NOTES
PREFACE
1 Pew Research Center,
Pew Global Attitudes Project, June 2008.
2 Significant contributions to this debate include Bhagwati,
In Defense of Globalization; Friedman,
The World Is Flat; Mickelthwaite and Wooldridge,
A Future Perfect; Stiglitz,
Globalization and Its Discontents and
Making Globalization Work; Tonelson,
The Race to the Bottom; Wolf,
Why Globalization Works.
3 Polanyi,
The Great Transformation.
4 Dougherty,
Who’s Afraid of Adam Smith? 6.
PART I
CHAPTER 1 (pgs. 3-8)
1 See Gillham et al.,
Cotton Production Prospects, as well as data reported at
www.usdagov/nass/..
2 Porter,
The Competitive Advantage of Nations,15.
3 See Oxfam, “Fairness in the Fields” and “Cultivating Poverty.”
4 Williams, “Talks Unravel over Cotton.”
5 De Jonquières and Williams, “Top WTO Nations Hail Deal on Doha.”
CHAPTER 2 (pgs. 9-23)
1 Quoted in Dodge,
Cotton: The Plant That Would Be King, 40-41.
2 Data are from Bruchey,
Cotton and the Growth of the American Economy, which also contains an in-depth discussion of the U.S. cotton industry during this period.
3 Earle, “The Price of Precocity: Technical Choice and Ecological Constraint in the Cotton South, 1840-1890.”
4 Wright,
The Political Economy of the Cotton South.
5 Callender, “The Early Transportation and Banking Enterprises of the States in Relation to the Growth of Corporations,” 118.
6 Wright,
The Political Economy of the Cotton South, 28, 52.
7 Breeden,
Advice Among Masters: The Ideal in Slave Management in the Old South, contains a number of rich sources on the planters’ management of slave labor.
8 DeBow, reproduced in Bruchey,
Cotton and the Growth of the American Economy, 84.
9 Whitney’s letters are compiled in Hammond, “Correspondence of Eli Whitney Relative to the Invention of the Cotton Gin.”
10 Bruchey,
Cotton and the Growth of the American Economy, Tables 1a and 1c.
11 Landes,
The Wealth and Poverty of Nations, 157.
17 Andrews (1853), reproduced in Bruchey, 71. Other Western European colonies, of course, also relied on slave labor. Production on plantations in the Caribbean and South America was devoted especially to sugar and rubber.
18 Hammond, “Speech Before the U.S. Senate, 1858,”
Congressional Globe, March 4, 1859, p. 959.
20 A recent study of this topic is Schmidt,
Free to Work. See also the discussion in Daniel,
Breaking the Land.
21 In
The Cotton Plantation South, Aiken discusses the implication of crop lien laws during this period.
22 Johnson, Embree, and Alexander,
The Collapse of Cotton Tenancy, 25.
23 Rosengarten,
All God’s Dangers, 106.
24 Johnson, Embree, and Alexander,
The Collapse of Cotton Tenancy, 12.
25 See Daniel,
Breaking the Land, Chapter 1, for a discussion of the government’s attempt to manage the boll weevil and the disparate effects on rich and poor farmers.
26 Street,
The New Revolution in the Cotton Economy, 38.
27 Rosengarten,
All God’s Dangers, 144.
29 Foley,
The White Scourge, 120.
30 Aiken,
The Cotton Plantation South, 109.
31 Material on the Taft Ranch is from Foley (1996 and 1997).
CHAPTER 3 (pgs. 24-48)
1 Chapters 3 and 4 are largely based on interviews conducted in Lubbock and the surrounding area during eight visits between 2000 and 2008. Interviewees include Nelson, Ruth, and Lamar Reinsch; Wally Darneille, Bryan Gregory, John Johnson, Grady Martin, Joseph Tubb, Lonnie Winters, and Jack Kenwright of the Plains Cotton Cooperative Association; Don Harper and Ron Harkey of the Farmers Cooperative Compress; Randy Kennedy and Barbara Burleson of the Citizens Shallowater Cooperative Gin; Michael Henson, Levelland cotton grower; Craig Moore of PYCO; Kenny Day of the USDA Lubbock classing office; Roger Haldenby of Plains Cotton Growers; Professors Randy Allen, Dick Auld, Donna Davis, and Dale Duhan of Texas Tech University; Ralph and Naomi Hoelscher, organic cotton growers; Kelly Pepper of Texas Organic Marketing Cooperative; and Craig Moore of PYCO Industries. In Washington, Hunter Colby, Stephen MacDonald, and Carol Skelly of the USDA were helpful on several occasions. I conducted telephone interviews with Dave Kinard of the National Cottonseed Producer’s Association, Gail Kring of PYCO, Terry Townsend of the International Cotton Advisory Committee, and Ed Price of the USDA.
3 Blackburn, “Cotton Stripped from Texas Tech Seal.”
4 Day, “The Economics of Technological Change and the Demise of the Sharecropper.” Other classic studies on the mechanization of cotton production include Sayre, “Cotton Mechanization Since World War II,” and Street,
The New Revolution in the Cotton Economy. See also Ellenberg,
From Mule South to Tractor South.
5 Rosengarten,
All God’s Dangers, 466.
6 In
Mule South to Tractor South, historian George Ellenberg traces both the history and the social significance of the shift from mules to tractors in the Deep South.
7 Quoted in Grove, “The Mexican Farm Labor Program,” 309.
8 Foley, “Mexicans, Mechanization, and the Growth of Corporate Cotton Culture,” 285, 295.
9 Grove, “The Mexican Farm Labor Program,” 307.
11 Daniel,
Breaking the Land, 94-95.
12 Rosengarten,
All God’s Dangers, 500.
14 Dewan, “Black Farmers’ Refrain: Where’s All Our Money?” and Fears, “USDA Is Called Lax on Bias.”
16 Gwin, “Looking Back: No Cotton Picking for Me, Thanks.”
19 Pollock, “Widely Used Crop Herbicide Is Losing Weed Resistance.”
20 Laws, “Growers Say: Flex May Revolutionize Weed Control.”
21 The cost multiple is my estimate, based on communications with Roger Haldenby of Plains Cotton Growers.
22 Sales data are from Hoovers Online, accessed 5/14/2007. Though the chemical formulation in Roundup herbicide no longer enjoys patent protection, Monsanto employs a number of strategies to keep growers from switching to generic versions.
23 Stock prices obtained from
www.cnnfn.com, accessed May 18, 2008. Also see Anderson, “Monsanto’s Dominance Continues.”
24 A nontechnical description of Bt cotton challenges is Barnett, “Economic Challenges of Transgenic Crops: The Case of Bt Cotton.”
25 USDA, “Adoption of Genetically Engineered Crops in the U.S.: Cotton Varieties.”
26 Studies on the economic impact of GM cotton include Frisvold and Reeves, “Economywide Impacts of Bt Cotton”; Blackshear, Johnson, and Gum, “Profitability and Cost of Production of Roundup Ready versus Conventional Cotton Varieties in the Southern High Plains of Texas”; Brookes and Barfoot,
GM Crops: The First Ten Years.
27 Wally Darneille of the Plains Cotton Cooperative told me that the typical west Texas grower might perform up to 15 insecticide sprays per season with conventional cotton and only one or two with Bt cotton. This is consistent with research that shows that insecticide use has dropped sharply with the adoption of Bt cotton. See, for example, Becker, “Insecticides Reduced in Runoff from Bt Cotton.”
28 Richardson, “Food Shortage Recasts Image of ‘Organic.”’
29 Weiss, “Firms Seek Patents of ‘Climate Ready’ Altered Crops.”
31 Roberson, “Herbicide-Resistant Weeds Plague Cotton, Peanut Growers”; Pollack, “Widely Used Crop Herbicide Is Losing Weed Resistance.”
33 See Hartley, “Grain Farmer Claims Moral Victory in Seed Battle,” and Simon, “Monsanto Wins Patent Case on Plant Genes.”
34 Brookes and Barfoot:
GM Crops: The First Ten Years.
35 Traxler and Falck-Zepeda, “The Distribution of Benefits from the Introduction of Transgenic Cotton Varieties.”
CHAPTER 4 (pgs. 49-73)
1 In
Cotton’s Renaissance, Jacobson and Smith provide a careful study of marketing innovation in the industry.
2 See Anthony and Mayfield,
Cotton Ginners Handbook, 6 and USDA, “New Technologies for Cotton Gins Combine for Big Savings.”
3 For a survey of USDA involvement in this research, see Finlay, “The Industrial Utilization of Farm Products and By-Products: The USDA Regional Research Laboratories.”
4 Sansom, “From Trash to Treasure.”
5 Wrenn,
Cinderella of the New South, xvi.
6 Lichtenstein,
Field to Fabric, 33.
7 USITC Dataweb, accessed 5/16/2008.
8 Hayes, “Aquaculture Gets Hooked on Oilmeals,” 1.
10 Buckley, “Starting at the Bottom,” 2B.
12 Personal communication with Mr. Ron Harkey, President of the FCC, May 16, 2007.
13 This discussion of the cotton farmers’ early foray into the textile industry is based on Lichtenstein,
Field to Fabric. The material on the current operations of the mill is based on my discussions with Bryan Gregory, VP of Textile Manufacturing for Plains Cotton Growers, in December 2007.
14 Rosengarten,
All God’s Dangers, 190.
15 Lichtenstein,
Field to Fabric, 38.
16 USDA,
The Classification of Cotton, contains a description of HVI cotton-testing processes.
17 Oxfam,
Cultivating Poverty, discussed throughout.
18 Agricultural Outlook reported in “Cultivating Poverty,” 33; Hart, “Agricultural Situation Spotlight,” Figure 1.
19 This description of the 2002 Farm Bill is necessarily simplified. In particular, I abstract from the “base acreage/base yield” complexities, which link the farmers’ direct payment and the countercyclical payment to their historical cotton acreage and yields, rather than to current production. Farmers may receive these payments even if their land is not planted in cotton, or even if it is not planted at all. Subsidies therefore technically depend on historical acreage and yields rather than current acreage and yields. Also, the “loan rate” is adjusted for cotton quality. For a detailed description, see Westcott, Young, and Price,
The 2002 Farm Act.
20 Meyer, MacDonald, and Foreman, “Cotton Backgrounder,” 21-22.
24 Carter, “Subsidies’ Harvest of Misery”; Oxfam, “Fairness in the Fields”; Bread for the World’s Campaign directed at the 2007 Farm Bill is described at
www.bread.org.
25 James and Griswold, “Freeing the Farm: A Farm Bill for All Americans”; Reidl, “Seven Reasons to Veto the Farm Bill.” The Bush Administration proposed that government payments under the crop subsidy programs be limited for farmers earning over $200,000 per year. Related press releases are at
www.whitehouse.gov.
26 The Environmental Working Group has compiled more than 400 newspaper editorials opposed to the 2007 Farm Bill. See
www.ewg.org/farmeditorials.
27 The formal title of the “Farm Bill” is the Food, Conservation, and Energy Act of 2008.
28 Grassley, “Smearing Lipstick on a Pig.”
29 FAOSTAT, cited in Oxfam, “Cultivating Poverty,” 9. Additional detail for African producers is in Baghdadli, Cheikhrouhou, and Raballand, “Strategies for Cotton in West and Central Africa.”
30 Chaudhry,
Update on Costs of Producing Cotton in the World.
31 ICAC and Estur, “Africa’s Cotton in the World.”
33 Under pressure from the WTO and other cotton-producing countries, the United States plans to continue to decouple production from subsidies so that subsidies do not lead to higher production. However, because of the specialized assets associated with cotton production, subsidies—even when decoupled from production—often encourage higher cotton production.
34 Econometric studies of the effects of cotton subsidies include Anderson, Martin, and der Mensbrugghe, “Doha Merchandise Trade Reform: What Is at Stake for Developing Countries?”; Pan,
The Impact of U.S. Cotton Programs; Poonyth et al.,
The Impact of Domestic and Trade Policies on the World Cotton Market; Sumner,
A Quantitative Simulation Analysis of the Impacts of U.S. Cotton Subsidies on Cotton Prices and Quantities; and Tokarick,
Measuring the Impact of Distortions in Agricultural Trade in Partial and General Equilibrium. See also The World Bank,
World Development Report 2008, Chapter 4.
35 This point is developed in several articles compiled in Moseley and Gray,
Hanging by a Thread: Cotton, Globalization, and Poverty in Africa.
36 For Benin, see Bingen, “Genetically Engineered Cotton.” For Burkina Faso, see Gray, “Cotton Production in Burkina Faso.”
37 See the sources cited in Eisa et al.,
Cotton Production Prospects, 26. On the challenges facing African cotton farmers, see Carr,
Improving Cash Crops in Africa; Baghdadli, Cheikhrouhou, and Raballand, “Strategies for Cotton in West and Central Africa.”
38 Lapierre-Fortin,
Constructing Fair Trade from the Bottom Up: An Examination of Notions of Fairness in the Conventional Cotton Trade of Burkina Faso.
39 See the research discussed in Baghdadli, Cheikrouhou, and Raballand, “Strategies for Cotton in West and Central Africa,” 41.
40 Baghdadli, Cheikhrouhou, and Raballand, “Strategies for Cotton in West and Central Africa,” 46.
41 Bassett, “Producing Poverty: Power Relations and Price Formation in the Cotton Commodity Chains of West Africa,” 54.
42 Lapierre-Fortin,
Constructing Fair Trade from the Bottom Up: An Examination of Notions of Fairness in the Conventional Cotton Trade of Burkina Faso, 56. On the monopoly power of cotton traders and input suppliers, see Bassett, “Producing Poverty: Power Relations and Price Formation in the Cotton Commodity Chains of West Africa.”
43 Eisa et al.,
Cotton Production Prospects, 28.
44 Kutting, “Globalization, Poverty and the Environment in West Africa: Too Poor to Pollute?”
45 On the challenge of organic cotton production in poor countries, see Dowd, “Organic Cotton in Sub-Saharan Africa: A New Development Paradigm?” and ICAC, “Limitations on Organic Cotton Production.” A more optimistic view is Lakhal and H’Mida, “The Economics of Organic and Conventional Cotton Cultivation in Mali: Country and Farmers Analysis.”
46 Huang et al., “Bt Cotton Benefits, Costs, and Impacts in China.”
47 The results are summarized in Wang, Just, and Pinstrup-Andersen, “Bt Cotton and Secondary Pests.”
48 Wang, Just, and Pinstrup-Andersen, “Tarnishing Silver Bullets,” 8.
49 Smale, Zambrano, and Cartel, “Bales and Balance: A Review of the Methods Used to Assess the Economic Impact of Bt Cotton on Farmers in Developing Economies,” 209.
50 For a discussion of the research related to illegal cottonseed in India, see Frisvold and Reeves, “Economy-wide Impacts of Bt Cotton.”
51 For the specific case of Africa, see Paarlberg,
Starved for Science.
52 ICAC, “Executive Summary of the Report of the Second Expert Panel on Biotechnology of Cotton.”
53 See Delmer, “Agriculture in the Developing World: Connecting Innovations in Plant Research to Downstream Applications”; The World Bank,
Agriculture for Development, Chapter 7; Kiers et al., “Agriculture at a Crossroads.”
54 Bradsher and Martin, “World’s Poor Pay Price as Crop Research Is Cut.”
55 The World Bank,
Agriculture for Development, 167.
56 Baghdadli, Cheikhrouhou, and Raballand, “Strategies for Cotton in West and Central Africa.”
PART II
CHAPTER 5 (pgs. 77-91)
1 In addition to the secondary sources cited, I have relied on interviews and factory visits in China during eight visits between 2000 and 2008. The most extensive interviews were conducted with Patrick Xu, Hong Yan, Tao Yong Fang, Su Qin, Li Guo Ping, He Yuan Zhi, Mike Mikkelborg, Lijun Qu, and Manfred Tsai. A number of workers and managers with whom I spoke declined to be named.
2 Laws, “China Cotton Consumption Trends Up.”
3 United States International Trade Commission Dataweb, accessed 5/28/08.
4 See Honig,
Sisters and Strangers, Table 1, 24. A detailed study of the labor-management relations in the early cotton textile industry in eastern China is Köll,
From Cotton Mill to Business Empire.
5 The classic account of the Chinese labor movement during this period is Chesneaux,
The Chinese Labor Movement.
6 Honig,
Sisters and Strangers, 10.
7 Quoted in Ling,
In Search of Old Shanghai, 93.
8 Honig,
Sisters and Strangers, 1.
9 Reporters without Borders ranks China 44 out of 48 countries in freedom of the press, while the Milkin Institute ranks China 58 out of 71 in its “Opacity Index.”
10 Giles, “China’s Labor Market in the Wake of Economic Restructuring.”
11 Chinese Chamber of Commerce for Export and Import of Textiles, accessed 6/2/08.
12 Import data are from OTEXA, for apparel categories 338 and 339.
13 World Trade Atlas, accessed 5/28/08.
15 Author’s calculations from UN Comtrade data, based on SITC code 84 (apparel).
17 For a comprehensive treatment of China’s environmental challenges, see Economy,
The River Runs Black.
CHAPTER 6 (pgs. 92-104)
1 For comparative indicators of development, see Pomeranz,
The Great Divergence.
2 See Blue, “China and Western Social Thought in the Modern Period.”
3 Chao and Chao,
The Development of Cotton Textile Production in China, 28.
4 Quoted in Dodge,
Cotton: The Plant That Would Be King, 21.
6 Deane,
The First Industrial Revolution, 92.
8 A recent discussion of labor policies in early British textile factories is in Rose,
Firms, Networks, and Business Values.
9 Pinchbeck,
Women Workers and the Industrial Revolution, 188.
13 Robson,
The Cotton Industry in Britain, Table A2, 334; Bazely (1854), cited in Farnie,
The English Cotton Industry and the World Market.
14 Dalzell,
Enterprising Elites, 5.
17 Rose,
Firms, Networks, and Business Values, 41.
19 Rose,
Firms, Networks, and Business Values, 198.
20 Cited in Ware,
The Early New England Cotton Manufacture, 249.
24 See Josephson,
The Golden Threads, for an early treatment of the social controls on New England mill girls. Additional insight may be gleaned from the letters collected in Dublin,
Farm to Factory.
25 Josephson,
The Golden Threads, 23.
26 Hareven and Langenbach,
Amoskeag, 20.
27 Kane,
Textiles in Transition, presents a careful study of the movement of the U.S. cotton textile industry from New England to the South. A more recent study is English,
A Common Thread.
28 For analyses of wage differentials between Northern and Southern mills, see Wright, “Cheap Labor and Southern Textiles,” and Kane,
Textiles in Transition.
29 Holleran, “Child Labor and Exploitation in Turn-of-the-Century Cotton Mills.”
30 Saxonhouse and Wright, “Two Forms of Cheap Labor in Textile History.”
31 Hearden,
Independence and Empire, 125.
33 U.S. Department of State, cited in Hearden, 66.
37 Michl, cited in Rose,
Firms, Networks, and Business Values, 204.
38 Copeland,
The Cotton Manufacturing Industry of the United States, 40-41.
40 Byerly,
Hard Times Cotton Mill Girls, 45.
42 Robson,
The Cotton Industry in Britain, 4.
43 Destler, Fukui, and Sato,
Textile Wrangle, 29.
44 McNamara,
Textiles and Industrial Transition, 36-37.
45 Chokki, “Labor Management in the Cotton Spinning Industry.”
46 Moser,
The Cotton Textile Industry of Far Eastern Countries, 13.
47 Tsurumi,
Factory Girls, 107.
49 Cited in Chokki, “Labor Management,” 8.
50 Moser,
The Cotton Textile Industry of Far Eastern Countries, 16.
51 See Chokki, 160, and Tsurumi, Chapter 8.
52 For numerous accounts of working conditions in early Japanese textile factories, see Tsurumi,
Factory Girls.
53 These techniques are discussed at length in Macnaughtan,
Women, Work and the Japanese Economic Miracle.
54 Superb analyses of the geographic movement of the textile and apparel industries in search of lower costs are in Anderson,
New Silk Roads.
55 Beazer,
The Commercial Future of Hong Kong, 61, 67.
56 Berger and Lester,
Made by Hong Kong, 142.
57 Song,
The Rise of the Korean Economy, 105; Scott, “Foreign Trade,” 337.
58 Scott, “Foreign Trade,” 360.
CHAPTER 7 (pgs. 105-119)
1 For a complete historical treatment of China’s hukou system, see Solinger,
Contesting Citizenship in Urban China.
2 Mackenzie, “Strangers in the City.”
4 Lu, “Balancing Rural-Urban Relations for the Sake of Rural Residents,” cited in Lee,
Against the Law, 6.
5 “Human Rights in China,”
Institutionalized Exclusion.
7 Wang and Zuo, “Inside China’s Cities: Institutional Barriers and Opportunities for Urban Migrants.”
8 Liang and Ma’s “China’s Floating Population: New Evidence from the 2000 Census” provides a survey of the hukou system and its effects. For a study specific to Shanghai, see Feng, Zuo, and Ruan, “Rural Migrants in Shanghai: Living under the Shadow of Socialism.”
10 Wu, “Migrant Housing in Urban China,” cited in Lee,
Against the Law, 57.
12 Wu and Treiman, “The Household Registration System and Social Stratification in China.”
13 “Off to the City,”
The Economist.
14 Whalley and Zhang, “A Numerical Simulation Analysis of (hukou) Labor Mobility Restrictions in China”; De’murger et al., “Geography, Economic Policy, and Regional Development in China.” Similarly, liberalization of the hukou system has been found to reduce inequality. See Hertel and Zhai, “Labor Market Distortions, Rural-Urban Inequality and the Opening of China’s Economy,” and
China Daily, “Graduates Prefer Hukou over High Salary.”
15 Woodman, “China’s Dirty Clean Up.”
17 Knight, Song, and Huaibin, “Chinese Rural Migrants.”
18 “Off to the City,”
The Economist.
19 Amnesty International, “People’s Republic of China: Internal Migrants: Discrimination and Abuse—The Human Cost of an Economic ‘Miracle.”’
20 Kuhn, “Migrants: A High Price to Pay for a Job,” 30.
22 Amnesty International, “People’s Republic of China,” 12.
23 See the studies cited in Amnesty International, “People’s Republic of China.”
24 Knight, Song, and Huaibin, “Chinese Rural Migrants,” 92.
26 Wang,
Organizing Through Division and Exclusion: China’s Hukou System, 120. On the role of the hukou system in China’s economic development see also Zhu, “China’s Floating Population and Their Settlement Intention in the Cities: Beyond the Hukou Reform.”
27 For a survey of China labor issues, see Chan,
China’s Workers under Assault. For a recent account of the lives of young women in China’s factories, see Chang,
Factory Girls.
28 Pinchbeck,
Women Workers and the Industrial Revolution, 17.
29 Byerly,
Hard Times Cotton Mill Girls, 64-65.
30 Lee,
Gender and the South China Miracle, 78.
33 Honig,
Creating Chinese Ethnicity, 62-63.
34 Hall et al.,
Like a Family, 66.
35 See Minchin,
What Do We Need a Union For? for an in-depth treatment of the integration of the Southern textile industry.
36 Hall et al.,
Like a Family, 157.
37 Byerly,
Hard Times Cotton Mill Girls, 141.
39 Kristof and WuDunn,
Thunder from the East, 128.
40 Josephson,
The Golden Threads, 64.
41 Lee,
Gender and the South China Miracle.
45 For Korea, see Kim,
Class Struggle or Family Struggle? For Taiwan, see Kung,
Factory Women in Taiwan.
46 Josephson,
The Golden Threads, 92.
47 Frowne (1902), quoted in Stein,
Out of the Sweatshop.
48 Hessler, “Letter from China.”
49 Hume (1748), quoted in Anderson,
New Silk Roads, xvix.
50 Schlosser, “Urban Life,” 22.
51 Pressley, “The South’s New-Car Smell,” A1.
52 Goodman, “In NC, a Second Industrial Revolution.”
53 Mui, “Ikea Helps a Town Put It Together,” A1.
54 For a discussion of the role of the apparel industry in broader development, see Schrank, “Ready-to-Wear Development? Foreign Investment, Technology Transfer, and Learning by Watching in the Apparel Trade.”
CHAPTER 8 (pgs. 120-139)
1 See discussions in Varley,
The Sweatshop Quandary, and Pollin et al.,
Global Apparel Production . Dickson (2000) discusses the effects of social issues on apparel consumers’ behavior.
2 Hutchins and Harrison,
History of Factory Legislation, provides a full account of early British factory legislation.
3 Engels,
The Condition of the Working Class, 170.
5 Byerly,
Hard Times Cotton Mill Girls, 85.
6 Tsurumi,
Factory Girls, 44, 168.
7 Hutchins and Harrison,
History of Factory Legislation, 248.
8 Losciale, “Rules May Ease Aches.”
9 McCracken, “The Lives They Lived.”
10 U.S. Department of Labor,
Wages, Benefits, Poverty Line.
11 Spar and Burns, “Hitting the Wall,” 5.
12 Supply chains in the apparel industry, especially in relation to working conditions, are discussed in a number of articles compiled in Hale and Willis,
Threads of Labour, as well as in Bonacich and Appelbaum,
Behind the Label. The classic business guide to apparel supply chains is Birnbaum,
Birnbaum’s Global Guide to Winning the Great Garment War.
13 The anti-sweatshop movement of this period is described at length in Bonacich and Appelbaum,
Behind the Label.
14 See, for example, Rosoff, “Beyond Codes of Conduct.” A number of case studies of U.S. corporations’ current practices are in Hartman et al.,
Rising above Sweatshops.
15 Saidazimova, “Central Asia: Child Labor Alive and Thriving.”
16 Nike,
Innovate for a Better World.
17 Aaronson and Rioux, “Striking a Proper Match? Strategies to Link Trade Agreements and Real Labor Rights Improvements.”
18 Dickson, Loker, and Eckman,
Social Responsibility in the Global Apparel Industry.
19 Sinderbrand, “From the Start, Sit-In Was a Concerted Effort.”
20 See Doorey, “Can Factory List Disclosure Improve Labor Practices in the Apparel Industry?” and Harrison and Scorse, “Improving the Conditions of Workers? Minimum Wage Legislation and Anti-Sweatshop Activism.”
23 Featherstone,
Students against Sweatshops, chronicles the development of the student-led anti-sweatshop movement in the United States. Recent developments, such as the DSP, may be followed at
www.workersrights.org.
24 Steinberg,
Nature Incorporated: Industrialization and the Waters of New England, 15-16.
25 Allwood et al., “Well-Dressed?” For discussions of the environmental impacts of the textile and apparel industries, see also Chen and Burns, “Environmental Analysis of Textile Products”; Slater,
Environmental Impact of Textiles; and Hethhorn and Ulasewicz,
Sustainable Fashion: Why Now.
26 EDIPTEX, “Environmental Assessment of Textiles,” 30.
27 This discussion of phthalates is based on Chapter 3 in Schapiro,
Exposed: The Toxic Chemistry of Everyday Products and What’s at Stake for American Power.
28 Swan et al., “Decrease in Anogenital Distance….”
Environmental Health Perspectives.
29 This argument is developed in Speth,
The Bridge at the End of the World.
30 Though the “Environmental Kuzets Curve” has strong empirical support, the causal relationship between economic growth and environmental quality could take a number of forms. For example, it may be that as countries become wealthier they are better able to put in place efficient regulatory structures; that the marginal cost of containing pollution falls as the economy reaches a certain size, or simply that richer countries are more willing to trade income for environmental quality. Israel and Levinson, “Willingness to Pay for Environmental Quality,” examine these possible causal relationships in depth.
31 Israel and Levinson, “Willingness to Pay for Environmental Quality,” 1.
32 Copeland and Taylor,
Trade and the Environment, 3.
33 Levinson, “Technology, International Trade, and Pollution from U.S. Manufacturing.”
34 Lovely and Popp, “Trade, Technology, and the Environment: Why Have Poor Countries Regulated Sooner?”
35 Layton, “Chemical Law Has Global Impact: E.U.’s New Rules Forcing Changes by U.S. Firms.”
36 Pereira, “Protests Spur Stores to Seek Substitute for Vinyl in Toys.”
37 Reuters, “California OK’s Phthalates Ban on Children’s Products.”
38 The Economist, “Get Your Green Pants Here.”
39 See Ederington, Levinson, and Minier, “Trade Liberalization and Pollution Havens.”
40 Frankel, “The Environment and Economic Globalization.” See also Frankel and Rose, “Is Trade Good or Bad for the Environment? Sorting out the Causality.” For additional studies of the relationship between trade and the environment, see Copeland and Taylor,
Trade and the Environment, and the research cited therein.
41 Harney,
The China Price.
44 Spencer, “Ravaged Rivers.”
46 Economy,
The River Runs Black.
47 Frankel (2005) develops this point in the context of environmental issues.
48 Annual reports by Freedom House, Reporters without Borders, and the Milkin Institute provide data on political and civil liberties, press freedom, and measure of corruption over time. All are updated frequently and are available online.
49 Lee,
Against the Law: Labor Protests in China’s Rustbelt and Sunbelt, ix.
50 Ibid. See especially Chapter 5.
51 Cha, “New Law Gives Chinese Workers Power, Gives Businesses Nightmares.”
52 See the sources cited in Economy,
The River Runs Black, 87-88.
53 Batson, “China’s Eco-Watchdog Gets Teeth.”
54 Fong and Canaves, “South China’s Factories Lose Edge as Costs Climb.”
55 Spencer, “Ravaged Rivers.”
56 Cha, “New Law Gives Chinese Workers Power, Gives Businesses Nightmares.”
57 See Moran,
Beyond Sweatshops, for a survey.
58 Dougherty,
Who’s Afraid of Adam Smith? See especially Chapter 3.
59 Emerging Textiles, “Apparel Manufacturing Labor Costs in 2008.”
60 China Daily, “Hit the Door.”
61 Birns,
Assignment Shanghai.
PART III
CHAPTER 9 (pgs. 143-155)
1 Chapters 9 through 12 rely on numerous interviews during 2001 to 2008 in Washington; New York; Alexander City and Florence, Alabama; North Carolina, and Shanghai. Erik Autor, Phyllis Bonanno, James Bryan, Kevin Burke, Christopher Champion, Michelle Eubanks, Anna Flaaten, Eddie Gant, Nate Herman, Jennifer Hillman, Julia Hughes, John Jackson, Brenda Jacobs, Cass Johnson, Donna Lee McGee, Steve Lamar, Michael Levy, Carlos Moore, James Moore, Paul O’Day, Ralph Reinecke, Coleman Rich, Michael Ryan, Ronald Sorini, Richard Stetson, Auggie Tantillo, Mike Todaro, Earl Whipple, Patrick Xu, and Tom Young were particularly helpful. For current developments on textile trade policy, I relied especially on electronic updates from Sandler, Travis, and Rosenberg, P.A. Telephone discussions were held with Jack Albertine, Ross Arnold, Michael Hubbard, Jeff Martin, and David Trumbull.
2 Underhill,
Industrial Crisis, 4.
3 American Apparel & Footwear Association, “The U.S. Apparel and Footwear Industries: A Primer.”
4 Joint Textile Industry letter on China to President Bush at
www.atmi.org, accessed 5/20/03. The letter was signed by American Textile Manufacturers Institute, American Manufacturing Trade Action Coalition, National Textile Association, American Yarn Spinners Association, American Fiber Manufacturers Association, National Cotton Council, American Sheep Industry Association, American Textile Machinery Association, Carpet and Rug Institute, Association of Georgia’s Textile, Carpet & Consumer Products Manufacturers, Hosiery Association, Industrial Fabrics Association International, North Carolina Manufacturers Association, and Textile Distributors Association.
5 For an account of the pre-election safeguard campaign, see Blustein, “Textile Makers Fight for Limits.” The status of China safeguard petitions is reported at
ww.otexa.ita.doc.
7 OTEXA trade database, accessed 7/1/08.
8 CAFTA is sometimes referred to as CAFTA-DR, because the Dominican Republic is not geographically located in Central America. A nontechnical summary of the textile and apparel provisions of the agreement is at
http://otexa.ita.doc.gov.
10 The status of various textile monitoring agreements may be followed at the OTEXA web site.
12 STRtradenews, “When Customs Knocks.”
13 Dickerson,
Textiles and Apparel in the Global Economy, 399.
14 Friman,
Patchwork Protectionism.
CHAPTER 10 (pgs. 156-170)
1 Includes employment in NCAIS categories 313 (textile mills), 314 (textile product mills), and 316 (apparel). See
www.bls.gov for employment data by industry.
2 Friman, “Rocks, Hard Places, and the New Protectionism,” 691.
3 On the effects of geographic concentration on political influence in trade policy, see Schiller, “Trade Politics in the American Congress,” or Metcalfe and Goodwin, “An Empirical Analysis of the Determinants of Trade Policy Protection.”
4 Aggarwal,
Liberal Protectionism, 164.
5 The Reagan letter is excerpted in Brandis,
The Making of Textile Trade Policy, 56.
6 Conti,
Reconciling Free Trade, xiv.
7 See Conti for an analysis of presidential rhetoric related to trade.
8 Quoted in Rosen,
Making Sweatshops, 82.
9 Quoted in Rothgeb,
U.S. Trade Policy, 102.
10 Aggarwal,
Liberal Protectionism, 53
11 Ikenson,
Threadbare Excuses, 9.
12 Cline,
The Future of World Trade in Textiles, 163.
13 Vinson’s letter is excerpted in Brandis,
The Making of Textile Trade Policy, 25.
14 Aggarwal,
Liberal Protectionism, 111.
16 Nixon, “Special Message to the Congress on United States Trade Policy.”
17 Brandis,
The Making of Textile Trade Policy, 46.
18 Cline,
The Future of World Trade in Textiles, 150; GATT principles prohibit quantitative restraints, or quotas, as well as market access that discriminates across countries.
19 Cline,
The Future of World Trade in Textiles, 163.
20 Ikenson,
Threadbare Excuses, 10.
21 Dickerson,
Textiles and Apparel in the Global Economy, 365.
22 The classic exposition of the role of the U.S. Congress in trade policy is Destler,
American Trade Politics.
23 Quoted in Rothgeb,
U.S. Trade Policy, 21.
24 Quoted in Destler,
American Trade Politics, 4th ed., 5.
25 Quoted in Conti,
Reconciling Free Trade, 22.
26 Dickerson,
Textiles and Apparel in the Global Economy, 366.
27 Cline,
The Future of World Trade in Textiles, 213.
28 In
Making Sweatshops, Rosen provides a complete treatment of the political rise of the retail industry on the subject of trade.
29 Schott and Buurman,
The Uruguay Round, 5.
30 USITC, “The Economic Effects of Significant U.S. Import Restraints,” 61.
31 Dickerson,
Textiles and Apparel in the Global Economy, 378.
CHAPTER 11 (pgs. 171-195)
1 Pew Global Attitudes Project, 2008.
2 James, “Race to the Bottom? The Presidential Candidates’ Positions on Trade.”
5 Disentangling the import effect on employment from the productivity effect is, of course, complex. The USITC estimates that the demise of the quota system will have relatively small employment effects in the United States, ranging from 1 percent in textile products to 6 percent in apparel. See USITC, “The Economic Effects of Significant U.S. Import Restraints,” fourth update, Table 3-5.
6 Spiegelman and McGuckin,
China’s Experience. The authors found that China lost 1.8 million jobs in the textile sector during the 1995-2002 period, while the United States lost 202,000. During the same period, Chinese labor productivity rose by over 300 percent.
7 USITC, “Economic Effects of Significant Export Restraints,” second update, 1999, 29.
8 Hufbauer and Elliott,
Measuring the Costs of Protection, 13.
9 USITC, “Economic Effects of Significant Export Restraints,” fourth update, 2004. The study’s worst-case estimate for job losses due to the elimination of quotas is (in 2002) 40,040 jobs, while its lowest estimate for economywide costs is $7 billion. See p. 71 and Tables 3-1 and 3-5.
10 Brian Fennessey, remarks at USA-ITA Conference, June 25, 2008.
11 Limão, “Are Preferential Trade Agreements with Non-trade Objectives a Stumbling Block for Multilateral Liberalization?”
12 In
Termites in the Trading System, Bhagwati argues that the proliferation of free trade agreements poses a significant threat to the world trade regime, primarily because they institutionalize “discrimination” in trade relationships.
13 This account is based on accounts from
www.insidetrade.com during September 2001 to February 2002 and from personal discussions with Ronald Sorini of Sandler, Travis, and Rosenberg, Erik Autor of the National Retail Federation, and Cass Johnson of ATMI during spring 2002. See also Blustein, “A Pakistani Setback.”
15 This account is based on Tanzer, “The Great Quota Hustle.”
16 De Jonquières, “Clothes on the Line.”
17 Remarks at USA-ITA meeting, June 25, 2008, New York.
18 Morrissey, “Customs Finds Illegal Chinese Apparel Shipments.”
19 In July 2004, Kenyan authorities set ablaze 16 containers of clothing from China that was destined to be transshipped through Nairobi. Ali, “Clothes Worth Sh960m from China Set Ablaze.”
20 Tanzer, “The Great Quota Hustle,” 124.
22 National Council of Textile Organizations, “Government of China Subsidies Applicable to the Textile Industry.”
23 Irwin,
Against the Tide, 3.
26 See Aaronson,
Trade and the American Dream, as well as
Taking Trade to the Streets by the same author, for full accounts of research related to public opinion on trade.
27 For current data on public sentiment related to trade, see the Pew Global Attitudes Project, updated annually.
28 See Irwin,
Against the Tide, for a discussion of early views on trade.
29 For a description of a variety of anti-Wal-Mart sentiments, see Walmartwatch.org.
The Los Angeles Times was awarded a 2004 Pulitzer for its coverage of Wal-Mart’s business practices and their effects.
30 See the discussion in Irwin,
Free Trade Under Fire, 103-104. The evidence suggests that laid-off textile and apparel workers have poorer reemployment than laid-off workers in other industries. See also Cline et al., “Socioeconomic Impacts of Manufacturing in Selected Arkansas and Texas Communities.”
31 The standard manual for “strategic sourcing” is Birnbaum,
Birnbaum’s Guide to Winning the Great Garment War.
33 On high-tech textiles, see McGrane, “Smarter Clothes,” and Newman, “Dreamweavers.”
34 Ramey, “Wal-Mart Gets Political”;
www.opensecrets.org; Sarkar, “Wal-Mart Drops $4 Million on Lobbyists.”
35 See Gresser, “Who Gets Hit?” and “It’s Expensive Being Poor.”
36 Presentation by Brian Fennessey, USA-ITA meeting, June 25, 2005, New York.
37 De Jonquières, “Clothes on the Line.”
38 Calculations are based on square meter equivalents and measure the change from 2000 to 2003. See
www.ita.otexa.doc for trade data by category.
40 De Jonquières, “Clothes on the Line.”
41 For studies on the likely market share effects of the quota phase-out, see USITC, “Textiles and Apparel,” and Nordas, “The Global Textile and Clothing Industry.” See also Malone, “Low-Wage Nations Import Share to Surge.”
42 Malone, “Low Wage Nations Import Share to Surge.”
43 Nordas, “The Global Textile and Clothing Industry,” Chapter 4.
44 Magnusson, “Where Free Trade Hurts.”
CHAPTER 12 (pgs. 198-211)
1 Inside U.S. Trade, “NCTO CAFTA Endorsement Based on Three Promises to Help U.S. Industry.”
2 Andrews, “White House Makes Deals for Support of Trade Pact”;
Inside U.S. Trade, “Opponents, Supporters See Textile Republicans Supporting DR-CAFTA.”
3 Inside U.S. Trade, “Bush Officials Win Hayes, Aderholt Votes with Assurances on Textiles.”
4 Sparshott, “U.S. Eyes Textile Pact with China.”
5 See
Inside U.S. Trade, “Bush Officials Win Hayes, Alderholt Votes with Assurances on Textiles,” and Andrews, “U.S. to Seek Curbs on Chinese Clothing Exports.”
6 Data in square meters is not always a reliable indicator of trade performance. Sri Lanka, for example, now specializes in high-end lingerie for which dollar value is high but square-meter-equivalent measures are low.
7 OTEXA trade data for categories 338/339, accessed 8/1/08.
9 Brenda Jacobs, remarks at USA-ITA Seminar, June 25, 2008, New York.
10 National Council of Textile Organizations, “International Textile Groups Urge U.S. Government Monitoring of Chinese Apparel Exports.”
11 On developments related to the McDermott bill, see Islam, “LDCs Duty-Free Access: New Trade Bill Worries U.S. Textile Bosses”;
Emerging Textiles, “Duty-Free Access for Bangladesh and Cambodia Offered by New U.S. Bill.”
12 Morrissey, “Textile Manufacturers Have Stake in Farm Bill.”
13 Brandon, “Exports, China Dominate Cotton Outlook.”
14 American Apparel Producers Network, July 31, 2008.
16 National Council of Textile Organizations, “Obama Backs Key Textile Provisions.”
17 The Obama letter is reproduced in NCTO, “Obama Backs Key Textile Policy Positions.”
18 Thomas,
Mercantilism and the East India Trade, 49.
20 Quoted in Lemire,
Fashion’s Favourite, 16.
21 Thomas,
Mercantilism and the East India Trade, 50.
24 Quoted in Lemire,
Fashion’s Favourite, 25.
26 Thomas,
Mercantilism and the East India Trade, 62.
27 Lemire,
Fashion’s Favourite, 31.
28 Also allowed under the various acts were the domestically produced “fustians,” which combined linen and cotton.
29 Quoted in Lemire,
Fashion’s Favourite, 32.
30 See Lemire for colorful accounts of the “calicoe protests.”
31 For details of the ban, see Lemire, Chapter 3.
PART IV
CHAPTER 13 (pgs. 215-226)
1 Chapters 13-15 rely especially on interviews from 2003-2008 with Ed Stubin, Sunny Stubin, and Eric Stubin of Trans-Americas Trading Company. I also rely heavily on discussions in Dar Es Salaam and subsequent correspondence with Mohammed Dewji, Gulam Dewji, Geofrey Milonge, and Mehdi Rehmtulah. The 2008 updates from Tanzania are based on field research by Henri Minion and Elina Makanja. Finally, I have benefited from discussions with Bernie Brill, formerly of Secondary Materials and Recycled Textiles (SMART); Anna Flaaten at the U.S. Department of Commerce; Said Ngosha Magonya of the Tanzanian Embassy; and members attending the SMART Association meeting in Miami in August of 2004.
4 Estimates vary widely regarding the number of firms engaged in the business. I asked government officials, association officials, and businesspeople how many firms were active in the industry and was told repeatedly that “nobody knows,” though most guessed several thousand. The 3,000 figure is from Brill, “Textiles.”
6 Tracy, “Out with the New.” Actually, I found that used jeans sell for up to $100 just a few blocks from my Georgetown office, at a shop called “Deja Blue.”
7 USITC dataweb, accessed 7/22/08. Technically, Canada in some years imports more American used clothing than does Japan, but virtually all of this is then sorted and baled for subsequent re-export.
8 Zinman, “Vintage T-Shirts.”
9 Jones, “Eco-Friendly Homes Are Moving into the Mainstream.”
10 Lucy Norris has studied the export of shoddy from the West to India, as well as the used clothing trade in India. For fascinating accounts of both, see “Creative Entrepreneurs” and “Cloth that Lies.”
CHAPTER 14 (pgs. 227-238)
1 See Reed,
Economic Change, 47.
2 Coulson,
Tanzania: A Political Economy, contains an assessment of Tanzania’s post-independence economic policies. See also Temu and Due, “The Business Environment in Tanzania after Socialism.”
3 Data for income, life expectancy, and literacy are from the World Bank,
World Development Report 2008.
4 USITC dataweb, accessed 7/22/08.
5 Hansen,
Salaula. Hansen refers to
salaula (the term for used clothing from the Zambian Bemba language) rather than
mitumba (from Swahili).
CHAPTER 15 (pgs. 239-252)
1 The count of countries that ban or effectively ban used clothing is not fixed. My estimate of 30 is based on data provided by SMART, and from discussions with Anna Flaaten of the U.S. Department of Commerce.
2 See Barasa, “Cheap Imports Killing Kenya’s Textile Industry”; and Dougherty, “Trade Theory vs. Used Clothes in Africa.”
3 Jeter, “The Dumping Ground.”
4 Tervil. “Millions Go Up in Smoke as Fire Guts Huge Market.”
5 World Bank,
A World Bank Country Study: Tanzania at the Turn of the Century, 76-78.
6 The Economist, “A Survey of Sub-Saharan Africa.”
7 See Fafchamps,
Market Institutions, for a comprehensive study.
8 Baden and Barber, “The Impact of the Second-Hand Clothing Trade on Developing Countries,” 2.
9 USITC dataweb, accessed 7/23/08.
10 Wicks and Bigsten,
Used Clothes as Development Aid.
11 Norris, “Cloth that Lies.”
13 Quinn,
The Road Oft Traveled.
14 Danielson and Skoog, “From Stagnation to Growth,” discusses the case of Tanzania in this context.
16 EPA,
Textiles: Common Wastes & Materials, 1.
17 In
T-Shirt Travels, filmmaker Shantha Bloeman sees Africa’s used clothing trade as symbolic of the problems created by IMF and World Bank programs.
18 The debate over the efficacy of World Bank programs in Africa is an extensive one. For an African perspective, see the papers collected in Mkandawire and Soludo,
African Voices on Structural Adjustment.
19 Waters, “Beyond Structural Adjustment.”
20 OTEXA Trade Data, accessed 7/24/08.
21 The material on these early views of trade is from Irwin,
Against the Tide, 12-14.
CONCLUSION (pgs. 253-260)
1 Weisskopf, “Targeting the Olympic Sweatshop.”
2 For a review of this literature, see Irwin,
Against the Tide.
3 Quoted in Rothgeb,
U.S. Trade Policy, 17.
4 Quoted in Irwin,
Against the Tide, 17.
7 Nordhaus and Shellenberger,
Breakthrough, 7.