Decision at Alesia
“On that day, he said, on that very hour, depended the fruits of all their previous battles.”1
Caesar encouraging his soldiers at the siege of Alesia
The warrior stood up and examined his sharpened sword. Campfire flames danced in the polished iron of the splendid yard-long blade. The others muttered their approval. One took a deep swallow of wine. Red liquid dripped down his ample beard as he bellowed praise to the war gods. A few of his comrades shook their heads. They refused to give way to the lure of the wine. Their tribal tradition taught them that it made men soft and weak.
The warriors were tall men, gigantic by the standards of the time. Their skin was scarred and leathered, their limbs gnarled with muscles. A lifetime spent under sun, rain and snow, on the hunt and on the field of battle, had made them so. Some wore their long blond or red hair combed sideways and done up in a knot, after the fashion of their people, the Germanic Suebi. But there too was a sprinkling of adventurers from farther afield. One might see a Harii, who blackened his shield and dyed his body, preferring to fight in the dead of night, or an Aestii who wore a protective emblem of the wild boar, symbol of the Mother of the Gods.2 In the night shadows that grew behind the barbarians’ fire one might hear the snort of a horse and now and then, the Latin tongue. The German band was camped right among Caesar’s legions!3
Among the Germans, the retainers (comitatus) of a chief were drawn not just from his own tribe but from warriors that wandered the land in search of martial glory and plunder. To such men it mattered not if they served a German chief of a different tribe, a Gallic lord or even a Roman consul. Germans even served as bodyguards for Cleopatra and for Herod the Great. Among both Germans and Gauls, the mercenary career was not only acceptable but deemed honorable.
Some of the Germans around the campfire scene recreated above were former hostages, mostly well-armed chiefs and their attendants. They were part of the 400 cavalry recruited by Caesar after he beat back German tribal intrusions into Gaul in 58 and 55 BC. Recently, their small contingent had been joined by another 600 Germanic cavalry and light troops. Still, the Germans must have asked themselves if they were wise to fight for Caesar. For at the moment, in mid-52 BC, things did not look promising for the conqueror of Gaul.
Nearly all of Gaul was in full-blown rebellion. After reuniting his own legions with those of his talented legate Labienus at Agedincum, Caesar marched south into Lingones territory. The Lingones remained his allies, as did the Belgic Remi. The Treveri remained neutral, being too occupied with their hostile German neighbors across the Rhine. All the other tribes had gone over to the charismatic young warlord, Vercingetorix. Even now, his lieutenants were striking across the southern frontiers, at the Allobroges, the Helvii and the Volcae Arecomici, tribes living within the Roman province of Gallia Narbonensis.
With all of Gaul defecting from Roman rule, Caesar’s inferiority in cavalry became critical. This was because since the turn of the first century BC, the “Roman” cavalry was made up entirely of foreign auxiliaries. For Caesar those auxiliaries were mostly allied Gauls. But the largest contingent of allied Gallic cavalry, those from his erstwhile allies the Aedui, had just defected. Although he also had with him a handful of Spanish horse, probably enlisted during his prior Spanish campaign, Caesar must have put high hopes on his Germans. He valued them so highly that he replaced their hardy pony-like horses with the larger steeds of his bodyguard, tribunes and knights. How the Germans made do with Caesar’s larger and faster steeds is unclear. Possibly they continued to use their highly trained ponies in most combats unless speed was of the essence, as in a quick pursuit, in which case they used the Roman horses.
Near Dijon, Vercingetorix’s cavalry attacked Caesar’s legions which were strung out on the march and out of battle position. In a three pronged attack the Gauls targeted the Roman vanguard and the flanks of the main body. Vercingetorix hoped that the Romans would panic and abandon their baggage train. Surprise was achieved but the Gallic cavalry failed to close with the enemy and skirmished about instead. Caesar managed to draw up his own cavalry to keep the Gauls at bay while his legionaries formed a defensive square around the baggage.
Caesar’s German cavalry, however, was not content with being on the defensive. They gained the summit of some rising ground, dislodged some of the enemy, and chased them back upon Vercingetorix’s nearby infantry. Seeing their comrades being chased, cut down and skewered by the berserk Germans, the rest of Vercingetorix’s cavalry took to flight. The remainder of Caesar’s cavalry bolted after them and inflicted more losses. With his cavalry in shambles, Vercingetorix ordered a retreat towards the stronghold of Alesia (Alise Sainte Reine, on Mont Auxois). Caesar immediately led his legions in pursuit, engaged the Gallic rearguard and inflicted up to 3,000 casualties.
The battle completely reversed the situation of the war. The Gauls placed the greatest reliance on their cavalry arm and with its defeat their spirits sank. Vercingetorix found himself shut up in Alesia. Perched on a plateau and surrounded by hills and streams, to Caesar the city seemed impervious to assault. Below the town ramparts, a hastily constructed six-foot wall and trench enclosed a Gallic camp.
Caesar decided on a blockade and began to surround the entire city with two massive lines of fortifications. The fortifications consisted of two concentric rings of earthworks, ditches, ramparts, spikes, stakes, covered pits, forts and camps. The inner ring, the line of contravallation, some 10 miles long, faced the defenders of Alesia while the outer, the line of circumvallation, over 12 miles long, protected the Romans from anticipated relief forces.
Barely had the siege commenced when Vercingetorix’s cavalry, some 10,000 to 15,000 strong, assailed Caesar’s horsemen, presumably to reduce the Romans’ foraging capability. When Caesar’s auxiliary Gallic and Spanish cavalry had the worst of it, Caesar unleashed his Germans and drew up his legions for support. Bolstered by the Germans, Caesar’s cavalry turned the tide. The Germans harried the Gauls back against the rampart and trench the Gauls had erected before the town walls. Frantic Gauls jammed up the narrow gates or abandoned their mounts in order to scramble through the trench and up the rampart. The Germans wantonly slaughtered those caught outside and captured a number of horses.
With the failure of his cavalry, Vercingetorix changed his strategy. Deciding to remain on the defensive, he sent his mauled cavalry to infiltrate the Roman lines at night. They were to ride abroad and raise a relief army among the rebellious tribes. Vercingetorix would hold Alesia until help arrived. Caesar claimed that Vercingetorix had some 80,000 picked men to defend the city, but in reality the number was surely far less and closer to 25,000.
Vercingetorix’s heralds rode their horses through the countryside, into the villages and gated towns of Celtic central Gaul. From out of their A-frame thatched huts, and from the farm fields that surrounded them, men, women, young and old, gathered to hear the call to arms. To the chiefs, magistrates and people, the messengers declared that Vercingetorix, who fought so hard for their national liberty, “ought not to be abandoned to the cruel vengeance of the enemy.”4 Moreover, if they did not hurry, they would condemn Alesia’s defenders to their death. The heralds rode further, to call to arms the seafaring Aremorican tribes, the Spanish Celtic-Iberian Aquitani and the Germanic-Gallic Belgae.
The army that mustered to Alesia’s aid included contingents from almost every conceivable part of Gaul. The largest numbers of warriors came from the Aedui and from the Arverni with their dependent tribes. Caesar neatly listed every tribe and the numbers each of them supplied, for a grand total of 8,000 cavalry and 250,000 infantry. Again the real number must have been much less, perhaps around 120,000, but regardless it was the greatest show of pan-Gallic unity ever.5 The bulk of them were not much better than armed riffraff, the serf-like common class that Caesar described as having little more value than slaves. Spirits were high and every man was confident that the mere sight of their enormous host would “be enough to make the enemy turn tail.”6
Under the command of Commius, the Atrebatean king, the noble Aeduans Viridomarus and Eporedorix, and Vercingetorix’s cousin Vercassivellaunus, alongside a host of other nobles and chiefs, the huge Gallic army arrived at Alesia. Notably, the first three mentioned leaders were all former allies of Caesar. One can only imagine the joy of the besieged at Alesia when they beheld the appearance of the mighty relief army. Supplies within the fortress town had been used up and hunger gnawed at the defenders. So bad had the situation become, that one noble Arvernian counseled eating the flesh of those too old or too young to fight as had been done in the days of the Cimbri and Teutones invasion. Thankfully, this cruel and desperate measure was not taken. The local population, with their women and children, had left the town and walked to the Roman ramparts. With tear stained eyes, they begged to be taken as slaves and to be relieved from their hunger. But there was no mercy in Caesar’s heart and he turned them back.
The relief army set up camp a mile from the Roman lines. Around noon the Gauls reopened the battle. Commius sent forth his cavalry, archers and light armed troops to assault the outward facing Roman line of circumvallation. Vercingetorix’s infantry simultaneously readied themselves to storm the inward facing line of contravallation. Caesar was hard pressed; his eleven legions were weakened from the heavy fighting in the campaign against Vercingetorix and he only had a handful of auxiliaries left. Although Caesar still had some 35,000 soldiers, he had to keep at least minimal garrisons along his miles of fortifications. Nevertheless, Caesar did his best to concentrate his legions against Vercingetorix’s men while he sent his cavalry to engage Commius’ cavalry.
The spectacle of the cavalry melee on the plain was visible from Caesar’s main camps. It was also watched by the Gauls in Alesia and by the infantry of Commius, which was deployed on the slopes of a hill. Shouts of encouragement echoed from the ecstatic Gallic spectators. It seemed certain that their own, more numerous, cavalry would have the best of Caesar’s horsemen. The hard fought battle lasted until the sun dipped near the horizon. It was then that the Germans massed all their squadrons for a charge that struck Commius’ cavalry like a thunderbolt. Commius’ cavalry was hurled back and fled the field, exposing his archers. The horrified bowmen watched as Caesar’s cavalry galloped around them. Surrounded, their fate was sealed. Caesar’s cavalry closed in and chopped down the bowmen with swords or impaled them on spears. With Commius’ cavalry bested and his archers decimated, Vercingetorix abandoned his current breakout attempt and retired back into Alesia. Morale among his men was at an all time low.
After a day’s lull, the Gauls were ready for another try. Carrying fascines, ladders and grappling hooks, the infantry of the relief army assaulted Caesar’s outer wall at midnight. Under a barrage of arrows, sling shot and stones thrown by hand, they attempted to fill up the Roman trench. Roman commanders shouted for reinforcements. Legionaries rushed from redoubts to buffer threatened sectors. In the dead of night, the fighting was chaotic and costly on both sides. Legionaries plunged over the walls or collapsed with Gallic javelins skewered through their mail. Gauls tumbled into pits, impaled themselves on spikes, or were mowed down by the devastating fire of Roman siege engines. Trumpets sounded within Alesia and from out of its gates poured forth the besieged. Unfortunately for the Gauls, Vercingetorix’s warriors wasted too much time filling up the outer Roman trenches. By the time they reached the main Roman fortifications it was too late; the relief army on the other side was already in retreat. The rising sun revealed a beaten Gallic army limping away in defeat.
But the Gauls were not finished yet. The next day saw the Roman fortifications under a coordinated attack. Vercingetorix made another sortie from the inside while the relief army’s cavalry rode closer to the outer Roman wall and its infantry drew up in front of their own camp. Under cover of missile fire, Vercingetorix’s men succeeded in filling a trench with earth and fascines. Grappling hooks were hurled at the palisade and bit into the breastwork. The Gauls grunted and sweated as they pulled the ropes of their grappling hooks and tore down the palisade.
Caesar was at his best, hurrying around the defensive lines, redirecting reinforcements and personally urging his men to hold on, telling them that “on that day, on that very hour, depended the fruits of all their previous battles.”7 When two sets of reinforcements failed to stem Vercingetorix’s Gauls who had breached the defenses, Caesar personally led up a fresh detachment and repulsed the attackers.
While Vercingetorix struck from the inside, Vercassivellaunus the Arvernian, with the best of the relief army’s infantry, assailed a weak point in the Roman outer defenses. Due to the wide sweep of a hill, the Romans had been unable to connect a legionary camp within their line of circumvallation. Vercassivellaunus’ men were able to assault the camp from a position of higher ground. The unrelenting hail of Gallic missile fire forced the Romans to take cover. Other Gauls advanced with shields locked above their heads. Labienus was sent to the rescue with six cohorts but even these did not suffice to hold back the furious Gallic onslaught.
Labienus was able to rally up eleven more cohorts. He sent a message to Caesar that the time had come for the decisive action. Caesar collected four more cohorts and part of his cavalry and hurried to confront Vercassivellaunus. He sent the other part of the cavalry around the outer defenses to strike Vercassivellaunus’ Gauls in the rear. Both the Romans and Gauls recognized Caesar’s arrival by his scarlet cloak, worn only by the commander-in-chief. The legionaries gave off a shout, dropped their spears, drew their gladii, and flung themselves into close combat with a vengeance. Suddenly, the Gauls heard the thunder of the enemy cavalry behind them. Surrounded, they panicked and ran for it. Few escaped and most were cut down. King Sedullus, who had led several thousand of his Lemovices from central Gaul, was killed in battle. Vercassivellaunus was taken prisoner and seventy-four standards were captured and presented at Caesar’s feet. The rout did not stop at the Gallic camps as the survivors of the relief army fled back to their homelands and villages.
The relief army was crushed and with it went the hopes of the besieged. Even Vercingetorix’s spirit was broken: “I did not undertake the war for private ends, but in the cause of national liberty. And since I must now accept my fate, I place myself at your disposal. Make amends to the Romans by killing me or surrender me alive as you think best.”8 Draped in his best armor, Vercingetorix mounted his splendidly adorned steed and rode out of doomed Alesia’s gates. He was brought before Caesar and circled the Roman warlord before dismounting. Proud even in defeat, the great Gallic king spoke, “Receive these spoils: thou thyself, bravest of men, hast conquered a brave enemy.”9 Vercingetorix took off his armor and threw it to the ground, then seated himself at Caesar’s feet and waited until he was led off into captivity. The siege of Alesia was at an end. Caesar spared the Aeduan and Arvernian prisoners, in hopes of regaining their tribal allegiance. The rest were handed out as slaves to his soldiers.
Even the capture of Vercingetorix and his resounding defeat at Alesia, did not wholly quell Gallic resistance. During the winter of 52/51 BC, rumors surfaced that the tribes planned multiple rebellions in so many places that would stretch the Roman resources beyond their limits. To prevent rumors from turning into reality, Caesar launched a pre-emptive attack on the Bituriges. He enslaved thousands of farmers caught on the fields and in their villages, until the Bituriges pleaded for peace and surrendered more hostages. Caesar next set out to punish the Carnutes. His cavalry raided at will, returning to the Roman camp laden with the spoils of war. The terrified Carnutes scattered into the barren woods, where they perished in droves due to the severe winter conditions. A more serious revolt broke out among the Bellovaci, led by their chief Correus and by Commius the Atrebatean. The revolt necessitated four legions and the levy of additional auxiliary cavalry from among the Remi, the Lingones and other tribes. It involved a lengthy stand-off between the fortified Roman and Gallic camps. For the most part, however, the campaign consisted of cavalry engagements. Correus was slain in a heroic last stand, smiting his foes until shot off his horse. When the Bellovaci surrendered hostages and sued for peace, Commius again eluded the Romans by finding shelter among German tribes from whom he had received reinforcements.
After re-subduing the Bellovaci, Caesar unleashed the final terror campaign on the hapless Eburones. Whatever homes remained after the devastation two years prior were burnt to the ground and whoever survived was killed or enslaved. Thereafter the Eburones were completely eradicated as a people, the few pockets of survivors that survived Caesar’s wrath being eventually absorbed by other tribes.
Relatively minor revolts continued to erupt in the rest of Gaul, particularly among tribes in the western part of the country which had only marginally been involved in the previous fighting. The Pictones, who were allied to the Romans, were attacked by the Andes. General Gaius Fabius marched to aid the Pictones and in a hard fought battle his cavalry annihilated the enemy, slaughtering thousands. Fabius next joined up with general Gaius Caninius Rebilus, to track down the brigand leaders, Drappes and Lucterius the Cadrucan. Drappes had preyed on Roman foraging parties and supply convoys ever since the beginning of Vercingetorix’s rebellion when Lucterius, as will be recalled, nearly invaded Gallia Narbonensis. Although Lucterius managed to escape Roman persecution, Drappes was captured and their forces were defeated. Hirtius’ account praised the fighting powers of the auxiliary cavalry, especially the Germans and their accompanying light infantry, which “were very fleet on foot.”10
Caesar meanwhile further browbeat the Carnutes. After flogging to death and beheading a rebellious ringleader of the Carnutes, Caesar joined Fabius and Rebilus at the Cadurci town of Uxellodunum. The two Roman generals had laid siege to the town because it had aided Lucterius. By cutting off the town water supply, Caesar forced its inhabitants into submission. He spared the surviving defenders’ lives but to make an example of them ordered their hands cut off. While Caesar was busy at Uxellodunum, Labienus fought a successful cavalry engagement against the Treveri and some German allies. Thereafter, the legions were strategically deployed throughout Gaul. Caesar spent the winter visiting the various states. After showing the wrath of Rome, Caesar showed that Rome too honored her allies. He addressed the chiefs in honor, lavished upon them presents and imposed no new burdens.
The only one who carried on the fight was Commius who, reduced to a brigand, raided Roman supply convoys. Commius’ old enemy Volusenus, who had once given Commius a near fatal head wound, was dispatched to hunt him down again. Commius was riding, accompanied by his entourage of warriors, when Volusenus sprung his ambush. The startled Gauls bolted at the sight of the Romans. Suddenly, Commius reined in his horse. Filled with hatred for Volusenus, Commius rallied his men to charge at the pursuing Romans. When the Romans saw the Gauls so valiantly charging at them they had a change of mind. The pursued became the pursuers.
Commius raced up behind Volusenus and jabbed his spear clean through his enemy’s thigh. The danger to their leader gave the Romans new heart. They reversed their steeds and crashed into the pursuing Gauls. A fight ensued in which the Romans gained the upper hand. Knocked off their steeds, a few of the Gauls were trampled by the horses. Others were taken prisoner. Commius, however, made a clean getaway due to the speed of his horse.
After this latest harrowing encounter with the Romans, even Commius had had enough. He sent hostages to the Romans, telling them that he would let them be in peace if they would do the same to him. His only request was not to be required to come into the presence of any Romans. His request was honored and he too kept his word. Incredibly, even this was not the end of the adventurous Commius. In 50 BC, he decided to leave the land of Roman occupation and sailed for Britannia. There he settled on the River Thames and founded a new dynasty.
Caesar’s Gallic wars were over. According to Plutarch, in less than ten years Caesar “had taken by storm above eight hundred towns, subdued three hundred states, and of the three million men, who made up the gross sum of those with who at several times he engaged, he had killed one million and taken captive a second.”11 Although Plutarch’s figures are almost certainly inflated, there is little doubt that hundreds of thousands died in battle, were butchered in raids or were enslaved. How many more hundreds of thousands, if not millions, died of famine and cold, as conquering armies burnt villages and confiscated food supplies, can only be guessed at. For reasons unknown, even the 400-year-old Treveri stronghold on the Dollberg was abandoned sometime after Caesar’s wars. Despite the hardships of the Gauls, Caesar demanded a punitive annual tribute of 400,000 gold pieces from the defeated tribes. The Gallic war had made Caesar a very rich man. According to Suetonius, in Gaul Caesar “had plundered large and small temples of their votive offerings, and more often gave towns over to pillage because their inhabitants were rich than because they had offended him. As a result he collected larger quantities of gold than he could handle.”12 Gaul remained utterly cowed and weakened for years to come.13 Gallic pride in their war for freedom, however, did not diminish entirely. At a later date Caesar was shown a short sword hanging in a temple of the Arverni. Caesar smiled when the locals told him that it was the sword that had been taken from Caesar. Although his friends urged him to have it taken down, Caesar would not permit it.
Even the Germans kept quiet across the Rhine, which was fortunate for Caesar who, in 51 BC, right after the Gallic war, marched his legions across the Rubicon. By doing so he violated Roman law which made it illegal for a Roman general to lead his armed forces into Italy. The law sought to prevent a military takeover by a general and by breaking it Caesar plunged the Republic into civil war. Opposing him was Pompey. The Triumvirate was broken, friends turned into enemies. The third Triumvir, Crassus, who might have acted as a mediator between Caesar and Pompey, was dead. Two years prior, Crassus foolishly instigated a war against the powerful Parthian Kingdom. Crassus was killed by the Parthians after his crushing defeat at the battle of Carrahae. The battle claimed the lives of 25,000 legionaries, among them Crassus’ son, Publius, who had served Caesar so valiantly during the Gallic war. After Crassus’ death, Pompey was turned against Caesar by the Senate. For four years Caesar’s Gallic and German cavalry accompanied the legions through the war against the Pompeians and through the interludes of the Egyptian and Pontic wars. Caesar emerged victorious, crushing Pompey and his supporters.
In 46 BC, Caesar held four triumphs within one month, celebrating his victories over the Gauls and those of his civil war. Vercingetorix was led forth from the notorious dungeons of Tullianum, which was reserved for high profile captives. The once former king of the Gauls had languished six long years within its six-hundred-year-old walls. Bound in chains, Vercingetorix followed his conqueror in Caesar’s Gallic triumphal march, “the first and most magnificent”14 of his triumphs.
In a golden chariot drawn by four horses, Caesar led the procession, flowers strewn in front of his path. He wore the robes of Jupiter Capitolinus and a purple tunic and held an ivory scepter crowned with an eagle. Following Caesar were the columns of his legions and auxiliaries and the spoils of war: prisoners, sacrifices and effigies, and wagons brimming with 60,500 silver talents and 2,822 gold crowns. Along the way, the legionaries broke out in soldiers’ songs, two verses of which were noted down by Suetonius:
“Home we bring our bald whoremonger;
Romans, lock your wives away!
All the bags of gold you lent him.
Went his Gallic tarts to pay.”15
“Gaul was brought to shame by Caesar;
By King Nicomedes, he,
Here comes Caesar, wreathed in triumph
For his Gallic victory!
Nicomedes wears no laurels,
Though the greatest of the three.”16
The second verse referred to an early time in Caesar’s career when, uncharacteristically, he was rumored to have been bedfellow of Nicomedes, King of Bithynia.17
The triumph began on the Campus Marius and filed through the Porta Triumphalis, the Circus Flaminius and the Circus Maximus. It ended at the Capitol Hill, which Caesar ascended flanked by “two lines of elephants, forty in all, which acted as his torch bearers.”18 On the Capitol two white bulls were sacrificed. Vercingetorix was executed. With him died the best and perhaps the only real hope for Gallic independence.
Caesar handsomely rewarded his soldiers. Each legionary was given a bonus of 240 gold pieces, the equal of thirteen years pay. To the commoners of Rome, Caesar dealt out grain and oil rations and four gold pieces each. Days of lavish games followed his triumphs, with gladiatorial fights and beast hunts on the arena sands and a naval battle on a flooded Campus Marius. Several thousand men, alongside hundreds of lions, scores of elephants and for the first time, a giraffe, killed each other for the amusement of the Roman populace. So many people showed up from all directions to witness the bloody spectacles that tents were pitched along the streets, roads and on roof tops. The crowds became so ecstatic that people were crushed to death, including two senators. “This horrifying and wanton display of power exceeded anything as yet seen in Rome, and it revealed a side of Caesar’s character which did him little credit,”19 noted Fuller.
In 44 BC, Caesar became dictator for life and in the same year, on the fateful Ides of March, was assassinated. The death of Caesar caused another civil war which ended with the rise of Caesar’s nephew and close disciple, Gaius Octavian, to the title of Augustus, the semi-divine, first Emperor of Rome, on 16 January 27 BC. The reign of Augustus heralded a new chapter in Rome’s war against the barbarian peoples. The Gauls were a conquered people, but across the Rhine, the free Germanic tribes were about to bear the full brunt of Rome’s conquering legions.