SALVATION SCRIPTURE (Tu-jen ching/Durenjing). It is the longest Taoist scripture, the very first of the Taoist Canon (CT 1, TT 1–13), opening the first section, the Tung-chen division. It consists of 61 chapters. Its full title is “Wondrous Book of the Transcendent Treasure, Supreme Stanza on Limitless Salvation” (Strickmann, 1978: 331).
The dates and circumstances of its composition are rather obscure. It is beyond doubt that the first chapter (out of 61) was written by Ko Ch’ao-fu at the end of the fourth century CE as part of the original group of Ling-pao scriptures. Its existence and authority were recognized during the T’ang dynasty, but still as a single chapter. The other 60 chapters date from the Northern Sung period, during the reign of Emperor Hui-tsung (r. 1101–25), the “Taoist emperor.” Very likely, they were composed under the emperor’s patronage at court. Claimed to emanate from the highest Taoist deities, the Heavenly Venerable of Original Beginning, the Primordial Lord of the Tao, and the Great Lord of Life Everlasting, their authority was beyond any doubt supreme. And the emperor’s prestige was enhanced by the claim, made by Taoists, that he was the earthly incarnation of the Great Lord of Life Everlasting.
As a result, the high respect for these 60 newly revealed chapters was without equal: They were considered to be “the culminating revelation of Shang-ch’ing and so took precedence over all other texts of that most aristocratic of scriptural lineages” (Strickmann: 339). Although originally a Ling-pao scripture, that should have been placed within the second section of the Tao-tsang, it was placed in the first section at the head of all other texts. The reason was “political expediency,” and because the Taoist scriptures were reprinted in the 1120 Sung canon, the court Taoists had the facilities to reshuffle the original order, to accommodate their own and the emperor’s religious preferences.
The content of the Tu-jen ching is remarkably homogeneous. It claims to contain “the potential for the salvation of all mankind, living and dead. Recitation of the scripture will assure the immortality of one’s ancestors and that of the reciter himself” (Strickmann: 340).
Actually, one can divide the scripture into three parts: First, it deals with the origin of the universe, explained in terms of yin-yang, five agents, and “three powers” (heaven, earth, and mankind). Second, it discusses methods for exorcism of evil spirits and improving one’s bad luck. Third, it explains ways of preserving one’s physical body and nourishing one’s spirit in order to obtain longevity and become a “transcendent” (perfected). The structure of the 60 added chapters is similar to the original first chapter, except for the addition of talismans, which are absent in Chapter 1.
This scripture is not a philosophical treatise; it was written for use in the liturgy and for recitation. As in other texts, recitation is strongly recommended, because “by invoking the supreme deity, [it] cures the deaf and blind, revives the dead, gives speech back to the mute, movement back to the paralyzed, and rejuvenates the old” (Robinet, 1979/1993: 31). (For a discussion of the historical background, see M. Strickmann, 1979: 331–354.)
SAN-CHIAO See THREE TEACHINGS
SAN-CHIEH See THREE WORLDS
SAN-CH’ING See THREE PURE ONES
SAN-CH’UNG See THREE WORMS
SAN-HUANG CHING See THREE SOVEREIGNS SCRIPTURE
SAN-KUAN See THREE OFFICIALS
SAN-YI See THREE ONES
SAN-YUAN See THREE PRIMARY VITALITIES
SAN-YUAN See THREE PRIMORDIALS
SCHOOLS OF TAOISM. There are three Chinese terms used to signify a particular movement in Taoism: tao, p’ai, and tsung.
The first one, tao, should not be understood as the basic term Tao of Taoism in its metaphysical dimension. It is rather the common word tao meaning a way, a method, a particular path to follow in one’s actions (for example, wang-tao, the royal way, the correct way of ruling).
P’ai and tsung are more specific terms to indicate a particular Taoist movement within the overall context of the Taoist tradition. Whereas tsung is usually translated as “school,” p’ai is translated as “sect,” but this gives the wrong impression, because “sect” usually refers to “a small group that has broken away from an established church” (Webster’s Dictionary). Tsung is the word for school mostly used in Buddhism: Ch’an-tsung, the Ch’an (or Zen) School; Ching-t’u-tsung, the Pure Land School; Hua-yen-tsung, the Hua-yen School, etc.
It seems more correct to translate both p’ai and tsung as “school”; in some cases, it may even be preferable to use the term “order” (as in the Christian context of a religious order: Order of the Franciscans, Order of the Jesuits). This term “order” is most suitable to indicate the three Taoist movements in north China founded during the Southern Sung: the Complete Realization or Ch’uan-chen Order, the T’ai-yi Order, the Ta-tao Order. These three most resemble the Christian counterparts just mentioned.
There is one more term sometimes used in Taoist literature, chih-p’ai/zhipai, which means a branch of a p’ai; literally, it means “branch-sect,” but a better rendering would be “branch-school.” This term is commonly used for subdivisions of the Complete Realization School, foremost of which is the Lung-men Branch, the only monastic Taoist institution still active in China today.
Examples follow to indicate how the three terms are used in today’s literature (see separate entries for each).
Tao
Huang-Lao Tao (Huang-Lao Taoism)
T’ien-shih Tao (Heavenly Masters Taoism)
Wu-tou-mi Tao (Five Bushels of Rice Taoism)
T’ai-p’ing Tao (Great Peace Taoism)
Cheng-yi Tao (Orthodox Unity Taoism)
Ch’uan-chen Tao (Complete Realization Taoism)
T’ai-yi Tao (Supreme Unity Taoism)
Chen Ta-tao (True Great Tao Taoism)
Tsung
Lung-hu Tsung (Mount Lung-hu School)
Mao Shan Tsung (Mount Mao School)
Nan Tsung (Southern School)
Pei Tsung (Northern School)
P’ai
Tan-ting P’ai (Alchemy “School”)
Fu-lu P’ai (Register “School”)
Chai-chiao P’ai (Fast and Sacrifice “School”) (“School” of Liturgy)
Shen-hsiao P’ai (Shen-hsiao “School”)
Lung-men P’ai (Lung-men Sub-”School”)
Ch’ing-wei P’ai (Ch’ing-wei “School”)
Hua Shan P’ai (Mount Hua “School”)
Ch’ing-ching P’ai (Ch’ing-ching “School”)
If one reflects on the above listings of Tao, tsung, and p’ai, another possibility comes to mind: Tao and tsung are particular Taoist schools, with an institutionalized structure or a social body with a priesthood, temples and scriptures. (Tao is perhaps more developed, more impressive than tsung.) P’ai, on the other hand, are not such organized structures: They are particular techniques, methods of specialization, which could be practiced by one or many schools. That is obvious in the case of tan-t’ing p’ai, fu-lu p’ai, and chai-chiao p’ai, but is perhaps applicable to all p’ai.
For example, the Heavenly Masters School specializes in fu-lu (talismans and registers), as well as in chai-chiao (liturgy). The Complete Realization School specializes in tan-ting, or inner alchemy.
One final remark needs to be made: All the above schools are branches/methods of the Taoist religion. The other aspect of Taoism, its philosophy, is indicated by other terms: chia/jia or hsueh/xue (school of learning). The most eminent example is Tao-chia (Taoist philosophy), but there is also Huang-Lao Hsueh (Huang-Lao Learning, a synonym of Huang-Lao Taoism).
SCRIPTURE See CHING
SEMINAL FLUID See CHING
SEVEN LOTS FROM THE CLOUD BAG See YÜN-CHI CH’I-CH’IEN
SEVEN PERFECTED (Ch’i-chen/Qizhen). They are the seven immediate disciples of Wang Che, founder of Complete Realization Taoism (Ch’uan-chen), sometimes also called Seven Perfected of the Northern School or Seven Patriarchs.
They became Wang’s disciples when he traveled from Shensi to Shantung in 1167. Four of them returned West with him in 1169, where he passed away in 1170. These are the Seven:
Ma Tan-yang/Ma Danyang (1123–1183)
Tan Ch’u-tuan/Dan Chuduan (1123–1185)
Liu Ch’u-hsuan/Liu Chuxuan (1147–1203)
Ch’iu Ch’u-chi/Qiu Chuji (1148–1227)
Wang Ch’u-yi/Wang Chuyi (1142–1217)
Hao Ta-t’ung/Hao Datong (1140–1212)
Sun Pu-erh/Sun Bu’er (1119–1182)
Among them, Ma and Sun were husband and wife, who followed Wang Che together. Each of the seven founded their own subbranch: most famous among these is the Lung-men branch, which is still active in China today. Its most famous temple is the White Cloud Monastery (Pai-yün kuan) in Beijing.
(See also Complete Realization Taoism; Wang Che.)
SEVEN SAGES OF THE BAMBOO GROVE. This group of eccentrics, a “mixed bag” of Taoism- and Confucianism-oriented scholars, lived during the breakup of the Chinese empire after the Three Kingdom period. Disillusioned because of the political disaster, many of them had no opportunity to serve their country any longer and turned idle or engaged in a new adventure: “Pure Conversations” (ch’ing-t’an), also called “Neo-Taoism.” They enjoyed their leisure, lived spontaneously and had probably never felt better in their lives.
The men in this tradition held themselves disdainfully aloft from unsavory politics and all other mundane matters. Their answer to the social and political disillusionment of the time was to develop their own esthetic sensibilities and give individualistic expression to their every impulse. Typical of such men were the Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove, a group of wealthy and eccentric recluses, living at the Western Chin capital, who loved to engage in philosophical debate, compose poetry, play the lute, enjoy nature, and drink to excess. A similar but even more eccentric group was the Eight Understanding Ones, who lived at Nanking in the fourth century. (Fairbank, 1973: 84–85)
Although to call these gentlemen Taoists is to simplify the situation, they certainly lived in grand Taoist style, unconcerned about the world of politics, but instead “wandering” through the boundless and relaxing in easy sleep under the useless old tree in the “field of Broad-and-Boundless” (Chuang-tzu, Chapter 1). Their appeal to the aesthetic, wu-wei-minded gentlemen of later ages has been significant.
SEXUALITY (“Arts of the Bedchamber,” fang-shu). Some sexual practices advocated by Taoism are considered to be conducive to longevity or even immortality and deserve our attention. Together with physical exercises and meditative methods, they are much more than an interesting aspect of an old and weird lifestyle, but contain important clues for us today, if not to reach immortality, then at least to prolong a happy life and make it more meaningful.
In contrast to Western views of sexuality, the Chinese view (especially the Taoist one) is more relaxed and at ease. They do not see the human body as a danger, a source of evil, but as a positive asset. Mind and body are not contrasted or opposed to each other. Ko Hung summarizes the importance of sexuality in the Taoist worldview by stating that no one can obtain longevity who ignores the “arts of the bedchamber” (M. Beurdeley, 1969: 11). In other words, as K. Schipper says, to make love is a “happy necessity”: abstention is as dangerous as excess (Beurdeley: 18). Whereas excesses can lead to early exhaustion and death, total abstention may be the cause of neuroses of deprivation (see J. Needham, V-5: 190). When Buddhism introduced monastic life and celibacy into China, monks were objects of mistrust and disbelief; women who did not marry except for special reasons were considered to be vampires. On the other hand, the sexual act was compared to the union of heaven and earth: Through their continuous interaction, the myriad things on earth were produced and fostered. By making love, humans become a microcosmic replica of the macrocosmic model and fulfill their natural destiny.
Once the importance and mystical significance of the sexual act have been stated, Taoist authors still emphasize the need for self-control: Man’s seminal vitality (yüan-ching) is limited and should not be wasted; a woman’s seminal ch’i is considered to be unlimited. Therefore, in lovemaking, a man should control ejaculation as often as possible (taking into account his age), whereas a woman may reach orgasm without restriction. It is believed that by bringing a woman to orgasm, a man can activate her energy (which is beneficial to herself), and nourish or increase his own vitality. In this way, both partners benefit.
There are, however, different views concerning the benefits of intercourse. Some authors focus on the male’s benefit: If he knows the technique, he can exploit young females and pluck their energy without their gaining anything in return. Conversely, if a woman knows the method, she also can tap the energy of ignorant young men and so increase her own longevity (Needham, V-5: 194). This self-centered practice is often criticized as unorthodox and as an abuse and exploitation. In true Taoist fashion, the benefit should be mutual.
The major obstacle to maximizing one’s sexual potential is the male’s desire to ejaculate. This biological urge, combined with a psychological factor, the male’s pride, is not easy to overcome. The power to ejaculate is often seen as proof of masculinity, of adequacy, and also as the only source of sexual joy and fulfillment. These, the Taoist masters say, are prejudices that should be overcome with correct understanding and with practice.
To call ejaculation “the climax of pleasure” is just a habit (Chang, 1977: 21). Chang points out that refraining from emission is, on the contrary, a greater pleasure in the end. By the male’s self-control, foreplay can last longer. Caressing and touching, extremely important for emotional balance not only of children but also of adults, can be fully developed and deepen the loving relationship. During actual intercourse, male pride is compensated by the greater delight of his partner. Man is compared to fire, easily aroused and easily consumed; woman is like water, which takes longer to boil. If a man restrains himself, he shows caring and love rather than an urge for quick and selfish satisfaction. This by itself is a great factor that deepens mutual loving (Chang, 1977: 21–23).
R. van Gulik mentions that this technique of self-control was very important for a man in traditional China: If he has a wife and several concubines, he must exert great self-control in order to be physically able to satisfy all the women in his household (van Gulik, 1961: 47). Ejaculation was not absolutely forbidden or discouraged. If conception was desirable, emission of semen evidently was permitted; but through regular self-control, the birth of healthy offspring could be ensured. Moreover, another type of emission was acceptable and was considered to be conducive to health and longevity: the method of “making the semen return” or “guiding of one’s semen,” already mentioned above. It
. . . consisted of an interesting technique which has been found among other peoples in use as a contraceptive device . . . At the moment of ejaculation, pressure was exerted on the urethra between the scrotum and the anus, thus diverting the seminal secretion into the bladder, whence it would later be voided with the excreted urine. This, however, the Taoists did not know; they thought that the seminal essence could thus be made to ascend and rejuvenate or revivify the upper parts of the body—hence the principle was termed huan ching pu nao, making the ching return to restore the brain. (Needham, II: 149–150)
Although the Taoists made a mistake in their physiological explanation, it is still not impossible that this kind of ejaculation control may have had important psychological effects or even produced a greater flow of energy in the body.
What is even more unusual in Taoist history is that such practices were not only taking place in the privacy of the bedroom between single couples, but were occasionally organized as community ceremonies. It is mentioned by J. Needham (II: 150–151) and described in some detail by H. Welch (1957: 120–122). K. Schipper gives an alternative description of the ritual and believes that Taoism had absorbed and adapted ancient festivals into their own celebrations; the sexual festivals, commonly attributed to the Three Changs of the second century CE, are one example.
This “orgiastic ritual,” called “Union of Energies” (ho-ch’i/heqi), was minutely regulated for the initiates and prepared for through several days of purification, meditation, and prayer. It does not appear as just an orgy to satisfy one’s sexual desire, but as a communal effort to reach salvation. On the final day, apparently held on the solstices and equinoxes, there was a protracted ritual dance with prayers and invocations, until the couples undressed and performed sexual union.
The male partner said: “The divine youth holds the passage, the jade girl opens the gate for him; let us join our essences, so that the yin may give me its vital force.”
The female partner responded: “From the yin and the yang creation proceeds; the ten thousand beings are born in profusion. Heaven covers and Earth sustains. With your force I want to nourish my body.”
(K. Schipper in Beurdeley, 1969: 34)
These celebrations of “Union of Energies” were heavily criticized and ridiculed by Buddhists and Confucians; later, even by some groups of Taoists, like the Taoist movement of K’ou Ch’ien-chih during the Northern Wei. Yet, it is said to have survived in secret until modern times. (For an excellent recent treatment of sexuality in Chinese society, see D. Wile, 1992.)
SHAMAN. Refers to a type of spiritual practitioner found in many different cultures in various time periods. In Chinese studies of Taoism (the Taoist Religion), they are often said to be the precursors of Taoist priests. It is worthwhile to investigate briefly whether this is a valid claim.
It is important to have a clear notion of what a shaman (or shamaness) stands for, then contrast/compare it with the notion of priest. Webster’s definition is not very helpful: A shaman is “a priest or medicine man of shamanism,” and the latter is defined as “the religion of certain peoples of NE Asia, based on a belief in good and evil spirits who can be influenced only by the shamans.” A more specific definition is given by A. Hultkranz: A shaman is “. . . a social functionary who, with the help of guardian spirits, attains ecstasy to create a rapport with the supernatural world on behalf of his [or her] group members” (Hultkranz, 1973, cited by J. Paper, 1995: 52). From this definition it appears that two activities characterize a shaman: ecstasy and contact with supernatural agencies on behalf of the community.
In ancient China, shamanism was very common. The ordinary character for shaman, wu, refers actually to shamanesses, whereas males were called hsi. However, gender determination is not certain: Wu is defined by Karlgren as “witch, wizard, sorcery, magic tricks [the work of two dancing figures set to each other—a shamanistic dance]” (1923/1973: 363). The etymology of “two dancing figures” is not convincing: It could as well depict one person with flapping arms, as in a dance. The dance aspect is well established: A shaman became entranced by chanting and dancing to drum music.
Besides and beyond the shaman’s gender, his/her functions in ancient China appear to be exorcism, dream interpretation, curing illnesses, praying for rain in case of drought. In all these activities, they could use either guardian spirits or be possessed by certain deities. This makes them into magicians rather than priests, as it is characteristic of magical power to control and command spiritual beings,
While possessed of these spirits’ powers, they could command shen (deities), kill kuei (ghosts), and communicate with specific spirits of the recently dead. In trance, they would perform miracles as evidence of their powers: mutilate themselves without consequence, walk through fire, spirit-talk, or ghost-write. The writing and blood, especially from their tongues, was used to make amulets. (HCDR, 1995: 979)
The above description presents a clear picture of shamanistic powers and activities. But when compared with present-day situations, it is obvious that these ancient powers have been divided up and are now within the spiritual repertoire of three different kinds of practitioners:
• Taoist (Blackhead) priests are able to summon or control certain deities, according to their personal “register” (lu). They are still employed to perform exorcisms and cure illness, but their main responsibility is the liturgy, which was not so much part of ancient shamanism.
• Taoist (Redhead) Masters (fa-shih) are able to communicate with the spirit-world, especially with the “souls” of the dead, but also perform exorcisms and healing.
• Mediums (trance mediums), chi-t’ung or tang-ki (Taiwan) are possessed by deities and give advice to their clients about all matters of importance. They may also perform exorcism and healing, and, most spectacularly, mutilate themselves to demonstrate supernatural power.
This means that the functions of ancient shamanism are now being divided, although some functions overlap between the three groups. Their social status is also very different: Blackhead priests, more literate, more dignified than the others, enjoy more social respect than the two other groups. Redheads and mediums are placed much lower in the social hierarchy, but their services are still in great demand today.
Blackhead Taoist priests have a certain contempt for their lower-placed colleagues. They may even punish mediums who intervene during the liturgy (an example is found in M. Saso, 1978: 120). This possibly goes back to very ancient times, when Heavenly Masters Taoism reacted against some of the inferior practices of the popular religion, blood sacrifices, and worship of unorthodox ghosts.
This topic of shamanism and its relationship with Taoism is most interesting, but needs further study, not only through textual research, but through actual fieldwork observation in places where old shamanism still survives in some of its manifestations: Taiwan and Southeast Asia. (See also Blackhead Taoist; Redhead Taoist.)
SHAN-SHU See MORALITY TEXTS
SHANG-CH’ING/SHANGQING SCRIPTURES (Superior or High Purity Scriptures). A collection of Taoist scriptures revealed to Yang Hsi between 364 and 370 CE. They became the basis of the first of the three major divisions of the Taoist Canon and developed into a major school of Taoism, the Shang-ch’ing or Mao Shan School (see also Shang-ch’ing Taoism).
The original revelations to Yang Hsi numbered 31 volumes. They were collected and catalogued by Lu Hsiu-ching and T’ao Hung-ching. Their focus is not on liturgy but on inner visualization in order to promote one’s spiritual and physical health and, ultimately, to reach immortality. Some of the more fundamental scriptures of this collection are the Yellow Court Scripture (Huang-t’ing ching) and the Great Profundity Scripture (Ta-tung ching).
SHANG-CH’ING/SHANGQING TAOISM. A school of Taoism established during the Southern Dynasties, as a result of revelations received by Yang Hsi between 364 and 370. A century later, T’ao Hung-ching took the original manuscripts to Mount Mao (Mao Shan): hence the school is also called Mao Shan Taoism.
The revelations took place during midnight sessions, in which Lady Wei Hua-ts’un and a dozen other Perfected Immortals appeared to Yang Hsi and “dictated” to him a number of scriptures from the Shang-ch’ing Heaven (the second highest of Three Heavens, which are Yü-ch’ing or Jade Purity Heaven; Shang-ch’ing or Superior Purity Heaven; T’ai-ch’ing or Grand Purity Heaven). It is believed that the scriptures were revealed to Yang through the technique of fuchi or divination writing, in which the descending deity moves the hand of a human subject through automatic writing; however, this is only a hypothesis. However the revelations were communicated, the result was astonishing: the quality of calligraphy and literary composition was outstanding.
Yang Hsi, who was in the service of the southern aristocratic Hsü family, transmitted the texts to his masters, Hsü Mi and Hsü Hui, who copied them and gradually circulated them among their literati friends. Lu Hsiu-ching catalogued them and included them in the first catalogue of the Taoist scriptures (see Taoist Canon). But it was through the efforts of T’ao Hung-ching that the Shang-ch’ing scriptures were brought together and became the foundation of the Shang-ch’ing School of Taoism. In fact, Hsü Hui’s son, Hsü Huang-min, had given some of the manuscripts away to other interested parties, and it was through painstaking detective work that T’ao was able to recover a great deal of the original handwritten texts. Meanwhile, the scriptures had become very famous and were in great demand among the literati of the South. Many were recopied, and new texts were forged and circulated as authentic revelations. What made the scriptures so attractive was their excellent calligraphy and elegant writing style. Much of the text was written in “ecstatic verse.” As a result, the Shang-ch’ing movement spread widely among the intellectuals of the South, where a reaction had arisen against the lower-class traditions of the Heavenly Masters School, especially against their “blood sacrifices.”
With T’ao Hung-ching, the Shang-ch’ing school became well organized, and because T’ao established himself on Mount Mao (Mao Shan), the school also became known as Mao Shan Taoism. During the T’ang dynasty, Shang-ch’ing was the most influential current of Taoism. Several of its patriarchs were invited to the imperial court (Wang, Szu-ma, and Tu) and became advisors of emperors. The most brilliant among them were Szu-ma Ch’eng-chen and Tu Kuang-t’ing, who wrote many important works, of which a number are still extant and are included in the Taoist Canon.
Finally, during the Yuan dynasty (1277–1367), the Mao Shan School disappeared, as it was absorbed into the Ling-pao movement. But its scriptural tradition remains a lasting testimony to the once-flourishing school. (Details about the spiritual practices of Mao Shan Taoism are found in the Introduction; see also Declaration of the Perfected, Yellow Court Scripture, Great Profundity Scripture, Discourse on Sitting-and-Forgetting, Meditation.)
Patriarchs of Shang-ch’ing or Mao Shan Taoism
SHEN See SPIRIT
SHEN-HSIAO/SHENXIAO TAOISM (“Divine Empyrean,” highest heaven). A school of Taoism arising at the end of the Northern Sung dynasty. Its founder was a Kiangsi Taoist: Wang Wen-ch’ing (1093–1153), who claimed to have inherited the teaching from T’ang Master Wang Chün. Invited to court by Emperor Hui-tsung, he was given the honorary title of T’ai-su ta-fu (great gentleman of “Grand Simplicity”) and other titles.
The name shen-hsiao (“divine empyrean”) refers to the central compass point of nine empyreans or celestial regions; it was ruled by the deity Great Emperor of Long Life (Ch’ang-sheng Ta-ti).
This new school of Taoism is famous for its creation of new talismans (fu), claimed to have been transmitted by the high Shen-hsiao deity: Yü-ch’ing Chen-wang (True Lord of Jade Purity), also called Ch’ang-sheng Ta-ti of the Southern Pole. These talismans relate to Thunder Magic and were welcomed by Emperor Hui-tsung. Very soon, they gained great popularity. Thunder rituals were also performed by other schools, such as the T’ien-hsin School, which centered on the use of Thunder Magic: Here the power of thunder is seen as the active power behind the five agents.
Perhaps the most famous of the Shen-hsiao adepts was Lin Ling-su, who gained acceptance to the court of Emperor Hui-tsung and proclaimed the emperor to be the earthly incarnation of the god Shen-shiao Chen-wang (True King of the Divine Empyrean). Hui-tsung ordered the construction of Shen-hsiao temples in all chou capitals to worship Shen-hsiao Ta-ti. This gave rise to the founding of many branches of Shen-hsiao Taoism. The major focus of the school was the combination of inner alchemy and fu-lu (literally registers and talismans). The inner alchemy aspect was due to the influence of Chang Po-tuan, an eminent Taoist during the Southern Sung. He considered inner purification (nei-lien) as the essence, registers and talismans as functions, or as a means to reach the essence. The goal is to develop the original spirit (yuan-shen) of one’s basic nature (pen-hsing).
One of the major insights of Shen-hsiao Taoism is the analogy of the human body as a microcosm, and the physical universe (T’ien-ti, heaven-and-earth) as the macrocosm. Moreover, it believes that the thunder method’s summoning of thunder spirit-generals, in fact, is an appeal to ching-ch’i-shen (vitality, energy, spirit) of one’s own person and to the vitality (ch’i) of the five agents.
During the Yuan period, the Shen-hsiao school was greatly influenced by Ch’uan-chen Taoism and Confucian learning: It then started to emphasize the practice of virtue and religious discipline and held to loyalty and filiality as primal virtues (CMTT: 21. See also Saso, 1978: 51–57).
Some contemporary Taoist masters still practice Thunder Magic in their rituals; although the school itself has ceased to exist, its methods have not.
SHEN-HSIEN CHUAN See BIOGRAPHIES OF SPIRIT-IMMORTALS
SHIH-CHIEH See BODY LIBERATION
SILK MANUSCRIPTS (po-shu/boshu). In 1973, the Institute of Archaeological Research in the PRC excavated an ancient tomb dating from the early Han, situated near Changsha, Hunan. This is the Ma-wang-tui site. Many funerary artifacts, 51 items, were discovered, among them a great number of texts written on silk, contained in a lacquered wooden trunk. All these texts, consisting of 120,000 Chinese characters, date from before 168 BCE, date of the funeral of the tomb’s occupant.
For the study of Taoism, the Huang-Lao manuscripts are very significant, but even more so are the two versions of the TTC (A and B): From the presence or absence of certain taboo characters in the texts (taboo characters are those which are part of a ruling emperor’s name), it is clear that version A dates from before 206 BCE, while version B dates from between 206 and 194 BCE.
It is surprising that the silk manuscript texts do not differ much from the transmitted text, although they occasionally throw light on some previously unclear passages and have a number of variant readings. The major difference is that the TTC of the silk manuscripts is divided into two parts: on Te and Tao, in that sequence, which is the reverse of the traditional sequence. (For more details, see Tao-te Ching: Historical Study; also see Jan, 1977, and Henricks, 1989.)
SONGS OF THE SOUTH See CH’U TEXTS
“SOUL” (Ling-hun, hun, p’o, shen, kui). (Quotation marks are used to indicate that the Taoist/Chinese concept of “soul” is not identical to the English term, but then, there is no other more suitable equivalent. Quotation marks should be used throughout, but will be omitted for the sake of convenience.)
The Taoist concept of soul is practically identical with the overall Chinese concept in its theoretical framework. It is possible, however, that its practical applications in Taoist spirituality are divergent.
The Chinese concept of soul is very complex: There is no unified understanding of its nature, and even less of its destiny. Several terms relate to soul: ling-hun, hun, p’o, shen, kui must all be clarified and correlated, but whether or not a clear and logical system will follow is questionable.
In earliest times, going back to prehistory, there was no formulation of any soul-theory. There were only ritual practices in the context of ancestor cult and funerary customs, which implied certain concepts about the afterlife. From those, deductions (assumptions) can be made, with caution. Those customs, with certain changes, were continued through the Chou dynasty. During this period, some theorizing took place, but the emphasis still remained on the practice, rather than on theory.
When Buddhism was introduced into China (second century CE), the whole scenario changed: The concept of soul and the afterlife underwent a thorough transformation, which occasioned new ritual practices, some of which continue today. Once again, the ritual customs are one thing; the theoretical concepts implied in them are something else. One cannot expect logic in this area (“logical” theories about the soul are not found in any religious tradition!). Because this is a “huge” topic, on which no monographs exist so far, only a brief outline will be presented here, and aspects that are important in the Taoist tradition will be highlighted.
During Shang times, belief in a dual soul was implied in two important religious practices: consultation of the ancestors through divination (“bone oracle”) and funeral customs. Royal Shang tombs, excavated in modern times, have brought to light many artifacts buried together with the corpse. This implies that Shang people believed in life after death as a continuation of earthly life. Texts engraved on oracle bones attest that the royal ancestral spirits were believed to live in heaven (in the constellations?) together with all the other Ti (deified ancestors) and even Shang-ti (supreme ancestor? supreme deity?).
This twofold practice continued during Chou times, but toward the end some formulations were made, in which two kinds of soul-principle were distinguished: hun, identified with yang, and p’o, identified with yin. Each soul had its own function during life, and its own destiny after death. The hun rises up, returns to its origin, heaven, and becomes a shen (spirit); the p’o descends into the grave, its origin in earth; here, it disintegrates gradually with the corpse. In cases of violent death, the p’o may turn into a kui, an evil spirit or ghost, which can return to earth to harm the living.
Toward the end of the Warring States period and all through the Han, concepts of immortality changed the outlook. Some funeral texts discovered in Han tombs state that both hun and p’o descend to the netherworld, to be judged by spirit-officials. But immortality of the body with the soul seems one possible destiny. This hope was taken up by early Taoism, which promised its adepts physical immortality as a result of a virtuous life. One special type of immortality could be reached through body liberation (shih-chieh).
The arrival of Buddhism changed all that. Gradually, new concepts of the afterlife made their way into the popular and Taoist traditions. Reincarnation and its motive force, karma, became permanent features of all Chinese religions, together with beliefs in paradises and hells. As a result, the belief in a soul and in its fate after death became even more complex. New rituals were devised to save ancestral souls from the pains of hell and to liberate the numberless ghosts who do not have descendants to save them. Buddhists devised special rituals for the dead to mitigate their painful condition and to ensure a better reincarnation.
The situation became complex because the old belief in a continued soul existence somewhere in the netherworld was not abandoned. The outcome was a belief (explicit or implicit) in multiple souls: a soul that rises to heaven (shen), a soul that descends into the grave (p’o) (Yellow Springs), a soul that goes to the netherworld for judgment and punishment (Buddhist influence), and a soul enthroned in the home in the ancestral tablet. The p’o soul descending into the grave can be of two kinds: It either disintegrates with the corpse or it continues a kind of physical existence in a special area of the netherworld. All together, it means there are five soul principles. This is confusing and even implies contradictions. And the rituals also imply those contradictions. For instance, the practice of praying for the dead (toward a better reincarnation) is not logically compatible with the practice of burning “spirit-money.” There are other inconsistencies, but it appears that the people are not bothered by it.
What is important for the Taoist practitioners is twofold: First, an elite of adepts, full-time practitioners, hope to achieve immortality, mostly by the practice of inner alchemy. The body is then expected to become immortal and remain united with the soul (shen). Second, common believers, even Taoists, foster hopes similar to Buddhist expectations: a future reincarnation, and eventually a rebirth in a Taoist heaven. But that seems to be immortality of the soul only. Taoist priests are instrumental in guiding the soul through the netherworld and in some cases save adepts from the clutches of hell. In Taoist philosophical writings, immortality is not an issue, it is rather an illusion. Life is the coming together of particular energies (ch’i); death is their separation. To long for eternal life as a continued individual existence is an empty dream and pretentious at best. Chuang-tzu’s skull would frown severely!
SOUTHERN SCHOOL (Nan-tsung/Nanzong). Refers to the southern branch of the Complete Realization School, in contrast with the Northern School. When Wang Che founded his new Taoist school in the north, a similar movement arose in the south, focusing on inner alchemy and claiming to have Lü Tung-pin and Chung-li Ch’uan as their founding patriarchs.
It is claimed that after Chang Po-tuan of the Northern Sung had obtained the golden cinnabar (chin-tan) method from Ch’uan and Lü, he transmitted it to Shih T’ai, Shih T’ai transmitted it to Hsieh Tao-kuang, then to Ch’en Nan, next to Pai Yü-ch’an. These five were later revered as the Five Southern Patriarchs. This Southern School was not very strong and, not receiving any support from the Yuan rulers, they merged with Complete Realization Taoism.
In their spiritual cultivation, this southern school stressed first “life” (ming), then “nature” (hsing). Pai Yü-ch’an was the most famous of the patriarchs; he wrote several books, in which he was influenced by the Neo-Confucian “School of Principle” and by Ch’an Buddhism.
After the Yuan period ended, the southern and northern branches were united (CMTT: 26–27).
“SPIRIT” (Shen). The term “spirit” in the English language is almost as ambivalent as the Chinese shen. “Spirit” may refer to an external agent (spiritual entity), as well as to an internal aspect of human nature (similar to but different from the term “soul”). In Chinese philosophy and religion, including Taoism, shen has even more meanings, all commonly used and not always clearly defined.
First, shen may refer to supernatural beings, gods/goddesses, or deities. For example, the City God, spiritual magistrate of all major cities in China, is called Cheng-huang shen, the God of Moats and Walls. But even without the term shen added to their name, all deities belong to the shen category, in contrast to evil spiritual beings or ghosts, which are called kui. The shen are benevolent, intent on assisting and protecting human beings; kui are malevolent, looking for ways to harm humans. The supreme “spirit,” the “God” of the Western tradition, has been sometimes translated as shen (although more often as Shang-ti, “Lord-on-High,” or T’ien-chu, “Lord of Heaven”).
In the second place, shen refers to the “spirits” of ancestors, at least one’s own, in contrast to those of other families, which are sometimes called kui. The ancestral shen is the yang “soul” of an individual who has died. One aspect of “soul” rises to heaven as shen and/or resides in the ancestral tablet in the home shrine; this tablet is called shen-wei or shen-chu, “spirit seat” (or tablet).
The third meaning of shen is even more complex: It is the spiritual component of each living human being, sometimes confused with the yang “soul” or hun, in contrast to p’o, which is the yin “soul” (for a detailed discussion, see “Soul”).
In Taoism, the concept of shen in the third meaning is more technical. It is the spiritual vitality of each individual, one of the three vitalities received at birth: ching, ch’i, shen. The goal of spiritual cultivation is to transform all other vitalities into shen. Once that goal is achieved, one becomes an immortal, a spiritualized person, who will continue living forever in celestial or terrestrial paradises. This process of spiritual transformation is the objective of inner alchemy, especially according to the Shang-ch’ing School of Taoism. (See also “Soul” and Three Vitalities.)
SPONTANEITY See NATURALNESS
STAR DEITIES. Taoism worships a variety of divine spirits believed to inhabit and control particular stars. There are several groupings: the seven luminaries, the 28 lunar lodges, the 36 heavenly generals, the 72 earthly generals, the 60-year stars, the six ting and six chia, and other divine beings believed to reside in particular stars or constellations.
The Seven Luminaries (ch’i-yao hsing-kuan/qiyao xingguan, literally, the executives of the seven luminaries) are the spirits controlling the sun, moon, and five planets, correlated with the five agents.
| wood planet: | Jupiter |
| fire planet: | Mars |
| earth planet: | Saturn |
| metal planet: | Venus |
| water planet: | Mercury |
The 28 Lunar Lodges (erh-shih-pa hsiu/ershiba xiu) are the spirits controlling 28 constellations situated around the equator. Divided into four directional segments, each segment is ruled by one of the four mythical animals.
| East: | Green Dragon |
| South: | Vermilion Bird |
| West: | White Tiger |
| North: | Black Warrior (Turtle?) |
During the chai and chiao rituals, Taoist priests often summon the 28 heavenly generals to descend in order to control and subdue demons. The 28 Lunar Lodges also figure on the geomantic compass in one of the outer circles.
The 36 Heavenly Generals (san-shih-liu t’ien-chiang/sanshiliu tianjiang) are also called t’ien-kang/tiangang, although the term kang applies strictly to the four stars of the Big Dipper. They are believed to be subject to the authority of the god Hsuan-t’ien Shang-ti. During chai and chiao rituals, Taoist priests invoke them to descend to control ghosts.
The 72 Earthly Assassins (ch’i-shih-erh ti-sha/qishier disha) seem to have an ambiguous role: They are described as star generals inhabiting the stars of the Big Dipper, invoked by the Taoists to control evil spirits. But they are also believed to be evil influences on earth causing misfortune and disease.
The 60-Year Stars (liu-shih yuan-ch’en/liushi yuanchen) are also called 60 chia-tzu/jiazi. Taoism considers them spirits of fate, destiny, which create good luck and dispel misfortune. They do not have real names, but are indicated by the combination of cyclical characters: ten heavenly stems and twelve earthly branches. The first one is chia-tzu/jiazi (first of the stems plus first of the branches). In fact, they are personified or deified cyclical characters, each ruling one year in succession of the 60-year cycle. The spirit of the year in which a person is born is thus that person’s destiny spirit (pen-ming shen/benming shen), who is able to protect and guarantee that person’s happiness. An alternative name is T’ai-sui/Taisui.
Painted images of these 60 spirits have been preserved in the Beijing White Cloud Monastery (Pai-yün kuan/Baiyun guan). Statues or at least wooden or paper tablets of the 60 are now also found in some Taiwan temples. In a few cases, new side chapels have been erected to house the 60 statues (for instance the Yü-huang Temple in Tainan, Southern Taiwan).
Paper talismans of the particular year-spirit are found in the folk almanacs, published in Taiwan before each New Year (or Spring Festival).
The Six Ting and Six Chia (liu-ting/liuding and liu-chia/liujia) are 12 martial spirits or armies of spirits, whose names are derived from combined stems and branches: chia is the first heavenly stem, ting is the fourth.
| chia-tzu | ting-ch’ou |
| chia-yin | ting-mao |
| chia-ch’en | ting-szu |
| chia-wu | ting-wei |
| chia-shen | ting-yu |
| chia-hsu | ting-hai |
It is believed that the six ting spirits are female: They are of yin nature; the six chia are male and belong to yang. They are all subordinate to the authority of Chen-wu Ta-ti. They control the thunder and spiritual beings. During chai and chiao rituals, Taoist priests often summon them by means of talismans to bring good fortune and exorcise evil spirits.
In TT 84 or 37, there are reproductions of 60 liu-chia talismans (Taiwan reprint, 1977: 1620, ff.).
Popular talismans and Taoist “cosmic talismans” often represent the liu-chia and liu-ting.
STEP(S) OF YÜ (Yü-pu/Yubu). A particular ritual performed during Taoist liturgy that had its origin in a shamanistic dance, going back to Yü the Great, ancient culture hero, who controlled the floods in China and prepared the land for agriculture.
According to a mythical story, a giant turtle emerged from the Lo River with a mysterious diagram on its back, “translated” into a magic square whose lines of numbers in all directions add up to 15. (See also Lo River Writing.)
Yü the Great was said to have divided the nine provinces of Central China on the basis of the Lo-shu . . .
One of the ritual dances performed by the Taoist, called the “Steps of Yü,” which are thought to imitate the lame pace of Yü as he walked throughout the nine provinces stopping the floods and restoring the order and blessing of nature, is modeled on the Lo-shu, from 1 through 9, arriving before the gods of Prior Heavens, and ordering nature as Yü did in controlling the raging waters of the flood. (Saso, 1972: 59)
As Ed Schafer explains, the “step of Yü” (also called “shaman’s step”) represents a walk among symbolic stars and injects supernatural energy into the practitioner. By pacing the nine stars of the Dipper, the Taoist priest is able to summon the polar deity T’ai-yi (“Grand Monad”) to receive his power for blessing the community (Schafer, 1977: 283–9).
In present-day rituals, the step(s) of Yü are performed by the master to walk up through the stars for an audience with the Supreme Triad of Taoism, to receive its blessings into his own body, and to communicate them alchemically to the community.
SUN EN (?–402 CE). A Taoist priest of the Eastern Chin dynasty (317–420). His family, originally from the present Shantung, moved to Kiangsi. It was believed that he was born in a commoner’s family, but recent studies tend to agree that he was born in a lower-ranking aristocratic family. For several generations, his forebears had been followers of the Heavenly Masters School. His uncle, Sun T’ai, propagated the school’s teachings among the lower classes, but he also cultivated good relations with the aristocracy. His family intermarried with some upper-class families.
In 398, Sun T’ai believed that the Chin dynasty’s good fortune was running out. He started a rebellious movement to replace it. Sun En joined his uncle. However, the uprising failed, and Sun T’ai was executed. Sun En himself escaped capture and settled for a while on the Chu-san Island, near Chekiang, vowing revenge.
In 399, Sun En took advantage of widespread discontent about misgovernment and overtaxation. He launched a seaborne invasion, and had great initial successes. He called himself “General of the Eastern Expedition” and his followers “People of Eternal Life” (Ch’ang-sheng jen). Their opponents were treated with extreme cruelty. The rebel army was defeated by the famous Gen. Liu Lao-chih (d. 402) and retreated back to its offshore island base. In 402, Sun En attacked Lin-hai (in Chekiang), but was again defeated. In despair, he drowned himself. Many hundreds of his followers and their female companions followed suit. They were later on called “water immortals” (shuihsien).
The remaining rebels then rallied around Lu Hsun (d. 411), Sun En’s brother-in-law. In 410 they marched their army north, but once again were defeated. Lu Hsun escaped to present North Vietnam. But realizing this was the end, he poisoned all his female relatives and then committed suicide by drowning. This was the end of a 13-year rebellion, the first major uprising since the Yellow Turbans Rebellion in 184 CE. It was heavily influenced by Taoist ideology.
After this, the Heavenly Masters School rapidly declined. The backwardness, the barbarism and the darker side of the Taoist mass movement started off a series of reform efforts among the Taoists, especially those of the upper classes. As a result, new Taoist movements appeared, tailored to the wishes of the ruling class. It was more submissive and willing to cooperate with the ruling house.
SUN PU-ERH/SUN BU’ER (1119–1182). A priestess of the Complete Realization School of (Ch’uan-chen) Taoism during the Jurchen-Chin Dynasty (1115–1234). She was a native of Shantung province and wife of Ma Tan-yang, a priest of the same Taoist order. She became initiated into the priesthood by Founder Wang Che in 1169, together with her husband. After her initiation and instruction in the methods of cultivation, she lived alone in a quiet room, facing the wall and meditating.
After seven years of practice, she had perfected the Tao. She then moved to Loyang, where she passed away in 1182. She was the foundress of a sub-branch of Complete Realization Taoism, named Purity-and-Tranquillity Sect (ch’ing-ching p’ai) (see also Seven Perfected).
SUN SZU-MIAO/SUN SIMIAO (581–682). An eminent Taoist, physician, alchemist, and author of the T’ang dynasty who became very famous through his works on medicine and alchemy, but of whose life very little is known. He was born near the western capital of Ch’ang-an in Shensi. Starting his schooling at age seven, by the time he was 20, his knowledge was extensive and included the Taoist works by Lao-tzu and Chuang-tzu, as well as some Buddhist texts. He went into seclusion on Mount T’ai-po (Chung-nan mountains). He became friends with the eminent Buddhist scholar Tao-hsuan (596–667), author of the continuation of Biographies of Eminent Monks (Hsü kao-seng chuan) who also lived in the Chung-nan mountains.
Two emperors invited Sun to court: Sui Emperor Wen (r. 589–604) and T’ang Emperor T’ai-tsung (r. 627–649). Twice Sun declined, but when Emperor Kao-tsung (r. 650–683) invited him in 659, he did accept the invitation and “he remained in the emperor’s retinue for fifteen years in some informal capacity” (U. Engelhard, in L. Kohn; 1989: 267).
After his death, legends arose, making him into an immortal the people called yao-wang (“king of healing”); they worshipped him in many temples dedicated to him. But his greatest merit lies in his numerous works on medicine, health practice, and alchemy.
Two of his works, Ch’ien-chin yao-fang and Ch’ien chin yi fang (see below),
are among the most important sources for Chinese traditional therapeutics and are still being used in the training of traditional physicians in China today. Both works bear witness to Sun [Szu-miao’s] broad medical knowledge and his gift of exact observation. They document his ability to integrate his various clinical experiences with medical theory and his concern for medical ethics and the social responsibilities of the physician. (Engelhardt: 278)
In typical Taoist fashion, Sun emphasized the essential unity of mind and body. Medicine for him is a combination of “nourishing nature” with various techniques, such as gymnastics and guiding one’s ch’i, which are preventive rather than therapeutic. In this framework, he also stressed the need to control one’s emotions and to be moderate in all one’s desires. Through some autobiographical material in his works, it is known that Sun traveled to a great extent, collecting prescriptions from folk medicine and consulting other physicians. He has summarized in his works the whole of medical theory and practice up to the T’ang period. His contribution to medicine and pharmacology cannot be overestimated.
Ute Engelhardt makes a very interesting comparison between Sun and another Taoist master of the T’ang era: Szu-ma Ch’eng-chen (647–735). She comments:
It is curious to note that Sun [Szu-miao], the famous physician, places primary emphasis on mental discipline, while [Szu-ma Ch’eng-chen] the Taoist master concentrates most strongly on the medical and physical aspects of the undertaking. Sun . . . claims that no progress is possible without an awakened mind. (Engelhardt: 291)
Although Sun’s works are fundamentally Taoist in nature, he has a definite syncretistic outlook, and some parts of his opus bear a clearly Mahayanist Buddhist imprint. In his Ch’ien-chin yao-fang, he remarks that “nobody who has not read Buddhist texts will ever be a good physician” (Engelhardt: 278).
Among the methods most recommended for immortality figure: preserving the essence, guiding the ch’i, and the taking of drugs. Sun stresses above all the importance of guiding the ch’i: It “supposedly cures all kinds of diseases and even epidemics” (Engelhardt: 287).
Here follows a list of some of Sun Szu-miao’s works (the standard histories of the T’ang list 32 works, but apparently more have been discovered. Some works have been lost):
• Ch’ien-chin yao-fang/Qianjin yaofang (“Essential Prescriptions Worth a Thousand Ounces of Gold”), written around 650. Stresses the importance of preventive methods or the healing of “latent diseases.”
• Ch’ien-chin yi-fang/Qianjin yifang (revised edition of former work).
• She-yang chen-chung fang/Sheyang zhenzhong fang (“Pillow-book of Methods for Nourishing Life”).
• Ts’un-shen lien-ch’i ming/Cunshen lianqiming (“Inscription on Actualization of the Spirit and Refinement of Ch’i”).
• Chen-chung chi/Zhenzhong ji (“Pillowbook Record”).
• Fu-shou lun/Fushou lun (“Treatise on Happiness and Longevity”).
• Pao-sheng ming/Baosheng ming (“Inscription on Preserving Life”).
• Tan-ching yao-chueh/Danjing yaojue (“Essential Formulas of Alchemical Classics”). Sun’s authorship has not been universally acknowledged, but is strongly confirmed by N. Sivin.
(See U. Engelhardt in L. Kohn, 1989: 263–296; N. Sivin, 1968.)
SUPREME ONE See T’AI-YI
SUPREME ULTIMATE (T’ai-chi/Taiji). A Chinese philosophical term commonly used in several systems, especially in Taoism and Neo-Confucianism, but with different connotations. It also served as the base of a certain type of martial arts: T’ai-chi ch’uan, although here the philosophical significance is not obvious.
The etymology of t’ai-chi refers to the ridgepole of a building, that which holds the structure together, but its extended meaning is the ultimate principle that holds the universe together. It embraces yin and yang as a totality of creativity and is represented by the circle in which both yin and yang find their relative positions. That is the Taoist understanding of t’ai-chi.
In Neo-Confucianism, especially in the system of the great synthesizer Chu Hsi (1130–1200 CE), it has a different significance. Chu Hsi’s interpretation of reality is based on the distinction between ch’i (“matter,” primal material) and li (principle). The nature of all things is determined by their li, but li needs embodiment, which is provided by ch’i. The totality of all li or principles, for Chu Hsi, is t’ai-chi: The supreme ultimate principle of all that exists. This is an interesting theory, somehow similar to the distinction in Aristotelian philosophy of “being” and “essence.” But whereas for Chu Hsi this is a purely metaphysical explanation, for the Taoists, t’ai-chi is an active, creative reality, also metaphysical (nontheistic), yet very dynamic: one could even say it is the dynamic aspect of the Tao.
SZU-MA CH’ENG-CHEN/SIMA CHENGZHEN (647–735). A Tao-ist priest, scholar, and 12th patriarch of the Shang-ch’ing School during the T’ang Dynasty. He was a native of Wen County in present-day Honan. He received his training from the 11th patriarch of Shang-ch’ing Taoism, P’an Shih-cheng (587–684). Later, he went to live as a recluse on Mount Wu-t’ai and became associated with many scholars and famous poets of the period, such as Li Po, Wang Wei, and Ho Chih-chang. Empress Wu (r. 684–704) summoned him to the capital and personally wrote an imperial edict praising him for his personal and religious achievements.
In 711, Emperor Jui-tsung (r. 711–713) invited him to his palace and asked him about the yin-yang theory, the Taoist arts of divination, and the correct method of ruling the country. Szu-ma answered that the yin-yang theory and the arts of divination were heretical doctrines, unworthy of the emperor’s attention. As for the way of ruling the country, the emperor should concentrate on wu-wei (“nonaction”) as the basic principle. The emperor was pleased with Szu-ma’s answers.
In 721, Emperor Hsuan-tsung (r. 713–756) sent an envoy to summon him to the palace. Later, the emperor was initiated into the Taoist order by Szu-ma personally. In 727, Emperor Hsuan-tsung invited him again to his palace to ask for his advice. Because of the long distance between Szu-ma’s residence and the capital, the emperor asked him to choose a site on Mount Wang Wu to build a residence closer to the capital, so that consultation could be more frequent.
Szu-ma was a good calligrapher. Emperor Hsuan-tsung asked him to copy the Tao-te ching in three calligraphic styles and had them all carved onto stone tablets. In his thinking, Szu-ma was influenced by Confucianism and Buddhism. He adopted the Confucian concepts of sincerity and the rectification of the mind, as well as the Buddhist practice of meditation, known as samatha (“calming” of the mind) developed by T’ien-t’ai Buddhism. He incorporated and developed Lao-tzu’s and Chuang-tzu’s ideas into an integrated system of Taoist cultivation. In his opinion, the potential to become an immortal (or transcendent, hsien) was inborn. As long as one follows one’s nature in spiritual cultivation, one eventually will achieve immortality.
Ch’ing Hsi-t’ai/Qing Xitai and others point out that Szu-ma Ch’eng-chen was a pioneer moving away from external alchemy (wai-tan) to internal alchemy (nei-tan) as a more suitable method of cultivation in the search for longevity and immortality (see Ch’ing’s Chinese History of Chinese Taoism, vol. 2).
Szu-ma had a tremendous impact not only on Taoism but also on Neo-Confucianism, which took over his concept of “calming the mind” as a method of self-cultivation.
He has left behind several important books: besides Tso-wang lun and T’ien-yin-tzu, he also wrote Secret Essentials of Cultivation (Hsiu-chen mi-chih), Discussion of the Nature of Tao (Tao-t’i lun), and other texts.
SZU-MING see DIRECTOR OF DESTINY