from 1996 to 2005,” November 13, 2007, pp. 2, 4; Internal Revenue Service, “The 400 Individual Income Tax Returns Reporting the Highest Adjusted Gross Incomes Each Year, 1992–2000,” Statistics of Income Bulletin, Spring 2003, Publication 1136 (Revised 6–03), p. 7.

20   Heather Mac Donald, Are Cops Racist? How the War Against the Police Harms Black Americans (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 2003), pp. 28, 31, 32. The original report was: James E. Lange, Ph.D., et al., Speed Violation Survey of the New Jersey Turnpike: Final Report (Calverton, Maryland: Public Services Research Institute, 2001). It was submitted to the Office of the State Attorney General in Trenton, New Jersey.

21   Heather Mac Donald, Are Cops Racist?, pp. 28–34.

22  

SOURCE: U.S. Census Bureau, S0201, Selected Population Profile in the United States, 2016 American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates.

GROUPS: Black

MEDIAN AGE: 33.9

GROUPS: Cambodian

MEDIAN AGE: 32.9

GROUPS: Chinese

MEDIAN AGE: 38.1

GROUPS: Cuban

MEDIAN AGE: 40.7

GROUPS: Japanese

MEDIAN AGE: 50.6

GROUPS: Mexican

MEDIAN AGE: 27.0

GROUPS: Puerto Rican

MEDIAN AGE: 29.9

GROUPS: White

MEDIAN AGE: 40.6

GROUPS: TOTAL POPULATION

MEDIAN AGE: 37.9

23   Heather Mac Donald, Are Cops Racist?, p. 29.

24   Heather Mac Donald, The War on Cops: How the New Attack on Law and Order Makes Everyone Less Safe (New York: Encounter Books, 2016), pp. 56–57, 69–71.

25   Sterling A. Brown, A Son’s Return: Selected Essays of Sterling A. Brown, edited by Mark A. Sanders (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1996), p. 73.

26   Mark Robert Rank, Thomas A. Hirschl and Kirk A. Foster, Chasing the American Dream, p. 97.

27   Internal Revenue Service, “The 400 Individual Income Tax Returns Reporting the Highest Adjusted Gross Incomes Each Year, 1992–2000,” Statistics of Income Bulletin, Spring 2003, Publication 1136 (Revised 6–03), p. 7.

28   Internal Revenue Service, Statistics of Income Division, “The 400 Individual Income Tax Returns Reporting the Largest Adjusted Gross Incomes Each Year, 1992-2014,” December 2016, p. 17.

29   Devon Pendleton and Jack Witzig, “The World’s Richest People Got Poorer This Year,” Bloomberg.com, December 28, 2015; Devon Pendleton and Jack Witzig, “World’s Wealthiest Saw Red Ink,” Montreal Gazette, January 2, 2016, p. B8.

30   “Billionaires,” Forbes, March 21, 2016, p. 10.

31   With nine people who are transients in the higher bracket for just one year out of a decade, that means that 90 transients will be in that bracket during that decade. The one person who is in that higher income bracket in every year of the decade brings the total number of people in the income bracket at some point during the decade to 91. The transients’ total income for that decade, which was $12.6 million for the initial 9 transients, adds up to $126 million for all 90 transients who spent a year each in the higher bracket. When the $5 million earned by the one person who was in the higher bracket for all ten years of the decade is added, that makes $131 million for all 91 people who were in the higher bracket at some point during the course of the decade. These 91 people thus have an average annual income of $143,956.04—which is less than three times the average annual income of the 10 people who earned $50,000 a year.

32   See data and documentation in Thomas Sowell, Wealth, Poverty and Politics, revised and enlarged edition (New York: Basic Books, 2016), pp. 321–322.

33   William Julius Wilson, When Work Disappears: The World of the New Urban Poor (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1996), p. xix.

34   Ibid., p. 67.

35   Ibid., p. 140.

36   Ibid., pp. 178, 179.

37   David Caplovitz, The Poor Pay More: Consumer Practices of Low-Income Families (New York: The Free Press, 1967), pp. 94–95.

38   John U. Ogbu, Black American Students in an Affluent Suburb: A Study of Academic Disengagement (Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2003), pp. 15, 17, 21, 28, 240.

39   Thomas D. Snyder, Cristobal de Brey and Sally A. Dillow, Digest of Education Statistics: 2015, 51st edition (Washington: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 2016), pp. 328, 329. See also Valerie A. Ramey, “Is There a Tiger Mother Effect? Time Use Across Ethnic Groups,” Economics in Action, Issue 4 (May 3, 2011).

40   Richard Lynn, The Global Bell Curve: Race, IQ, and Inequality Worldwide (Augusta, Georgia: Washington Summit Publishers, 2008), p. 51.

41   James Bartholomew, The Welfare of Nations (Washington: The Cato Institute, 2016), pp. 104–106; PISA 2015: Results in Focus (Paris: OECD, 2018), p. 5.

42   Robert A. Margo, “Race, Educational Attainment, and the 1940 Census,” Journal of Economic History, Vol. 46, No. 1 (March 1986), pp. 196–197.

43   Ibid., p. 197.

44   Abigail Thernstrom and Stephen Thernstrom, No Excuses: Closing the Racial Gap in Learning (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2004), p. 13.

45   Stephan Thernstrom and Abigail Thernstrom, America in Black and White: One Nation, Indivisible (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1997), p. 446; Richard J. Herrnstein and Charles Murray, The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life (New York: The Free Press, 1994), pp. 321–323; William R. Johnson and Derek Neal, “Basic Skills and the Black-White Earnings Gap,” The Black-White Test Score Gap, edited by Christopher Jencks and Meredith Phillips (Washington: Brookings Institution Press, 1998), pp. 480–497. Similar results have been found where the data permit qualitative comparisons of other factors. See, for example, Richard B. Freeman, Black Elite: The New Market for Highly Educated Black Americans (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1976), pp. 207, 209.

46   See, for example, Richard B. Freeman, Black Elite, pp. 206–207; Thomas Sowell, Education: Assumptions Versus History (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1986), pp. 82–89.

47   See data in Thomas Sowell, Education, pp. 83–88. See also Richard B. Freeman, Black Elite, pp. 208–209.

48   Thomas Sowell, Education, p. 96.

49   U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Characteristics of Minimum Wage Workers: 2017 (Washington: Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018), p. 1 and tables 1 and 7.

50   Michael A. Fletcher and Jonathan Weisman, “Bush Supports Democrats’ Minimum Wage Hike Plan,” Washington Post, December 21, 2006, p. A14.

51   “Labours Lost,” The Economist, July 15, 2000, pp. 64–65; Robert W. Van Giezen, “Occupational Wages in the Fast-Food Restaurant Industry,” Monthly Labor Review, August 1994, pp. 24–30.

52   Professor William Julius Wilson is one of those who have done this, in various books of his: The Declining Significance of Race: Blacks and Changing American Institutions, third edition (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2012), pp. 16, 95, 165; The Truly Disadvantaged: The Inner City, the Underclass, and Public Policy, second edition (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2012), p. 177; When Work Disappears, p. 25.

53   “Labours Lost,” The Economist, July 15, 2000, pp. 64–65.

54   Richard A. Lester, “Shortcomings of Marginal Analysis for Wage-Employment Problems,” American Economic Review, Vol. 36, No. 1 (March 1946), pp. 63–82.

55   David Card and Alan B. Krueger, “Minimum Wages and Employment: A Case Study of the Fast-Food Industry in New Jersey and Pennsylvania,” American Economic Review, Vol. 84, No. 4 (September 1994), pp. 772–793; David Card and Alan B. Krueger, Myth and Measurement: The New Economics of the Minimum Wage (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995); Douglas K. Adie, Book Review, “Myth and Measurement: The New Economics of the Minimum Wage,” Cato Journal, Vol. 15, No. 1 (Spring/Summer 1995), pp. 137–140; Bill Resnick, “Studies Refute Argument Wage Increase Costs Jobs,” The Oregonian (Portland), August 25, 1995, p. B7.

56   Richard B. Berman, “Dog Bites Man: Minimum Wage Hikes Still Hurt,” Wall Street Journal, March 29, 1995, p. A12; “Testimony of Richard B. Berman,” Evidence Against a Higher Minimum Wage, Hearing Before the Joint Economic Committee, Congress of the United States, One Hundred Fourth Congress, first session, April 5, 1995, Part II, pp. 12–13; Gary S. Becker, “It’s Simple: Hike the Minimum Wage, and You Put People Out of Work,” BusinessWeek, March 6, 1995, p. 22; Paul Craig Roberts, “A Minimum-Wage Study with Minimum Credibility,” BusinessWeek, April 24, 1995, p. 22; David Neumark and William L. Wascher, Minimum Wages (Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 2008), pp. 63–65, 71–78.

57   Professor George J. Stigler, in a critique of Professor Lester’s survey research, not long after World War II, pointed out that “by parallel logic it can be shown by a current inquiry of health of veterans in 1940 and 1946 that no soldier was fatally wounded.” George J. Stigler, “Professor Lester and the Marginalists,” American Economic Review, Vol. 37, No. 1 (March 1947), p. 157.

58   Dara Lee Luca and Michael Luca, “Survival of the Fittest: The Impact of the Minimum Wage on Firm Exit,” Harvard Business School, Working Paper 17–088, April 2017, pp. 1, 2, 3, 10.

59   Don Watkins and Yaron Brook, Equal Is Unfair: America’s Misguided Fight Against Income Inequality (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2016), p. 125.

60   Ekaterina Jardim, et al., “Minimum Wage Increases, Wages, and Low-Wage Employment: Evidence from Seattle,” Working Paper Number 23532, “Abstract” (Cambridge, Massachusetts: National Bureau of Economic Research, June 2017).

61   “Economic and Financial Indicators,” The Economist, March 15, 2003, p. 100.

62   “Economic and Financial Indicators,” The Economist, March 2, 2013, p. 88.

63   “Economic and Financial Indicators,” The Economist, September 7, 2013, p. 92.

64   “Hong Kong’s Jobless Rate Falls,” Wall Street Journal, January 16, 1991, p. C16.

65   U. S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States: Colonial Times to 1970 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1975), Part 1, p. 126.

66   Steven Pinker, Enlightenment Now: The Case for Reason, Science, Humanism, and Progress (New York: Viking, 2018), p. 99.

67   Thomas Piketty, Capital in the Twenty-First Century (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2014), p. 252.

68   Thomas A. Hirschl and Mark R. Rank, “The Life Course Dynamics of Affluence,” PLoS ONE, January 28, 2015, p. 5.

69   Thomas Piketty, Capital in the Twenty-First Century, p. 278.

70   Robert Arnott, William Bernstein, and Lillian Wu, “The Myth of Dynastic Wealth: The Rich Get Poorer,” Cato Journal, Fall 2015, p. 461.

71   “Spare a Dime,” a special report on the rich, The Economist, April 4, 2009, p. 4.

72   See, for example, Phil Gramm and John F. Early, “The Myth of American Inequality,” Wall Street Journal, August 10, 2018, p. A15. See also Thomas Sowell, Basic Economics: A Common Sense Guide to the Economy, fifth edition (New York: Basic Books, 2015), pp. 426–427, 428.

73   Gene Smiley and Richard Keehn, “Federal Personal Income Tax Policy in the 1920s,” Journal of Economic History, Vol. 55, No. 2 (June 1995), p. 286; Benjamin G. Rader, “Federal Taxation in the 1920s,” The Historian, Vol. 33, No. 3 (May 1971), p. 432; Burton W. Fulsom, Jr., The Myth of the Robber Barons: A New Look at the Rise of Big Business in America, sixth edition (Herndon, Virginia: Young America’s Foundation, 2010), pp. 108, 115, 116.

74   Burton W. Fulsom, Jr., The Myth of the Robber Barons, sixth edition, p. 109.

75   Andrew W. Mellon, Taxation: The People’s Business (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1924), p. 170.

76   Gene Smiley and Richard Keehn, “Federal Personal Income Tax Policy in the 1920s,” Journal of Economic History, Vol. 55, No. 2 (June 1995), p. 289.

77   Burton W. Fulsom, Jr., The Myth of the Robber Barons, sixth edition, p. 116. The share of income tax revenues paid by people with incomes up to $50,000 a year fell, and the share of income tax revenues paid by people with incomes of $100,000 and up increased. At the extremes, taxpayers in the lowest income bracket paid 13 percent of all income tax revenues in 1921, but less than half of one percent of all income taxes in 1929, while taxpayers with incomes of a million dollars a year and up saw their share of income taxes paid rise from less than 5 percent to just over 19 percent. Gene Smiley and Richard Keehn, “Federal Personal Income Tax Policy in the 1920s,” Journal of Economic History, Vol. 55, No. 2 (June 1995), p. 295; Benjamin G. Rader, “Federal Taxation in the 1920s,” The Historian, Vol. 33, No. 3 (May 1971), pp. 432–434.

78   Alan Reynolds, “Why 70% Tax Rates Won’t Work,” Wall Street Journal, June 16, 2011, p. A19; Stephen Moore, “Real Tax Cuts Have Curves,” Wall Street Journal, June 13, 2005, p. A13. Professor Joseph E. Stiglitz argued that the tax rate cuts during the Reagan administration failed: “In fact, Reagan had promised that the incentive effects of his tax cuts would be so powerful that tax revenues would increase. And yet, the only thing that increased was the deficit.” Joseph E. Stiglitz, The Price of Inequality (New York: W.W. Norton, 2012), p. 89. However, the tax revenues collected by the federal government during every year of the Reagan administration exceeded the tax revenues collected in any previous administration in the history of the country. Economic Report of the President: 2018 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 2018), p. 552; U. S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States, Part 2, pp. 1104–1105. The deficit reflected the fact that there is no amount of money that Congress cannot outspend.

79   Edmund L. Andrews, “Surprising Jump in Tax Revenues Curbs U.S. Deficit,” New York Times, July 9, 2006, p. A1.

80   James Gwartney and Richard Stroup, “Tax Cuts: Who Shoulders the Burden?” Federal Reserve Bank of Atlanta Economic Review, March 1982, pp. 19–27; Benjamin G. Rader, “Federal Taxation in the 1920s: A Re-examination,” Historian, Vol. 33, No. 3, p. 432; Burton W. Folsom, Jr., The Myth of the Robber Barons, sixth edition, p. 116; Robert L. Bartley, The Seven Fat Years: And How to Do It Again (New York: The Free Press, 1992), pp. 71–74; Alan Reynolds, “Why 70% Tax Rates Won’t Work,” Wall Street Journal, June 16, 2011, p. A19; Stephen Moore, “Real Tax Cuts Have Curves,” Wall Street Journal, June 13, 2005, p. A13; Economic Report of the President: 2017 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 2017), p. 586. See also United States Internal Revenue Service, Statistics of Income 1920–1929 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1922–1932).

81   Alan S. Blinder, “Why Now Is the Wrong Time to Increase the Deficit,” Wall Street Journal, January 31, 2018, p. A15.

82   The national debt, which was a little over $24 billion in 1920—the last year of President Woodrow Wilson’s administration—was reduced to less than $18 billion in 1928, the last year of President Calvin Coolidge’s administration. U. S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States, Part 2, p. 1104. See also David Greenberg, Calvin Coolidge (New York: Times Books, 2006), p. 67.

83   David Greenberg, Calvin Coolidge, p. 72.

Chapter 5: THE WORLD OF WORDS

Epigraph

Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan (London: J.M. Dent, 1928), p. 16.

1     William Julius Wilson, More Than Just Race: Being Poor and Black in the Inner City (New York: W.W. Norton, 2009), pp. 152–153.

2     U.S. Census Bureau, “Table 4. Poverty Status of Families, by Type of Family, Presence of Related Children, Race, and Hispanic Origin: 1959 to 2016,” Downloaded from the website of the Census Bureau: https://www.census.gov/data/tables/time-series/demo/income-poverty/historical-poverty-people.html.

3     Ibid.; Jessica L. Semega, Kayla R. Fontenot, and Melissa A. Kollar, “Income and Poverty in the United States: 2016,” Current Population Reports, P60–259 (Washington: U.S. Census Bureau, 2017), pp. 45, 47.

4     U.S. Census Bureau, “Table 4. Poverty Status of Families, by Type of Family, Presence of Related Children, Race, and Hispanic Origin: 1959 to 2016,” Downloaded from the website of the Census Bureau: https://www.census. gov/data/tables/time-series/demo/income-poverty/historical-poverty-people. html; Jessica L. Semega, Kayla R. Fontenot, and Melissa A. Kollar, “Income and Poverty in the United States: 2016,” Current Population Reports, P60–259 (Washington: U.S. Census Bureau, 2017), pp. 45, 47.

5     Richard B. Freeman, Black Elite: The New Market for Highly Educated Black Americans (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1976), pp. 97–98, 102.

6     Daniel Bergner, “Class Warfare,” New York Times Magazine, September 7, 2014, p. 62. See also “Success Academy: #1 in New York,” downloaded from the website of Success Academy Charter Schools: http://www.successacademies. org/app/uploads/2017/08/sa_1_in_new_york.pdf; “New York Attacks Success,” Wall Street Journal, August 23, 2017, p. A14; Molly Peterson, “Good to Great Hits Grade School,” Bloomberg BusinessWeek, February 15, 2010, p. 56; KIPP: 2014 Report Card (San Francisco: KIPP Foundation, 2014), pp. 10, 19; Jay Mathews, “KIPP Continues to Break the Mold and Garner Excellent Results,” Washington Post, February 3, 2014, p. B2.

7     William Julius Wilson, The Truly Disadvantaged: The Inner City, the Underclass, and Public Policy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987), p. 3.

8     Ibid.

9     See, for example, David Levering Lewis, When Harlem Was in Vogue (New York: Penguin Books, 1997), pp. 182–183; Jervis Anderson, This Was Harlem: A Cultural Portrait, 1900–1950 (New York: Farrar Straus Giroux, 1982), pp. 138–139; Milton & Rose D. Friedman, Two Lucky People: Memoirs (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998), p. 48. A Lithuanian child who ended up in a refugee camp run by the U.S. Army at the end of World War II, later wrote a memoir that gave a glimpse of how he and other children in that camp—and in other camps—found black soldiers more sympathetic to them than white soldiers. Leo L. Algminas, Samogitia Mea Patria: Autobiographical Remembrances (2015), pp. 124–125.

10   Nicholas Eberstadt, Men Without Work: America’s Invisible Crisis (West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania: Templeton Press, 2016) p. 72.

11   Andrea Flynn, Susan Holmberg, Dorian T. Warren and Felicia J. Wong, The Hidden Rules of Race: Barriers to an Inclusive Economy (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2017), pp. 1–3.

12   “Devils and Enemies,” Far Eastern Economic Review, July 7, 1994, p. 53.

13   Paul Mojzes, Balkan Genocides: Holocaust and Ethnic Cleansing in the Twentieth Century (Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield, 2011), p. 2.

14   As a Sri Lankan scholar described the situation: “In striking contrast to other parts of South Asia (including Burma), Sri Lanka in 1948 was an oasis of stability, peace and order. The transfer of power was smooth and peaceful, a reflection of the moderate tone of the dominant strand in the country’s nationalist movement. More important, one saw very little of the divisions and bitterness which were tearing at the recent independence of the South Asian countries. In general, the situation in the country seemed to provide an impressive basis for a solid start in nation-building and national regeneration.” K.M. de Silva, “Historical Survey,” Sri Lanka: A Survey, edited by K.M. de Silva (Honolulu: The University Press of Hawaii, 1977), p. 84. “Sri Lanka had better prospects than most new states when independence came in 1948.” Donald L. Horowitz, “A Splitting Headache,” The New Republic, February 23, 1987, p. 33. See also Robert N. Kearney, Communalism and Language in the Politics of Ceylon (Durham: Duke University Press, 1967), p. 27.

15   See, for example, Steven R. Weisman, “Sri Lanka: A Nation Disintegrates,” New York Times, December 13, 1987, pp. SM 34ff; A.R.M. Imtiyaz and Ben Stavis, “Ethno-Political Conflict in Sri Lanka,” Journal of Third World Studies, Vol. XXV, No. 2 (Fall 2008), pp. 135–152; Robert Draper, “Fragile Peace,” National Geographic, November 2016, pp. 108–129.

16   Amy L. Freedman, “The Effect of Government Policy and Institutions on Chinese Overseas Acculturation: The Case of Malaysia,” Modern Asian Studies, Vol. 35, No. 2 (May 2001), p. 416.

17   Donald R. Snodgrass, Inequality and Economic Development in Malaysia (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1980), p. 4.

18   According to former prime minister Mahathir bin Mohamad, Malay students given preferential admissions and scholarships “don’t seem to appreciate the opportunities that they get. They become more interested in other things, politics in particular, to the detriment of their studies.” Mahathir bin Mohamad, “Not One But Two New Malay Dilemmas,” Straits Times (Singapore), August 1, 2002. Dr. Mahathir declared: “I feel disappointed because I achieved too little of my principal task of making my race a successful race, a race that is respected.” Michael Shari, “Mahathir’s Change of Heart?” BusinessWeek, International-Asia edition, July 29, 2002, p. 20.

19   Donald Harman Akenson, “Diaspora, the Irish and Irish Nationalism,” The Call of the Homeland: Diaspora Nationalisms, Past and Present, edited by Allon Gal, et al (Leiden: Brill, 2010), pp. 190–191; Mei Luo, “Asian Pacific Americans,” Encyclopedia of Educational Leadership and Administration, edited by Fenwick W. English (Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publications, 2006), Volume 1, pp. 53–56; Nana Oishi, “Pacific: Japan, Australia, New Zealand,” The New Americans: A Guide to Immigration Since 1965, edited by Mary C. Waters and Reed Ueda (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2007), p. 546; “Affirmative Non-Action,” Boston Globe, January 14, 1985, p. 10.

20   Karyn R. Lacy, Blue-Chip Black: Race, Class, and Status in the New Black Middle Class (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007), pp. 66–68, 77; Mary Pattillo-McCoy, Black Picket Fences: Privilege and Peril Among the Black Middle Class (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999), p. 12.

21   Joseph E. Stiglitz, The Great Divide: Unequal Societies and What We Can Do About Them (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2015), p. 74.

22   Angus Deaton, The Great Escape: Health, Wealth, and the Origins of Inequality (New York: Penguin Books, 2013), p. 207.

23   Kay S. Hymowitz, “Brooklyn’s Chinese Pioneers,” City Journal, Spring 2014, pp. 21–29.

24   “A New Kind of Ghetto,” The Economist, November 9, 2013, Special Report on Britain, p. 10.

25   Theodore Dalrymple, Life at the Bottom: The Worldview That Makes the Underclass (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 2001), p. 114.

26   See, for example, Joseph Stiglitz, “Equal Opportunity, Our National Myth,” New York Times, February 17, 2013, Sunday Review, p. 4; Bob Herbert, “The Mobility Myth,” New York Times, June 6, 2005, p. A19; Michael W. Weinstein, “America’s Rags-to-Riches Myth,” New York Times, February 18, 2000, p. A28.

27   Isabel V. Sawhill, “Overview,” Julia B. Isaacs, Isabel V. Sawhill and Ron Haskins, Getting Ahead or Losing Ground: Economic Mobility in America (Washington: Economic Mobility Project, an initiative of The Pew Charitable Trusts, 2008), p. 6.

28   Joseph E. Stiglitz, The Great Divide, p. 159.

29   Theodore Dalrymple, Life at the Bottom, p. 70.

30   “A New Kind of Ghetto,” The Economist, November 9, 2013, Special Report on Britain, p. 10.

31   Theodore Dalrymple, Life at the Bottom, p. 69.

32   Ibid., p. 68.

33   Theodore Dalrymple, “The Barbarians Inside Britain’s Gates,” Wall Street Journal, August 15, 2011, p. A13.

34   Natalie Perera and Mike Treadway, Education in England: Annual Report 2016 (London: Centre Forum, 2016), p. 7.

35   Jason L. Riley, Please Stop Helping Us: How Liberals Make It Harder for Blacks to Succeed (New York: Encounter Books, 2014), p. 49.

36   Maria Newman, “Cortines Has Plan to Coach Minorities into Top Schools,” New York Times, March 18, 1995, p. 1; Fernanda Santos, “Black at Stuy,” New York Times, February 26, 2012, Metropolitan Desk, p. 6.

37   Sharon Otterman, “Diversity Debate Convulses Elite High School,” New York Times, August 5, 2010, p. A1.

38   Valerie A. Ramey, “Is There a Tiger Mother Effect? Time Use Across Ethnic Groups,” Economics in Action, Issue 4 (May 3, 2011).

39   Kenneth Clark, “Behind the Harlem Riots—Two Views,” New York Herald-Tribune, July 20, 1964, p. 7.

40   Newton Garver, “What Violence Is,” The Nation, June 24, 1968, p. 822.

41   National Committee of Negro Churchmen, “‘Black Power,’” New York Times, July 31, 1966, p. E5.

42   Joseph A. Hill, “Some Results of the 1920 Population Census,” Journal of the American Statistical Association, Vol. 18, No. 139 (September 1922), p. 353.

43   Stanley Lebergott, Pursuing Happiness: American Consumers in the Twentieth Century (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993), pp. 40, 120.

44   Allan Nevins and Henry Steele Commager, A Short History of the United States, fifth edition (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1966), p. 469. Frederick Lewis Allen, Only Yesterday: An Informal History of the 1920s (New York: Harper Perennial Classics, 2010), p. 142.

45   Stanley Lebergott, The American Economy: Income, Wealth, and Want (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1976), p. 287.

46   Stanley Lebergott, Pursuing Happiness, p. 130.

47   David A. Shannon, Between the Wars: America, 1919–1941 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1965), p. 95.

48   Roger E. Bilstein, Flight in America: From the Wrights to the Astronauts, revised edition (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1994), p. 57.

49   U.S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States: Colonial Times to 1970 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1975), Part 1, p. 400.

50   Ibid.

51   Chris Willis, The Man Who Built the National Football League: Joe F. Carr (Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press, 2010), p. 268.

52   The number of Sears department stores rose from 8 in 1925 to 319 by 1929. The three largest chains of grocery retailers all had the number of their stores increase severalfold from 1920 to 1929, with the largest of the grocery retailers—A&P—having the number of its stores rising from 4,600 in 1920 to 15,400 in 1929. Richard S. Tedlow, New and Improved: The Story of Mass Marketing in America (New York: Basic Books, 1990), pp. 195, 290.

53   Ibid., pp. 198–199, 200, 202, 203, 204, 213. See also David Delbert Kruger, “‘It Pays to Shop at Penny’s’: A National Department Store on the Main Streets of Arkansas,” Arkansas Historical Quarterly, Vol. 71, No. 4 (Winter 2012), pp. 348, 353, 354.

54   Henry Steele Commager and Richard Brandon Morris, “Editors’ Introduction,” John D. Hicks, Republican Ascendancy: 1921–1933 (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1960), p. xi.

55   Edward Alsworth Ross, Seventy Years of It: An Autobiography (New York: D. Appleton-Century Company, 1936), p. 98.

56   Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., The Age of Roosevelt, Vol. I: The Crisis of the Old Order 1919–1933 (Boston: Houghton-Mifflin, 1957), p. 68. See also James Truslow Adams, The Epic of America (Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1934), p. 400.

57   Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., The Age of Roosevelt, Vol. I: The Crisis of the Old Order, p. 68.

58   David A. Shannon, Between the Wars: America, 1919–1941, p. 86.

59   “Text of President’s Speech Elaborating His Views,” Washington Post, February 13, 1924, p. 4. See also Burton W. Fulsom, Jr., The Myth of the Robber Barons: A New Look at the Rise of Big Business in America, sixth edition (Herndon, Virginia: Young America’s Foundation, 2010), p. 116; James Gwartney and Richard Stroup, “Tax Cuts: Who Shoulders the Burden?” Federal Reserve Bank of Atlanta Economic Review, March 1982, p. 25; Benjamin G. Rader, “Federal Taxation in the 1920s: A Re-examination,” Historian, Vol. 33, No. 3, pp. 432–433.

60   U. S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States: Colonial Times to 1970, Part 1, p. 126.

61   Allan Nevins and Henry Steele Commager, A Short History of the United States, fifth edition, p. 463.

62   See, for example, Thomas E. Woods, Jr., “Warren Harding and the Forgotten Depression of 1920,” Intercollegiate Review, Fall 2009, p. 23; Herbert Hoover, The Memoirs of Herbert Hoover: The Great Depression 1929–1941 (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1952), Chapters 5–18.

63   James A. Smith, The Idea Brokers: Think Tanks and the Rise of the New Policy Elite (New York: The Free Press, 1991), p. 76.

64   Richard Vedder and Lowell Gallaway, Out of Work: Unemployment and Government in Twentieth-Century America (New York: Holmes & Meier, 1993), p. 77.

65   Ibid.

66   U. S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States: Colonial Times to 1970, Part 1, p. 126; Richard Vedder and Lowell Gallaway, Out of Work, p. 77.

67   Richard Vedder and Lowell Gallaway, Out of Work, p. 77.

68   See, for example, Janet Poppendieck, Breadlines Knee-Deep in Wheat: Food Assistance in the Great Depression, updated and expanded (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2014), pp. 26–27; “The Misery of Garbage,” Social Service Review, Vol. 6, No. 4 (December 1932), pp. 637–642; Edmund Wilson, The American Earthquake: A Documentary of the Twenties and Thirties (New York: Octagon Books, 1975), pp. 462–463; William E. Leuchtenburg, Franklin D. Roosevelt and the New Deal, 1932–1940 (New York: Harper & Row, 1963), p. 249; Harvey Levenstein, Paradox of Plenty: A Social History of Eating in Modern America, revised edition (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003), pp. 3, 4; “Ravages of Crisis in Cleveland Told,” New York Times, December 27, 1939, p. 14; Samuel Lubell and Walter Everett, “The Breakdown of Relief,” The Nation, August 20, 1938, p. 171; “Capone Feeds 3,000 a Day in Soup Kitchen,” New York Times, November 15, 1930, p. 4; “First Bread Line Starts in Boston,” Daily Boston Globe, October 12, 1931, p. 1.

69   Harold L. Cole and Lee E. Ohanian, “New Deal Policies and the Persistence of the Great Depression: A General Equilibrium Analysis,” Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 112, No. 4 (August 2004), pp. 779–816. Back in 1935, a Brookings Institution study concluded that FDR’s National Industrial Recovery Act “on the whole retarded recovery.” Leverett S. Lyon, et al., The National Recovery Administration: An Analysis and Appraisal (Washington: Brookings Institution, 1935), pp. 873, 874. In a 1933 open letter to President Roosevelt, published in the New York Times, John Maynard Keynes said, “I cannot detect any material aid to recovery” in the National Industrial Recovery Act. John Maynard Keynes, “From Keynes to Roosevelt: Our Recovery Plan Assayed,” New York Times, December 31, 1933, p. XX2. In 1939, FDR’s own Secretary of the Treasury said to some Congressional Democrats: “We have tried spending money. We are spending more than we have ever spent before and it does not work. And I have just one interest, and if I am wrong… somebody else can have my job. I want to see this country prosperous. I want to see people get a job. I want to see people get enough to eat. We have never made good on our promises…” Burton Folsom, Jr., New Deal or Raw Deal? How FDR’s Economic Legacy Has Damaged America (New York: Threshold Editions, 2008), p. 2.

70   J.A. Schumpeter, History of Economic Analysis (New York: Oxford University Press, 1954), p. 90.

71   See, for example, Paul Krugman, “Inequality Is a Drag,” New York Times, August 8, 2014, p. A23; Paul Krugman, “Obama’s Trickle-Up Economics,” New York Times, September 16, 2016, p. A27; Joseph E. Stiglitz, The Great Divide, pp. 136, 145, 147; Alan Blinder, “Almost Everything Is Wrong With the New Tax Law,” Wall Street Journal, December 28, 2017, p. A15. Like many others who denounce what they call “trickle-down” economics, Professor Stiglitz, refers to “giving” high-income people something when, in fact, the reduction of the top tax rate from 73 percent to 24 percent led to taking more tax revenue from them as this lower tax rate drew investments out of tax shelters—which was the whole point, as Secretary of the Treasury Andrew Mellon spelled out beforehand. Compare Joseph E. Stiglitz, The Price of Inequality: How Today’s Divided Society Endangers Our Future (New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 2012), p. 6 and Andrew W. Mellon, Taxation: The People’s Business (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1924), pp. 72, 79, 152, 158, 160, 170.

72   See, for example, B.L. Mungekar, “State, Market and the Dalits: Analytics of the New Economic Policy,” Dalits in Modern India, edited by S.M. Michael (New Delhi: Vistaar, 1999), p. 288.

73   Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: John F. Kennedy, 1962 (Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1963), p. 626; Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: John F. Kennedy, 1963 (Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1964), p. 762.

74   John Maynard Keynes, The Means to Prosperity (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1933), p. 5.

75   Woodrow Wilson, The Hope of the World (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1920), pp. 185–186. See also Annual Report of the Secretary of the Treasury on the State of the Finances for the Fiscal Year Ended June 30, 1919 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1920), p. 24; Annual Report of the Secretary of the Treasury on the State of the Finances for the Fiscal Year Ended June 30, 1920 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1921), pp. 36–37.

76   United States Internal Revenue, Treasury Department, Statistics of Income from Returns of Net Income For 1920 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1922), p. 5; Bureau of Internal Revenue, U.S. Treasury Department, Statistics of Income For 1929 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1931), p. 5. At the extremes, people with incomes of a million dollars a year or more paid less than 5 percent of all income taxes in 1920, when the highest income tax rate was 73 percent, while people with incomes of $5,000 or less paid 15 percent. After the tax rate cuts of the 1920s brought the highest tax rate down to 24 percent, people with an income of a million dollars or more paid 19 percent of all income taxes, while people with incomes of $5,000 or less paid less than half of one percent of all income taxes.

77   Robert L. Bartley, The Seven Fat Years: And How to Do It Again (New York: The Free Press, 1992), pp. 71–74; James Gwartney and Richard L. Stroup, “As Reagan Promised, the Rich Pay More,” New York Times, March 31, 1985, p. F2; “How to Raise Revenue,” Wall Street Journal, August 24, 2007, p. A14.

78   Oliver Wendell Holmes, Collected Legal Papers (New York: Peter Smith, 1952), pp. 230–231.

79   John M. Blum, et al., The National Experience: A History of the United States, eighth edition (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Jovanovich, 1991), p. 640.

80   Andrew W. Mellon, Taxation, pp. 9, 54–57, 61–62, 94.

81   Ibid., pp. 13, 79–80, 94, 127–128. Secretary Mellon also quoted President Calvin Coolidge as making essentially the same argument. Ibid., pp. 132–133, 220–221.

82   Ibid., pp. 106–107.

83   Ibid., Chapter VIII.

84   Ibid., p. 13.

85   Ibid., p. 167. See also Ibid., pp. 79–80, 141–142, 171–172.

86   Ibid., p. 170.

87   Ibid., p. 94.

88   Ibid., p. 79.

89   Ibid., p. 160.

90   Thomas A. Bailey, David M. Kennedy and Lizabeth Cohen, The American Pageant: A History of the Republic, eleventh edition (Boston: Houghton-Mifflin, 1998), p. 768. Later editions expressed similar conclusions, saying that Andrew Mellon sought to “succor the ‘poor’ rich people.” David M. Kenney and Lizabeth Cohen, The American Pageant: A History of the American People, sixteenth edition (Boston: Engage Learning, 2016), p. 717.

91   United States Internal Revenue, Treasury Department, Statistics of Income from Returns of Net Income For 1920, p. 5; Bureau of Internal Revenue, U.S. Treasury Department, Statistics of Income For 1929, p. 5.

92   [Daniel Patrick Moynihan], The Negro Family: The Case for National Action (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1965), p. 18. The statistics cited were for “nonwhite” children, but before the immigration laws were changed in 1965, “nonwhite” Americans were overwhelmingly black before the immigration laws were changed that year, leading to great increases in the immigration of people from Asia and Latin America.

93   For example, the New York Amsterdam News, a Harlem newspaper, carried a column calling the Moynihan Report “the most serious threat to the ultimate freedom of American Negroes to appear in print in recent memory.” James Farmer, “The Controversial Moynihan Report,” New York Amsterdam News, December 18, 1965, p. 36.

94   “The Negro Family: Visceral Reaction,” Newsweek, December 6, 1965, p. 39.

95   [Daniel Patrick Moynihan], The Negro Family, p. 17.

96   Godfrey Hodgson, The Gentleman from New York: Daniel Patrick Moynihan (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2000), pp. 31, 32; Steven R. Weisman, “Introduction,” Daniel Patrick Moynihan: A Portrait in Letters of an American Visionary, edited by Steven R. Weisman (New York: Public Affairs, 2010), p. 1.

97   Godfrey Hodgson, The Gentleman from New York, p. 31.

98   Steven R. Weisman, “Introduction,” Daniel Patrick Moynihan, p. 1; Douglas Schoen, Pat: A Biography of Daniel Patrick Moynihan (New York: Harper & Row, 1979), pp. 17–18.

99   Stephan Thernstrom and Abigail Thernstrom, America in Black and White: One Nation, Indivisible (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1997), pp. 237, 238; U.S. Census Bureau, Statistical Abstract of the United States: 2010 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 2009), p. 59; Proquest, Statistical Abstract of the United States: 2017 (Lanham, Maryland: Bernam Press, 2016), p. 53.

100 For example, in the most controversial of his books, The Bell Curve, co-authored with the late Richard Herrnstein, the following statement appears, with all the words italicized: That a trait is genetically transmitted in individuals does not mean that group differences in that trait are also genetic in origin. Richard J. Herrnstein and Charles Murray, The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life (New York: The Free Press, 1994), p. 298.

101 Associated Press, “Scholar of Race, Class Looks Ahead,” Telegram & Gazette (Massachusetts), December 29, 2015, p. 14.

102 Timothy M. Phelps and Helen Winternitz, Capitol Games: The Inside Story of Clarence Thomas, Anita Hill, and a Supreme Court Nomination (New York: HarperPerennial, 1993), p. xii.

103 Lanny Ebenstein, Chicagonomics: The Evolution of Chicago Free Market Economics (New York: St. Martins’s Press, 2015), p. 200.

104 See, for example, Thomas Sowell, A Man of Letters (New York: Encounter Books, 2007), pp. 118–119, 305–306.

105 Joseph E. Stiglitz, The Great Divide, p. 153; “The Tax Bill That Inequality Created,” New York Times, December 17, 2017, Sunday Review section, p. 10.

106 “Remarks by the President on Economic Mobility,” December 4, 2013, downloaded from the Obama White House archives: https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2013/12/04/remarks-president-economic-mobility.

107 Danny Dorling, “Inequality in Advanced Economies,” The New Oxford Handbook of Economic Geography, edited by Gordon L. Clark, et al (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018), pp. 40, 42, 43, 52.

108 [Anonymous], An Inquiry Into Those Principles Respecting the Nature of Demand and the Necessity of Consumption Lately Advocated by Mr. Malthus (London: R. Hunter, 1821), p. 110.

109 John Rawls, A Theory of Justice (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1971), pp. 43, 60, 61, 265, 302.

110 Woodrow Wilson, The New Freedom: A Call for the Emancipation of the Energies of a People (New York: Doubleday, Page & Company, 1913).

111 Robert A. Dahl and Charles E. Lindblom, Politics, Economics, and Welfare: Planning and Politico-Economic Systems Resolved into Basic Social Processes (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976), p. 49.

112 Ibid., p. 425.

113 Angus Deaton, The Great Escape, p. 2.

114 Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan, p. 16. Writing about one of the doctrines of his own time, Adam Smith said, “they who first taught it were by no means such fools as they who believed it.” Adam Smith, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (New York: Modern Library, 1937), p. 461.

Chapter 6: SOCIAL VISIONS AND HUMAN CONSEQUENCES

Epigraph

Joseph A. Schumpeter, Review of Keynes’ General Theory, Journal of the American Statistical Association, Vol. 31, No. 196 (December 1936), p. 795.

1     See Thomas Sowell, The Einstein Syndrome: Bright Children Who Talk Late (New York: Basic Books, 2001); Stephen M. Camarata, Late-Talking Children: A Symptom or a Stage? (Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 2014).

2     See, for example, Thomas Sowell, Intellectuals and Race (New York: Basic Books, 2013), pp. 24–43; Thomas C. Leonard, Illiberal Reformers: Race, Eugenics & American Economics in the Progressive Era (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2016), pp. 119–124.

3     Oliver Wendell Holmes, Collected Legal Papers (New York: Peter Smith, 1952), p. 293.

4     Jean-Jacques Rousseau, A Discourse on Inequality, translated by Maurice Cranston (New York: Penguin Books, 1984), p. 57.

5     William S. Maltby, The Rise and Fall of the Spanish Empire (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009), p. 18; Peter Pierson, The History of Spain (Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1999), pp. 7–8. Geographer Ellen Churchill Semple described the Canary Islanders as offshoots of “their parent stock of northern Africa.” Ellen Churchill Semple, Influences of Geographic Environment (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1911), p. 411. However, she pointed out that the white race existed in Europe, Asia and Africa (Ibid., pp. 390–391.) In any case, contemporary continental peoples in both Europe and North Africa were thousands of years more advanced than the peoples of the Canary Islands.

6     Ellen Churchill Semple, Influences of Geographic Environment, p. 411.

7     Ibid., p. 434; Bruce G. Trigger, Understanding Early Civilizations: A Comparative Study (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), p. 338.

8     Judith A. Bazler, Biology Resources in the Electronic Age (Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 2003), p. 105; Alfred W. Crosby, “An Ecohistory of the Canary Islands: A Precursor of European Colonialization in the New World and Australasia,” Environmental Review, Vol. 8, No. 3 (Autumn 1984), p. 217.

9     Ellen Churchill Semple, Influences of Geographic Environment, pp. 19–20, 45, 69, 118, 144–145, 193, 397, 434, 435, 436, 598, 600; J.R. McNeill, The Mountains of the Mediterranean World: An Environmental History (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992), pp. 142–143; Rupert B. Vance, Human Geography of the South: A Study in Regional Resources and Human Adequacy (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1932), pp. 242, 246; Thomas Sowell, Wealth, Poverty and Politics, revised and enlarged edition (New York: Basic Books, 2016), pp. 4–5, 20–21, 24, 45, 46, 49, 52, 70, 72–76, 80, 125–126, 209, 211, 228–230, 242–243, 392–393.

10   For documented examples, see Thomas Sowell, Wealth, Poverty and Politics, revised and enlarged edition, Part I.

11   Documented examples can be found in Thomas Sowell, Wealth, Poverty and Politics, revised and enlarged edition, pp. 4–5, 20–22, 42, 48–54, 59–60, 64–67, 70, 75. See also Ellen Churchill Semple, Influences of Geographic Environment, pp. 393, 397, 434, 435.

12   Irving Howe, World of Our Fathers: The Journey of the East European Jews to America and the Life They Found and Made (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1976), pp. 369–370; James R. Barrett, The Irish Way: Becoming American in the Multiethnic City (New York: Penguin, 2012), pp. 197–198.

13   For documented examples, see Thomas Sowell, Wealth, Poverty and Politics, revised and enlarged edition, pp. 396–401.

14   James S. Gardner, et al., “People in the Mountains,” Mountain Geography: Physical and Human Dimensions, edited by Martin F. Price, et al (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2013), pp. 288–289; J.R. McNeill, The Mountains of the Mediterranean World, pp. 223, 225–227; Ellen Churchill Semple, Influences of Geographic Environment, pp. 578–579.

15   “Choose Your Parents Wisely,” The Economist, July 26, 2014, p. 22.

16   See Betty Hart and Todd R. Risley, Meaningful Differences in the Everyday Experience of Young American Children (Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co., 1995), pp. 123–124.

17   Ibid., pp. 125–126, 128, 198–199.

18   Ibid., p. 247. Similar social class differences in parent-child interactions were discussed in Edward C. Banfield, The Unheavenly City: The Nature and Future of Our Urban Crisis (Boston: Little, Brown, 1970), pp. 224–229.

19   Laurence C. Baker, “Differences in Earnings Between Male and Female Physicians,” The New England Journal of Medicine, April 11, 1996, p. 962.

20   Hugh Morris, “Why Do Airlines Have Such Large Gender Pay Gaps?” Daily Telegraph (London), April 5, 2018 (online).

21   Mandel Sherman and Cora B. Key, “The Intelligence of Isolated Mountain Children,” Child Development, Vol. 3, No. 4 (December 1932), p. 283; Lester R. Wheeler, “A Comparative Study of the Intelligence of East Tennessee Mountain Children,” Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol. XXXIII, No. 5 (May 1942), p. 322.

22   Philip E. Vernon, Intelligence and Cultural Environment (London: Methuen & Co., Ltd., 1970), p. 155.

23   Hugh Gordon, Mental and Scholastic Tests Among Retarded Children (London: His Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1923), p. 38.

24   Clifford Kirkpatrick, Intelligence and Immigration (Baltimore: The Williams & Wilkins Company, 1926), pp. 24, 31, 34.

25   “In Norfolk, Virginia, women of low socioeconomic status were given vitamin and mineral supplements during pregnancy. These women gave birth to children who, at 4 years of age, averaged 8 points higher in IQ than a control group of children whose mothers had been given placebos during pregnancy.” Arthur R. Jensen, Genetics and Education (New York: Harper & Row, 1972), p. 152. See Ruth F. Harrell, Ella Woodyard, and Arthur I. Gates, The Effect of Mothers’ Diets on the Intelligence of Offspring (New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1955), pp. 32–33, 60; Ana Amélia Freitas-Vilela, et al., “Maternal Dietary Patterns During Pregnancy and Intelligence Quotients in the Offspring at 8 Years of Age: Findings from the ALSPAC Cohort,” Maternal & Child Nutrition, Vol. 14, Issue 1 (January 2018), pp. 1–11; Ann P. Streissguth, Helen M. Barr, and Paul D. Sampson, “Moderate Prenatal Alcohol Exposure: Effects on Child IQ and Learning Problems at Age 7 ½ Years,” Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, Vol. 14, No. 5 (September/October 1990), pp. 662–669.

26   Thomas Sowell, Intellectuals and Race, pp. 23, 31, 32, 33, 38–39, 59, 63–64.

27   See Mitchell Lerner, “Howard Arthur Tibbs 1919–1986: A Tuskegee Airman’s Story in Pictures,” Callaloo, Vol. 26, No. 3 (Summer 2003), pp. 670–690. See also J. Todd Moye, Freedom Flyers: The Tuskegee Airmen of World War II (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010); Lawrence P. Scott and William M. Womack, Sr., Double V: The Civil Rights Struggle of the Tuskegee Airmen (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1994).

28   “Medical Leaders at Dr. Drew Rites,” New York Times, April 6, 1950, p. 28.

29   Robin Marantz Henig, “Scientist at Work,” New York Times, June 8, 1993, p. C1.

30   Arthur R. Jensen, Genetics and Education, pp. 196–197. See also Arthur R. Jensen, “Social Class, Race and Genetics: Implications for Education,” American Educational Research Journal, Vol. 5, No. 1 (January 1968), p. 34; Arthur R. Jensen, “Patterns of Mental Ability and Socioeconomic Status,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, Vol. 60, No. 4 (August 15, 1968), pp. 1331–1332; Arthur R. Jensen, “Intelligence, Learning Ability and Socioeconomic Status,” The Journal of Special Education, Vol. 3, No. 1 (January 1969), p. 33.

31   Arthur R. Jensen, Genetics and Education, pp. 43–44.

32   See Chapter 3 of Thomas Sowell, Economic Facts and Fallacies (New York: Basic Books, 2008). See also Diana Furchtgott-Roth, Women’s Figures: An Illustrated Guide to the Economic Progress of Women In America (Washington: AEI Press, 2012).

33   Yuan-li Wu and Chun-hsi Wu, Economic Development in Southeast Asia: The Chinese Dimension (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1980), p. 51; Victor Purcell, The Chinese in Southeast Asia, second edition (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1965), pp. 7, 68, 83, 180, 245, 248, 540.

34   Ezra Mendelsohn, The Jews of East Central Europe between the World Wars (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1983), pp. 25–27.

35   Haraprasad Chattopadhyaya, Indians in Africa: A Socio-Economic Study (Calcutta: Bookland Private Limited, 1970), p. 394.

36   R. Bayly Winder, “The Lebanese in West Africa,” Comparative Studies in Society and History, Vol. IV (1961–62), p. 309; H.L. van der Laan, The Lebanese Traders in Sierra Leone (The Hague: Mouton & Co., 1975), p. 65.

37   Uğur Ümit Üngör and Mehmet Polatel, Confiscation and Destruction: The Young Turk Seizure of Armenian Property (New York: Continuum, 2011), pp. 17–19.

38   Warren C. Scoville, The Persecution of Huguenots and French Economic Development: 1680–1720 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1960), pp. 228–229, 242–243, 248.

39   Jean Roche, La Colonisation Allemande et le Rio Grande do Sul (Paris: Institut Des Hautes Études de L’Amérique Latine, 1959), pp. 388–389.

40   C. Harvey Gardiner, The Japanese and Peru: 1873–1973 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1975), p. 64.

41   Medha Kudaisya, “Marwari and Chettiar Merchant’s, c. 1850s–1950s: Competitive Trajectories,” Chinese and Indian Business: Historical Antecedents, edited by Medha Kudaisya and Ng Chin-keong (Boston: Brill, 2009), pp. 97–98.

42   Robert F. Foerster, The Italian Emigration of Our Times (New York: Arno Press, 1969), pp. 254–259, 261.

43   Dan Bilefsky, “A New Facet of Diamond Industry: Indians,” Wall Street Journal, May 27, 2003, p. B1.

44   Steven Pinker, The Better Angels of Our Nature: Why Violence Has Declined (New York: Viking, 2011), pp. 85–87, 93–104.

45   The Economist, Pocket World in Figures: 2017 edition (London: Profile Books, 2016), p. 18.

46   Bureau of Justice Statistics, Survey of State Prison Inmates, 1991 (Washington: U.S. Department of Justice, 1993), p. 9.

47   Oliver MacDonagh, “The Irish Famine Emigration to the United States,” Perspectives in American History, Vol. X (1976), p. 405; Thomas Bartlett, Ireland: A History (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010), p. 284.

48   W.E. Vaughan and A.J. Fitzpatrick, editors, Irish Historical Statistics: Population, 1821–1971 (Dublin: Royal Irish Academy, 1978), pp. 260–261.

49   Tyler Anbinder, City of Dreams: The 400-Year Epic History of Immigrant New York (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2016), p. 127. See also Catherina Japikse, “The Irish Potato Famine,” EPA Journal, Vol. 20, Nos. 3–4 (Fall 1994), p. 44; Evan D.G. Fraser and Andrew Rimas, Empires of Food: Feast, Famine and the Rise and Fall of Civilizations (New York: Free Press, 2010), pp. 212–214; Evan D.G. Fraser, “Social Vulnerability and Ecological Fragility: Building Bridges Between Social and Natural Sciences Using the Irish Potato Famine as a Case Study,” Conservation Ecology, Vol. 7, No. 2 (December 2003).

50   Jim Dwyer, “Specialized Schools, Surrounded for Decades by an Admissions Moat,” New York Times, June 9, 2018, p. A17.

51   Adam Smith, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (New York: Modern Library, 1937), p. 729.

52   Thomas D. Snyder, Cristobal de Brey and Sally A. Dillow, Digest of Education Statistics: 2015, 51st edition (Washington: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 2016), pp. 328, 329. See also Valerie A. Ramey, “Is There a Tiger Mother Effect? Time Use Across Ethnic Groups,” Economics in Action, Issue 4 (May 3, 2011).

53   Roland G. Fryer and Paul Torelli, “An Empirical Analysis of ‘Acting White’,” Journal of Public Economics, Vol. 94, No. 5–6 (June 2010), p. 381.

54   Eric A. Hanushek, et al., “New Evidence About Brown v. Board of Education: The Complex Effects of School Racial Composition on Achievement,” National Bureau of Economic Research, Working Paper 8741 (Cambridge, Massachusetts: National Bureau of Economic Research, 2002), Abstract.

55   Ellis B. Page and Timothy Z. Keith, “The Elephant in the Classroom: Ability Grouping and the Gifted,” Intellectual Talent: Psychometric and Social Issues, edited by Camilla Persson Benbow and David Lubinski (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), pp. 203, 204, 208.

56   Roland G. Fryer and Paul Torelli, “An Empirical Analysis of ‘Acting White’,” Journal of Public Economics, Vol. 94, No. 5–6 (June 2010), p. 381.

57   Ibid., p. 380n.

58   Theodore Dalrymple, Life at the Bottom: The Worldview That Makes the Underclass (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 2001), p. 69. See also pp. 158, 188.

59   Ibid., p. 158.

60   Ibid.

61   Jason L. Riley, Please Stop Helping Us: How Liberals Make It Harder for Blacks to Succeed (New York: Encounter Books, 2014), p. 43; John U. Ogbu, Black American Students in an Affluent Suburb: A Study of Academic Disengagement (Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2003), p. 179; John U. Ogbu and Signithia Fordham, “Black Students’ School Success: Coping with the ‘Burden of ‘Acting White’,’” Urban Review, Vol. 18, No. 3 (September 1986), pp. 176–206.

62   James Bartholomew, The Welfare of Nations (Washington: The Cato Institute, 2016), p. 103.

63   See, for example, Katherine Kersten, “No Thug Left Behind,” City Journal, Winter 2017, pp. 54–61; Teresa Watanabe and Howard Blume, “Disorder in the Classroom,” Los Angeles Times, November 8, 2015, p. A1; “Classrooms Run by the Unsuspended,” Investor’s Business Daily, July 3, 2014, p. A14; Jason L. Riley, “Upward Mobility: An Obama Decree Continues to Make Public Schools Lawless,” Wall Street Journal, March 22, 2017, p. A19; Aaron Anthony Benner, “St. Paul Schools: Close the Gap? Yes. But Not Like This,” Saint Paul Pioneer Press, October 2, 2015; Katherine Kersten, “Mollycoddle No More,” Star Tribune (Minneapolis), March 20, 2016, p. OP 1; Paul Sperry, “Obama’s Lax Discipline Policies Made Schools Dangerous,” New York Post, December 23, 2017; Ryan Mackenzie, “Schools Rethink Discipline,” Des Moines Register, November 27, 2016, p. A9; Mackenzie Mays, “Restorative Justice?” The Fresno Bee, December 11, 2016, p. 1B; Claudia Rowe, “Trouble Erupts After Highline Limits School Suspensions,” Seattle Times, September 11, 2016, p. A1.

64   James Bartholomew, The Welfare of Nations, p. 92.

65   See, for example, Katherine Kersten, “No Thug Left Behind,” City Journal, Winter 2017, pp. 54–61. This article was based on what happened in public schools in St. Paul, Minnesota. However, similar things happened elsewhere across the country—in a Houston public school, for example: “One of the older children walked across the room during class, zipped down his fly, pulled out his penis, and asked a girl for oral sex. Levin sent him to the principal. He was sent back in thirty minutes.” Jay Mathews, Work Hard. Be Nice: How Two Inspired Teachers Created the Most Promising Schools in America (Chapel Hill: Algonquin Books of Chapel Hill, 2009), pp. 22–23.

66   “The World’s Billionaires,” Forbes, March 28, 2017, pp. 84–85. V.I. Lenin tried to rescue Marxist theory by claiming that rich countries exploited poor countries, and shared some of their “super-profits” with their own working classes, in order to stave off revolution. But in fact most rich countries’ international investments are concentrated in other rich countries, with their investments in poor countries being a very small fraction of their foreign investments and their incomes from these investments in poor countries being a very small fraction of their total income from foreign investments. See my Wealth, Poverty and Politics, revised and enlarged edition (New York: Basic Books, 2016) pp. 245–247.

67   For documented specifics, see my Wealth, Poverty and Politics, revised and enlarged edition, p. 136.

68   See, for example, hostile responses to empirical data from Daniel Patrick Moynihan, James S. Coleman, Jay Belsky and Heather Mac Donald in Jean M. White, “Moynihan Report Criticized as ‘Racist,’” Washington Post, November 22, 1965, p. A3; William Ryan, “Savage Discovery: The Moynihan Report,” The Nation, November 22, 1965, pp. 380–384; Diane Ravitch, “The Coleman Reports and American Education,” Social Theory and Social Policy: Essays in Honor of James S. Coleman, edited by Aage B. Sorenson and Seymour Spilerman (Westport, Connecticut: Praeger, 1993), pp. 129–141; James Bartholomew, The Welfare of Nations, pp. 174–175; Tim Lynch, “There Is No War on Cops,” Reason, August/September 2016, pp. 58–61; William McGurn, “The Silencing of Heather Mac Donald,” Wall Street Journal, April 11, 2017, p. A15.

69   “Bicker Warning,” The Economist, April 1, 2017, p. 23.

70   Theodore Dalrymple, Life at the Bottom, p. 6.

71   Barry Latzer, The Rise and Fall of Violent Crime in America (New York: Encounter Books, 2016), p. 19; Today’s VD Control Problem: Joint Statement by The American Public Health Association, The American Social Health Association, The American Venereal Disease Association, The Association of State and Territorial Health Officers in co-operation with The American Medical Association, February 1966, p. 20; Hearings Before the Select Committee on Population, Ninety-Fifth Congress, Second Session, Fertility and Contraception in America: Adolescent and Pre-Adolescent Pregnancy (Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1978), Volume II, p. 625; Jacqueline R. Kasun, The War Against Population: The Economics and Ideology of World Population Control (San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 1988), pp. 142, 143, 144; Sally Curtin, et al., “2010 Pregnancy Rates Among U.S. Women,” National Center for Health Statistics, December 2015, p. 6.

72   U.S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States: Colonial Times to 1970 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1975), Part I, p. 414.

73   Stephan Thernstrom and Abigail Thernstrom, America in Black and White: One Nation, Indivisible (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1997), p. 262.

74   Steven Pinker, The Better Angels of Our Nature, pp. 106–107.

75   John Kenneth Galbraith, The Selected Letters of John Kenneth Galbraith, edited by Richard P.F. Holt (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2017), p. 47. “The English urban crowd, in particular, may justly be said to have developed, from its own experience and its own good sense, a species of self-discipline and a tactic of ‘fitting in’ neatly on a little space. You seldom feel unsafe in a London crowd: you know in your heart that it is experienced—experienced in situations.” Earnest Barker, “An Attempt at Perspective,” The Character of England, edited by Ernest Barker (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1947), p. 562.

76   George Orwell, The Complete Works of George Orwell, Vol. 16: I Have Tried to Tell the Truth, 1943–1944, edited by Peter Davison, et al (London: Secker & Warburg, 1998), p. 201.

77   David Fraser, A Land Fit for Criminals: An Insider’s View of Crime, Punishment and Justice in England and Wales (Sussex: Book Guild Publishing, 2006), p. 13.

78   Lee Kuan Yew, The Singapore Story (Singapore: Times Editions, 1998), p. 126.

79   James Bartholomew, The Welfare of Nations, pp. 187–189.

80   “Britain: Fight Club,” The Economist, June 10, 2000, p. 61. See also James Bartholomew, The Welfare State We’re In (London: Politico’s, 2006), p. 19.

81   Fay Wiley, et al., “Traveling Hooligans,” Newsweek, June 27, 1988, p. 37.

82   Steve Lohr, “The British (Fans) are Coming!” New York Times, June 10, 1988, p. D22.

83   George Orwell, The Complete Works of George Orwell, Vol. 16: I Have Tried to Tell the Truth, 1943–1944, edited by Peter Davison, et al., p. 201.

84   Joyce Lee Malcolm, Guns and Violence: The English Experience (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2002), p. 168.

85   Peter Hitchens, The Abolition of Britain: From Winston Churchill to Princess Diana (San Francisco: Encounter Books, 2000), p. 32.

86   James Bartholomew, The Welfare State We’re In, Politico’s edition published in 2006, pp. 15–19.

87   George Orwell, The Complete Works of George Orwell, Vol. 16: I Have Tried to Tell the Truth, 1943–1944, edited by Peter Davison, et al., p. 201.

88   See, for example, Sean O’Neill and Fiona Hamilton, “Mobs Rule as Police Surrender Streets,” The Times (London), August 9, 2011, pp. 1, 5; Martin Beckford, et al., “Carry On Looting,” The Daily Telegraph (London), August 8, 2011, pp. 1, 2; Philip Johnston, “The Long Retreat of Order,” The Daily Telegraph (London), August 10, 2011, p. 19; Alistair MacDonald and Guy Chazan, “World News: Britain Tallies Damage and Sets Out Anti-Riot Steps,” Wall Street Journal, August 12, 2011, p. A6.

89   Theodore Dalrymple, Life at the Bottom, p. 136.

90   Ibid.; James Bartholomew, The Welfare of Nations, p. 203.

91   Andrew F. Smith, “Cafeterias,” Savoring Gotham: A Food Lover’s Companion to New York City (New York: Oxford Press, 2015), p. 92.

92   John P. Shanley, “Cafeterias Built on Honesty Fail,” New York Times, November 9, 1963, p. 22.

93   Theodore Dalrymple, Life at the Bottom, pp. 149, 150; James Bartholomew, The Welfare of Nations, pp. 125–136; Robyn Minter Smyers, “High Noon in Public Housing: The Showdown Between Due Process Rights and Good Management Practices in the War on Drugs and Crime,” The Urban Lawyer, Summer 1998, pp. 573–574; William Julius Wilson, “The Urban Underclass in Advanced Industrial Society,” The New Urban Reality, edited by Paul E. Peterson (Washington: The Brookings Institution, 1985), p. 137.

94   Lizette Alvarez, “Out, and Up,” New York Times, Metropolitan section, May 31, 2009, p. 1.

95   Ibid., p. 6.

96   Walter E. Williams, Up from The Projects: An Autobiography (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 2010), pp. 6–7.

97   Ibid., p. 7.

98   Theodore Dalrymple, Life at the Bottom, p. 150.

99   Luis Ferre-Sadurni, “The Rise and Fall of Good Intentions,” New York Times, July 9, 2018, p. A19.

100 Ibid., p. A20.

101 David E. Nye, When the Lights Went Out: A History of Blackouts in America (Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press 2010), pp. 84–91.

102 Ibid., p. 94; “The Longest Night,” Newsweek, November 22, 1965, pp. 27–33; Robert J.H. Johnston, “Bright Side to Blackout,” New York Times, November 10, 1965, p. 4; Emanuel Perlmutter, “Crime Rate Off Despite the Dark,” New York Times, November 11, 1965, p. 41; Saul Pett, “New York Took It Largely in Stride,” Boston Globe, November 10, 1965, p. 5.

103 Peter Goldman, et al., “Heart of Darkness,” Newsweek, July 25, 1977, pp. 18, 19.

104 Ibid., p. 18; Richard Severo, “Two Blackouts and a World of Difference,” New York Times, July 16, 1977, p. 8.

105 “Power Blackouts Then and Now…” Washington Post, July 15, 1977, p. A9; David E. Nye, When the Lights Went Out, pp. 101, 123–128.

106 Stephan Thernstrom and Abigail Thernstrom, America in Black and White, p. 238.

107 Ibid., p. 237.

108 Charles Murray, Coming Apart: The State of White America 1960–2010 (New York: Crown Forum, 2012), pp. 160, 161.

109 James Bartholomew, The Welfare State We’re In, Politico’s edition published in 2006, p. 251.

110 James Bartholomew, The Welfare of Nations, p. 164.

111 Ibid., p. 165.

112 PISA 2015: Results in Focus (Paris: OECD, 2018), p. 5.

113 See, for example, J. Martin Rochester, Class Warfare: Besieged Schools, Bewildered Parents, Betrayed Kids and the Attack on Excellence (San Francisco: Encounter Books, 2002), pp. 16–18; Thomas Sowell, Inside American Education: The Decline, the Deception, the Dogmas (New York: Free Press, 1993), Chapter 1; The National Commission on Excellence in Education, A Nation at Risk: The Full Account (Cambridge, Massachusetts: USA Research, 1984).

114 E.W. Kenworthy, “Action by Senate: Revised Measure Now Goes Back to House for Concurrence,” New York Times, June 20, 1964, p. 1; “House Civil Rights Vote,” New York Times, July 3, 1964, p. 9; E.W. Kenworthy, “Voting Measure Passed by House,” New York Times, August 4, 1965, pp. 1, 17; “Vote Rights Bill: Senate Sends Measure to LBJ,” Los Angeles Times, August 5, 1965, p. 1.

115 Stephan Thernstrom and Abigail Thernstrom, America in Black and White, pp. 233–234.

116 Ibid. See also U.S. Census Bureau, Statistical Abstract of the United States: 1970 (Washington: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 1970), p. 328. For information on national trends in poverty during these decades, see Richard J. Herrnstein and Charles Murray, The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life (New York: The Free Press, 1994), p. 128.

117 See, for example, Barry Hugill and David Rose, “No Hope in No-Go Land,” The Guardian and the Obersver, September 15, 1991, p. 23; Larry Martz and Daniel Pedersen, “Yob Politics in Britain,” Newsweek, April 16, 1990, pp. 34–35; Sheila Rule, “2 Die, 600 Seized in Britain in Riots Over Soccer Defeat,” New York Times, July 6, 1990, p. A3. See also Theodore Dalrymple, Life at the Bottom, pp. x, xi, 45, 67, 72, 139, 153, 166, 181, 188, 223–225.

118 Steven Pinker, The Better Angels of Our Nature, pp. 106–116.

119 Shelby Steele, White Guilt: How Blacks and Whites Together Destroyed the Promise of the Civil Rights Era (New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 2006), p. 123.

120 Ibid., p. 124.

121 Stephan Thernstrom and Abigail Thernstrom, America in Black and White, pp. 233–234.

122 See, for example, Charles Murray, In Our Hands: A Plan to Replace the Welfare State (Washington: American Enterprise Institute, 2006); Stephen Moore, Who’s The Fairest of Them All? The Truth about Opportunity, Taxes, and Wealth in America (New York: Encounter Books, 2012), p. 2. For counter-arguments, see Edward C. Banfield, The Unheavenly City: The Nature and Future of Our Urban Crisis (Boston: Little, Brown, 1970), pp. 123ff.

123 Seattle provides one of many examples: “Over the past five years, the Emerald City has seen an explosion of homelessness, crime, and addiction. In its 2017 point-in-time count of the homeless, King County social-services agency All Home found 11,643 people sleeping in tents, cars, and emergency shelters. Property crime has risen to a rate two and a half times higher than Los Angeles’s and four times higher than New York City’s. Cleanup crews pick up tens of thousands of dirty needles from city streets and parks every year. At the same time, according to the Puget Sound Business Journal, the Seattle metro area spends more than $1 billon fighting homelessness every year. That’s nearly $100,000 for every homeless man, woman, and child in King County, yet the crisis seems only to have deepened, with more addiction, more crime, and more tent encampments in residential neighborhoods.” Christopher F. Rufo, “Seattle Under Siege,” City Journal, Autumn 2018, p. 20.

124 James Bartholomew, The Welfare of Nations, p. 204.

125 Ibid., p. 127.

126 James Bartholomew, The Welfare State We’re In, Politico’s edition published in 2006, pp. 189, 190, 203–209; James Bartholomew, The Welfare of Nations, p. 103; Theodore Dalrymple, Life at the Bottom, pp. 69, 158, 188; Katherine Kersten, “No Thug Left Behind,” City Journal, Winter 2017, pp. 54–61; Teresa Watanabe and Howard Blume, “Disorder in the Classroom,” Los Angeles Times, November 8, 2015, p. A1; “Classrooms Run by the Unsuspended,” Investor’s Business Daily, July 3, 2014, p. A14; Jason L. Riley, “Upward Mobility: An Obama Decree Continues to Make Public Schools Lawless,” Wall Street Journal, March 22, 2017, p. A19; Aaron Anthony Benner, “St. Paul Schools: Close the Gap? Yes. But Not Like This,” Saint Paul Pioneer Press, October 2, 2015; Katherine Kersten, “Mollycoddle No More,” Star Tribune (Minneapolis), March 20, 2016, p. OP 1; Paul Sperry, “Obama’s Lax Discipline Policies Made Schools Dangerous,” New York Post, December 23, 2017; Ryan Mackenzie, “Schools Rethink Discipline,” Des Moines Register, November 27, 2016, p. A9; Mackenzie Mays, “Restorative Justice?” The Fresno Bee, December 11, 2016, p. 1B; Claudia Rowe, “Trouble Erupts After Highline Limits School Suspensions,” Seattle Times, September 11, 2016, p. A1.

127 James Bartholomew, The Welfare of Nations, p. 202. The instrumental use of babies takes a more sophisticated form in a New York Times essay by a 38-year-old unmarried woman who celebrates her own defiance of convention by choosing to have a baby—and urging other women to do the same, without even a mention of the consequences for the child. Emma Brockes, “Single at 38? Have That Baby,” New York Times, June 24, 2018, Sunday review, p. 3.

128 James Bartholomew, The Welfare of Nations, p. 134. The mother of one of the rapists seemed to take a similar view, pointing out that she herself had been raped when she was 7 years old and again when she was 12.

129 Steven Pinker, The Better Angels of Our Nature, pp. 106–107.

Chapter 7: FACTS, ASSUMPTIONS AND GOALS

Epigraph

Winston Churchill, Churchill Speaks 1897–1963: Collected Speeches in Peace & War, edited by Robert Rhodes James (New York: Chelsea House, 1980), p. 418.

1     Ulrich Bonnell Phillips, The Slave Economy of the Old South: Selected Essays in Economic and Social History (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1968), p. 269.

2     See, for example, Daniel Boorstin, The Americans: The Colonial Experience (New York: Random House, 1958), Chapters 12–16; Joshua Muravchik, Heaven on Earth: The Rise and Fall of Socialism (San Francisco: Encounter Books, 2002).

3     David Gelles, “Millions at Top, A Pittance Below,” New York Times, May 27, 2018, Sunday Business section, pp. B1ff.

4     Bernard Shaw, The Intelligent Woman’s Guide to Socialism and Capitalism (New York: Brentano’s Publishers, 1928), p. 22.

5     See, for example, “The Celebrity 100 Turns 20,” Forbes, August 31, 2018, pp. 26–27. See also “The World’s Highest-Paid Entertainers,” Ibid., pp. 106–107.

6     Derek Sayer, The Coasts of Bohemia: A Czech History (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1998), p. 90.

7     See, for example, Donald L. Horowitz, Ethnic Groups in Conflict (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985), pp. 219–224; Myron Weiner and Mary Fainsod Katzenstein, India’s Preferential Policies: Migrants, the Middle Classes, and Ethnic Equality (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981), p. 98; Robert N. Kearney, Communalism and Language in the Politics of Ceylon (Durham: Duke University Press, 1967), Chapter III; Donald L. Horowitz, The Deadly Ethnic Riot (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001), pp. 278–282.

8     See, for example, Derek Sayer, The Coasts of Bohemia, pp. 50, 115–116; Gary B. Cohen, The Politics of Ethnic Survival: Germans in Prague, 1861–1914 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1981), pp. 42, 239–241; Paul Vysny, Neo-Slavism and the Czechs, 1898–1914 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977), pp. 15, 16.

9     Eve Haque, Multiculturalism Within a Bilingual Framework: Language, Race, and Belonging in Canada (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2012), pp. 47–49.

10   Donald L. Horowitz, The Deadly Ethnic Riot, pp. 279–280.

11   Ibid., pp. 280–282; Stephen May, “Language Rights and Language Repression,” The Oxford Handbook of Language Policy and Planning, edited by James W. Tollefson and Miguel Pérez-Milans (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018), p. 245.

12   John McWhorter, Talking Back, Talking Black: Truths About America’s Lingua Franca (New York: Bellevue Literary Press, 2017), pp. 12, 13.

13   Melanie Kirkpatrick, “Business in a Common Tongue,” Wall Street Journal, August 28, 2017, p. A15.

14   David Deterding, Singapore English (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2007), pp. 4–5; Sandra L. Suárez, “Does English Rule? Language Instruction and Economic Strategies in Singapore, Ireland, and Puerto Rico,” Comparative Politics, Vol. 37, No. 4 (July 2005), pp. 465, 467–468.

15   Malcolm Gladwell, Outliers: The Story of Success (New York: Little, Brown and Company, 2008), pp. 89–90. See also Joel N. Shurkin, Terman’s Kids: The Groundbreaking Study of How the Gifted Grow Up (Boston: Little, Brown & Company, 1992), p. 35; Wolfgang Saxon, “William B. Shockley, 79, Creator of Transistor and Theory on Race,” New York Times, August 14, 1989, p. D9; J.Y. Smith, “Luis Alvarez, Nobel-Winning Atomic Physicist, Dies,” Washington Post, September 3, 1988, p. B6.

16   William S. Maltby, The Rise and Fall of the Spanish Empire (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009), p. 18; Peter Pierson, The History of Spain (Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1999), pp. 7–8.

17   John H. Chambers, A Traveller’s History of Australia (New York: Interlink Books, 1999), p. 35.

18   Leon Volovici, Nationalist Ideology and Antisemitism: The Case of Romanian Intellectuals in the 1930s, translated by Charles Kormos (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1991), p. 60.

19   “Not One But Two New Malay Dilemmas,” Straits Times (Singapore), August 1, 2002.

20   Joseph Rothschild, East Central Europe between the Two World Wars (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1992), p. 385.

21   Irina Livezeanu, Cultural Politics in Greater Romania: Regionalism, Nation Building, & Ethnic Struggle, 1918–1930 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1995), pp. 30–31, 235–236, 241.

22   John M. Richardson, “Violent Conflict and the First Half Decade of Open Economy Policies in Sri Lanka: A Revisionist View,” Economy, Culture, and Civil War in Sri Lanka, edited by Deborah Winslow and Michael D. Woost (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2004), pp. 63–65.

23   Carl K. Fisher, “Facing up to Africa’s Food Crisis,” Foreign Affairs, Fall 1982, pp. 166, 170.

24   W. E. B. Du Bois, The Philadelphia Negro: A Social Study (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1996), p. 395. Generations later, Professor Edward C. Banfield posed essentially the same question by asking what the outcome would be if all blacks suddenly turned white. His answer was very similar to the answer given earlier by Du Bois. Edward C. Banfield, The Unheavenly City Revisited (Prospect Heights, Illinois: Waveland Press, 1990), pp. 85–86.

25   Victor Purcell, The Chinese in Southeast Asia, second edition (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1965), p. 184; U. S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States: Colonial Times to 1970 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1975), Part 1, p. 422.

26   Henry Morgenthau, Ambassador Morgenthau’s Story (Garden City, New York: Doubleday, Page & Company, 1919), pp. 301, 322.

27   See, for example, Paul Johnson, A History of the Jews (New York: Harper & Row Publishers, 1987), pp. 216–217; Michael Miller, “The Ukraine Commission of the Joint Distribution Committee, 1920, with Insight from the Judge Harry Fisher Papers,” Jewish Social Studies, Vol. 49, No. 1 (Winter 1987), pp. 53–60.

28   Empirical studies have demonstrated the negative consequences of admitting students under group quotas to academic institutions whose standards they do not meet, whether in the United States or elsewhere. See, for example, Richard Sander and Stuart Taylor, Jr., Mismatch: How Affirmative Action Hurts Students It’s Intended to Help, and Why Universities Won’t Admit It (New York: Basic Books, 2012), and my own Affirmative Action Around the World: An Empirical Study (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004). An attempt to vindicate such group preferences—The Shape of the River: Long-Term Consequences of Considering Race in College and University Admissions (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1998), by William G. Bowen and Derek Bok—was widely acclaimed in the media but, among its major flaws was that its authors refused to reveal the raw data on which its statistical conclusions were based.

29   Thomas Sowell, Wealth, Poverty and Politics, revised and enlarged edition (New York: Basic Books, 2016), pp. 396–399.

30   Alison Stewart, First Class: The Legacy of Dunbar, America’s First Black Public High School (Chicago: Lawrence Hill Books, 2013), pp. 91–93.

31   Ibid., p. 90.

32   See “Success Academy: #1 in New York,” downloaded from the website of Success Academy Charter Schools: http://www.successacademies.org/app/uploads/2017/08/sa_1_in_new_york.pdf.

33   “The NAACP’s Disgrace,” Wall Street Journal, October 17, 2016, p. A14; “A Misguided Attack on Charter Schools,” New York Times, October 13, 2016, p. A24; “The NAACP vs. Minority Children,” Wall Street Journal, August 27, 2016, p. A10; Emma Brown, “School Choice Is Not the Answer, NAACP Asserts,” Washington Post, July 27, 2017, p. A14.

34   Jervis Anderson, “A Very Special Monument,” The New Yorker, March 20, 1978, pp. 93, 113, 114.

35   Mats Hammarstedt, “Assimilation and Participation in Social Assistance Among Immigrants,” International Journal of Social Welfare, Vol. 18, Issue 1 (January 2009), pp. 86, 87.

36   Silje Vatne Pettersen and Lars Ostby, “Immigrants in Norway, Sweden and Denmark,” Samfunnsspeilet, May 2013, p. 79.

37   Mats Hammarstedt, “Assimilation and Participation in Social Assistance Among Immigrants,” International Journal of Social Welfare, Vol. 18, Issue 1 (January 2009), pp. 87, 89.

38   Tino Sanandaji, “Open Hearts, Open Borders,” National Review, January 26, 2015, p. 25.

39   Richard Milne, “Swedish Prime Minister Baffled by Public Gloom,” Financial Times (London), April 12, 2016, p. 10.

40   Tino Sanandaji, “Open Hearts, Open Borders,” National Review, January 26, 2015, p. 25.

41   Hugh Eakin, “Scandinavians Split Over Syrian Influx,” New York Times, September 21, 2014, Sunday Review, page 4.

42   Peter Nannestad, “Immigration as a Challenge to the Danish Welfare State?” European Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 20, Issue 3 (September 2004), p. 760.

43   Christopher Caldwell, “A Swedish Dilemma,” Weekly Standard, February 28, 2005, p. 21.

44   Ibid., p. 22.

45   Ruud Koopmans, “Trade-Offs Between Equality and Difference: Immigration Integration, Multiculturalism and the Welfare State in Cross-National Perspective,” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, Vol. 36, No. 1 (January 2010), p. 19.

46   Christopher Caldwell, “Islam on the Outskirts of the Welfare State,” New York Times Magazine, February 5, 2006, p. 58.

47   Thomas Sowell, Wealth, Poverty and Politics, revised and enlarged edition, pp. 110–115.

48   Victor Purcell, The Chinese in Southeast Asia, second edition, pp. 128, 268–269, 540.

49   Carlo M. Cipolla, Clocks and Culture: 1300–1700 (New York: Walker and Company, 1967), pp. 66–69.

50   Lucy Forney Bittinger, The Germans in Colonial Times (Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott Company, 1901), p. 233.

51   Pyong Gap Min, Caught in the Middle: Korean Communities in New York and Los Angeles (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996), p. 1.

52   Oli Smith, “Migrants at War,” Express.UK (Online), January 28, 2017.

53   John Stuart Mill, Principles of Political Economy, edited by W.J. Ashley (New York: Longmans, Green and Company, 1909), p. 947.

54   John Larkin, “Newspaper Nirvana? 300 Dailies Court India’s Avid Readers,” Wall Street Journal, May 5, 2006, pp. B1, B3; “Poverty,” The Economist, April 21, 2007, p. 110; “Unlocking the Potential,” The Economist, June 2, 2001, p. 13; Charles Adams, “China—Growth and Economic Reforms,” World Economic Outlook, October 1997, pp. 119–127.

55   Daniel Yergin and Joseph Stanislaw, The Commanding Heights: The Battle Between Government and the Marketplace That Is Remaking the Modern World (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1998), pp. 35–38, 140, 167, 171–172; Surjit S. Bhalla and Paul Glewwe, “Growth and Equity in Developing Countries: A Reinterpretation of the Sri Lankan Experience,” World Bank Economic Review, Vol. 1, No. 1 (September 1986), pp. 35, 36, 51–52, 53, 61.

56   Thomas C. Leonard, Illiberal Reformers: Race, Eugenics & American Economics in the Progressive Era (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2016), pp. 158–164.

57   Thomas Nagel, “The Meaning of Equality,” Washington University Law Review Volume 1979, Issue 1 (January 1979), p. 28.

58   On July 13, 2012, President Barack Obama made a speech in which he stated: “If you were successful, somebody along the line gave you some help. There was a great teacher somewhere in your life. Somebody helped to create this unbelievable American system that we have that allowed you to thrive. Somebody invested in roads and bridges. If you’ve got a business—you didn’t build that. Somebody else made that happen.” “You Didn’t Build That,” Wall Street Journal, July 18, 2012, p. A14. Elizabeth Warren had made similar remarks in August 2011 during her campaign for the U.S. Senate: “There is nobody in this country who got rich on his own. Nobody! You built a factory out there—good for you! But I want to be clear: You moved your goods to market on the roads the rest of us paid for. You hired workers the rest of us paid to educate. You were safe in your factory because of police forces and fire forces that the rest of us paid for. You didn’t have to worry that marauding bands would come and seize everything at your factory… because of work the rest of us did.” Jeff Jacoby, “Entrepreneurs Don’t Deserve the Professor’s Ire,” Boston Globe, September 28, 2011, p. A13.

59   See, for example, John Katzman and Steve Cohen, “Let’s Agree: Racial Affirmative Action Failed,” Wall Street Journal, October 27, 2017, p. A15.

60   There is much evidence that the ostensible beneficiaries of affirmative action in college admissions have been negatively affected in many ways. See, for example, Richard Sander and Stuart Taylor, Jr. Mismatch, Chapters 3, 4, 6. A brief summary of some of their key findings can be found in Thomas Sowell, “The Perversity of Diversity,” Claremont Review of Books, Fall 2012, pp. 76–78. For documented examples of the social backlash, both in the United States, and in India, see Thomas Sowell, Inside American Education: The Decline, the Deception, the Dogmas (New York: Free Press, 1993), Chapter 6; Thomas Sowell, Affirmative Action Around the World, pp. 17–18, 50, 148–149.

61   Stephan Thernstrom and Abigail Thernstrom, “Reflections on The Shape of the River,” UCLA Law Review, Vol. 46, No. 5 (June 1999), p. 1589.

62   “Going Global,” The Economist, December 19, 2015, p. 107. See also M.A. Tribe, “Economic Aspects of The Expulsion of Asians from Uganda,” Expulsion of a Minority: Essays on Ugandan Asians, edited by Michael Twaddle (London: The Athlone Press for the Institute of Commonwealth Studies, 1975), pp. 140–176.

63   Amy Chua and Jed Rubenfeld, The Triple Package: How Three Unlikely Traits Explain the Rise and Fall of Cultural Groups in America (New York: The Penguin Press, 2014), pp. 36–39.

64   Nathan Glazer, American Judaism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1957), p. 13.

65   David S. Landes, Revolution in Time: Clocks and the Making of the Modern World (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1983), pp. 237–238; Warren C. Scoville, “The Huguenots and the Diffusion of Technology II,” Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 60, No. 5 (October 1952), p. 408.

66   Cacilie Rohwedder, “Germans, Czechs Are Hobbled by History as Europe Moves Toward United Future,” Wall Street Journal, November 25, 1996, p. A15; Ulla Dahlerup, “Sojourn in Sudetenland,” Sudeten Bulletin/Central European Review, December 1965, pp. 395–403.

67   “Your Mine Is Mine,” The Economist, September 3, 2011, p. 64.

68   See, for example, Orlando Patterson, Slavery and Social Death: A Comparative Study (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1982), p. 176; Stanley L. Engerman, Slavery, Emancipation & Freedom: Comparative Perspectives (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2007), pp. 3, 4; William D. Phillips, Jr., Slavery from Roman Times to the Early Transatlantic Trade (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1985), pp. 46, 47; Ellen Churchill Semple, Influences of Geographic Environment (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1911), p. 90; R.W. Beachey, The Slave Trade of Eastern Africa (New York: Barnes & Noble Books, 1976), p. 182; Harold D. Nelson, et al., Nigeria: A Country Study (Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1982), p. 16; Christina Snyder, Slavery in Indian Country: The Changing Face of Captivity in Early America (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2010), pp. 4, 5; T’ung-tsu Ch’ü, Han Social Structure, edited by Jack L. Dull (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1972), pp. 140–141.

69   William D. Phillips, Jr., Slavery from Roman Times to the Early Transatlantic Trade, pp. 34, 59; Martin A. Klein, “Introduction: Modern European Expansion and Traditional Servitude in Africa and Asia,” Breaking the Chains: Slavery, Bondage, and Emancipation in Modern Africa and Asia, edited by Martin A. Klein (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1993), p. 15.

70   See, for example, Andrew Cockburn, “21st Century Slaves,” National Geographic, September 2003, pp. 2–25; “Slaves to Its Past,” The Economist, July 21, 2018, p. 36; Simon Robinson and Nancy Palus, “An Awful Human Trade,” Time, April 30, 2001, pp. 40–41; “Slave Trade in Africa Highlighted by Arrests,” New York Times, August 10, 1997, Foreign Desk, p. 9.

71   Paul Krugman, The Conscience of a Liberal (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2007), p. 11.

72   Adam Smith, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (New York: Modern Library, 1937), p. 365.

73   Robert C. Davis, Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast, and Italy, 1500–1800 (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003), p. 23; Philip D. Curtin, The Atlantic Slave Trade: A Census (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1969), pp. 72, 75, 87.

74   Monique O’Connell and Eric R. Dursteler, The Mediterranean World: From the Fall of Rome to the Rise of Napoleon (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University, 2016), p. 252. See also Robert C. Davis, Holy War and Human Bondage: Tales of Christian-Muslim Slavery in the Early-Modern Mediterranean (Santa Barbara: Praeger, 2009), pp. 87–89; Fernand Braudel, The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II, translated by Siân Reynolds (New York: Harper & Row, 1972), Vol. I, p. 130; Fernand Braudel, The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II, translated by Siân Reynolds (New York: Harper & Row, 1973), Vol. 2, pp. 845–849.

75   Edmund Burke, Reflections on the Revolution in France and Other Writings, edited by Jesse Norman (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2015), p. 549.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

1     “The whole science of anthropo-geography is as yet too young for hard-and-fast rules, and its subject matter too complex for formulas.” Ellen Churchill Semple, Influences of Geographic Environment (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1911), p. 125.

2     Ibid., p. 7.

3     Despite Professor Semple’s many examples of how geographic isolation can leave a people lagging far behind the progress of the rest of the world, she also pointed out situations in which a certain amount of geographic isolation could be protective during “the early development of a people.” Ellen Churchill Semple, American History and Its Geographic Conditions (Boston: Houghton, Mifflin and Company, 1903), p. 36.

4     N.J.G. Pounds, An Historical Geography of Europe 1800–1914 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), p. 1.

5     Ibid., p. 43.

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