Hosea is one of the most autobiographical of the Prophetic Books in that the opening account of Hosea's own marriage and family form a vital part of his unique message. God's word of grace and His call to repent are dramatically portrayed and punctuated by Hosea's scorned but constant love for his wife Gomer and by the odd names of his three children. Apart from this information about his immediate family, hardly anything is known about Hosea. His divinely commissioned marriage to the promiscuous Gomer, which brought Hosea such heartache, seems to have been the beginning of his long career. But rather than ministering in spite of personal sorrow, his troublesome marriage was the foundation stone of his ministry.

The growing Assyrian threat to both the northern and southern kingdoms is a historical reality that forms the background against which Hosea prophesied (11:5). Assyrian cruelty is attested in both writing and graphic art. In this relief fragment from Nineveh, Assyrian soldiers are deporting Chaldean women. The artist has captured the pathos of the moment by portraying one woman stopping to give water to an exhausted child while an Assyrian guard threatens to beat stragglers.

Circumstances of Writing

Author: According to the first verse, Hosea's prophetic career spanned at least 40 years. It began some time during the reign of Jeroboam II, who ruled Israel, the northern kingdom, as co-regent with his father Jehoash from 793 to 782 b.c., then independently until 753 b.c. Hosea's ministry ended sometime during the reign of Hezekiah, who ruled Judah from 715 to 686 b.c.

Although the southern kingdom of Judah was not neglected in Hosea's prophecy (e.g., 1:7,11; 6:11; 12:2), his messages were directed primarily to the northern kingdom of Israel, often referred to as "Ephraim" (5:3,12-14; 6:4; 7:1), and represented by the royal city, Samaria (7:1; 8:5-6; 10:5,7; 13:16). Hosea apparently lived and worked in or around Samaria, probably moving to Jerusalem at least by the time Samaria fell to the Assyrians in 722 b.c.

Background: The reign of Jeroboam II, the northern kingdom's greatest ruler by worldly standards, was a time of general affluence, military might, and national stability. The economy was strong, the future looked bright, and the mood of the country was optimistic, at least for the upper class (Hos. 12:8; Amos 3:15; 6:4-6). Syria was a constant problem to Israel, but Adad-nirari III of Assyria had brought Israel relief with an expedition against Damascus, the Syrian capital, in 805 b.c.

Then after Adad-nirari's death in 783 b.c. Israel and Judah expanded during a time of Assyrian weakness (the time of Jonah). But after Jeroboam's death in 753 b.c. Israel sank into near anarchy, going through six kings in about 30 years, four of whom were assassinated (Zechariah, Shallum, Pekahiah, and Pekah). Since Assyria also regained power during this time, Israel was doomed. Of course the real reason Israel crumbled was God's determination to judge the people for their sins, as Hosea and Amos made clear. Most of Hosea's messages were probably delivered during these last 30 years of Israel's nationhood.

Message and Purpose

Indictment: According to Hosea, Israel sinned in four ways: (1) They were violating basic covenant requirements of faithfulness and kindness, rejecting knowledge of God and His law. They had become self-satisfied and proud and had forgotten God's grace. They even spoke contemptuously against Him. (2) They were engaging in idolatry and harlotry or cult prostitution. (3) They were trusting in human devices (kings, princes, warriors, and foreign covenants) rather than in God. (4) They were guilty of injustice and violence, including murder, theft, lying, and oppression of the defenseless.

Instruction: Through Hosea the Lord told the people of Israel to stop their promiscuity, idolatry, and iniquity and to return to Him in humility and faithfulness toward the law of the covenant.

Judgment: Hosea informed Israel that their present distress was because the Lord had abandoned them and that further discipline would come. This would include foreign domination, deportation, destruction, desolation, and death.

Hope: Hosea reminded Israel of the Lord's grace and love in making them a people, and in blessing them in the past with His attentive and patient care and His abundant provision. He was their only hope, and His ways were right. The Lord also assured them that in response to their repentance and faith He would again have compassion on them and redeem them; He would remove unrighteousness and restore the covenant, bringing righteousness and the knowledge of God; and He would rebuild and beautify Israel.

Structure

The first three chapters of the book establish a parallel between the Lord and Hosea. Both were loving husbands of unfaithful wives. Hosea's three children, whose names served as messages to Israel, represent an overture to the second main division of the book, which presents its accusations and the call to repent in groups of three. Just as chapter 1 (a third-person account of Hosea's family) is balanced by chapter 3 (a first-person account), so the final main division of the book alternates between first-person announcements of God's message and third-person reports from the prophet.

Contribution to the Bible

Hosea compared the relationship between God and His people to that of a husband and his wife, drawing a parallel between spiritual and marital unfaithfulness. "The Bible is very clear in its moral code that the sexual act can only legitimately take place within the context of the marriage relationship. Thus the image of marriage and sex, a relationship that is purely exclusive and allows no rivals, is an ideal image of the relationship between God and his people" (Dictionary of Biblical Imagery, p. 778). Yet nothing can quench God's love for His covenant people. Like a marriage partner, God is deeply involved in our lives and is pained when we go our own way. God demands love and loyalty from His own. Often God's people have failed to demonstrate whole-hearted love for Him. But He stands ready to forgive and restore those who turn to Him in repentance. In buying Gomer's freedom, Hosea pointed ahead to God's love perfectly expressed in Christ, who bought the freedom of His bride, the church, with His own life.

Timeline of Hosea

800 b.c.: Jeroboam II reigns in Israel 793?; Uzziah reigns in Judah 792
780 b.c.
760 b.c.: Amos called 760; Zechariah and Shallum of Israel assassinated 752; Hosea and Micah called 750
740 b.c.: Pekahiah of Israel assassinated 740; Isaiah called 740; Hoshea reigns in Israel 732; Pekah of Israel assassinated 732; Samaria falls to Assyria 722
720 b.c.: Hezekiah reigns in Judah 715
700 b.c.

Outline

Hosea Study Notes

1:2 Hosea's initial call to the prophetic ministry began with perplexing instructions to find a wife among the promiscuous women of Israel (of which there were apparently many; 4:14). This was no mere parable or vision but an actual command to enter a literal marriage that would vividly portray God's perspective on Israel. Wife of whoredoms describes her behavior and character when Hosea married her. She is not called a prostitute, but she almost certainly used her sexuality for her livelihood (2:5). Hosea, like the Lord, would have a wayward wife and a broken heart. Children of whoredoms indicates that the paternity of Gomer's children would be questioned. They would bear the shame of their mother's behavior and at the same time represent the shameful behavior and divine condemnation of the children of Israel. The reason the prophet had to invite such pain into his life was the flagrancy with which Israel, Jehovah's wife, had been selling herself to other gods and departing from the Lord. Each idolatrous act had driven them further from Him. Hosea and Ezekiel account for almost half of the uses of the Hebrew root word znh in the OT (22 times in Hosea, 28 times in Ezekiel, 115 times in the OT), which includes words for "be a harlot, act promiscuously," "promiscuity," and "prostitute" (see Ezek. 16; 23)

1:4 Jehu had carried out God's judgment (2 Kings 9:7) by putting the last of Omri's dynasty to the sword at the city of Jezreel (2 Kings 9:24–10:11). God commended him for this (2 Kings 10:30). Hosea named his first child Jezreel, symbolizing that Jehu's dynasty, which had proved to be just as wicked as Omri's (2 Kings 10:31), would likewise suffer annihilation at Jezreel. Jehu's dynasty began in violence and would end in the same. Zechariah, Jehu's last royal descendant, was assassinated by Shallum in 752 b.c., probably at Ibleam in Jezreel (2 Kings 15:10).

1:6 Hosea's second child, a daughter, was given the pathetic Hebrew name Lo-ruhamah, meaning "No Mercy," symbolic of the fact that by her continual unfaithfulness Israel had forfeited God's love. Take them away could also be rendered "forgive them," although the context favors the present translation.

1:9 The Hebrew name of Hosea's third child, Lo-ammi, meaning "Not My People," was a symbolic proclamation that Israel had broken covenant with God (Exod. 6:7; Lev. 26:12). I will not be your God is literally "and I will not be to you." This could also be rendered "and I am not 'I AM' to you" (cp. Exod. 3:14-15). God's statement amounted to a decree of divorce.

1:10-11 Allusion to the Abrahamic covenant in the phrase as the sand of the sea (cp. Gen. 22:17) indicates that God's "divorce" of Israel was not final but applied only to that generation. Eternal promise is placed profoundly beside final judgment, reconcilable only because the living God could bring life out of death. This is affirmed by the name Jezreel, which symbolized not only judgment but also life insomuch as the name meant "God plants" (cp. Ezek. 36:9-11). The division between Israel and Judah was temporary, a theme to be repeated later (Ezek. 37:18-25; Hos. 3:5).

2:1-23 This chapter elaborates on the "Not My People" oracle in 1:9-11. It opens with the divorce formula in verse 2 that begins the rebuke in verses 1-13: "she is not my wife, neither am I her husband." The forgiveness section in verses 14-23 announces the restoration of Israel. The Lord again becomes "My husband", and Israel becomes "My wife"; "No Compassion" also receives compassion, and "Not My People" becomes "My People" (see vv. 16,19,23).

2:2 Here is the first command to repent in the book (4:15; 6:1; 10:12; 12:6; 14:1-2,9), followed by alternating verses of judgment (2:3-4,6-7,9-11) and indictment (v v. 5,8,12-13). The children, representing the common people of Israel, are urged to plead with their mother, representing Israel's leadership. To "plead" is a judicial term; in this context it means "execute judgment" (Isa. 66:16). So Israel's divorce is not the end of hope and her punishment is not the last word (Hos. 2:3,19-20).

2:3 Israel is portrayed in utter humiliation and deprivation. Captured exiles are often depicted in antiquity as being led away naked (Isa. 20:1-6).

2:4 The people would suffer individually because of the nation's idolatry. Therefore they must do what they could to "plead with" their nation (v. 2).

2:5 The nation's lovers were other gods (idols), which she thought (lit said; cp. v v. 7,12) could meet her needs.

2:7 The purpose of God's punishment of Israel for abandoning Him (1:2) was to restore them.

2:8 The leaders had led the people to trust and seek Baal (6 times in Hos.; 74 times in the OT) rather than Jehovah, the true God. Jehovah had not only created Israel and delivered them from Egyptian bondage but had also blessed them with the necessities of life and even riches. The verb translated know is used 16 times in Hosea, more than any of the Minor Prophets (v. 20; 5:4; 6:3; 8:2; 9:7; 11:3; 14:9). The Hebrew verb ba'al can mean "marry, rule over, possess" and is related to the noun "husband, lord, owner" and the name of the Canaanite god "Baal" as well as places such as Baal-peor where he was worshipped. These various terms occur 229 times in the OT. The name occurs 7 times in Hosea, all but one for the Canaanite god.

2:9 The word for return is essentially the same Hebrew word as "return" in verse 7. If Israel did not return to her husband, the Lord, He would come to take away His blessings.

2:10 God would expose her shame (cp. v. 3; Isa. 47:1-3; Jer. 13:22; Ezek. 16:36-37; 23:29; Nah. 3:5). The noun translated lewdness refers literally to a woman's private parts. Israel's punishment would include the disgrace of having her sins exposed for everyone to see.

2:11 In spite of Israel's idolatry, they had continued the hypocrisy of "worship" in Jehovah's name. Outward religious activity can outlive the death of true faith.

2:12 This verse echoes verse 5 in exposing the lie Israel believed—that their blessings from Jehovah (v. 8) were earned from their service to idols.

2:13 The words of rebuke (v v. 1-13) conclude with the common prophetic refrain saith the Lord; God's promise of redemption and restoration follow (v v. 14-23).

2:14-15 The word therefore commonly begins an announcement of judgment following an indictment for sin in the writings of the prophets. It is so used in verses 6 and 9. But here, following the indictment in verses 12-13, it introduces an announcement of salvation. Israel's sin will not only result in judgment, but because of God's covenant promises it will also result in salvation. The place of judgment, the wilderness, will also be the place of salvation. Speak comfortably is literally "speak to her heart." It occurs elsewhere of Joseph's comforting assurance of favor and forgiveness to his brothers, who had done evil to him (Gen. 50:21; cp. Gen. 34:3; Judg. 19:3; Isa. 40:2). Although Israel had forgotten Jehovah, He would carry her back to the wilderness where He would renew and restore her faith as it had been in her youth (cp. 13:5). Achor means "trouble" and alludes to the trouble that Achan caused Israel (Josh. 7:24-26; see Isa. 65:10).

2:16-20 These verses are parallel to verse 2. Although Jehovah declared that Hosea's generation was no longer His wife and He was no longer her husband, a time would come when He would renew the covenant.

2:16-17 Ishi and Baali can both mean "my husband" (v. 7; Exod. 21:22), but Baali also means "my master" (Exod. 22:8) or "my Baal" (see note at v. 8). Israel's popular religion often merged concepts and practices of Baal worship with Jehovah worship, an idolatrous practice that angered God because it defiled His name (Lev. 18:21; 20:3; Ezek. 20:39). In the future day of Israel's final conversion, God would take away Israel's promiscuity (v. 2) when He removed any reference to the Baalim (the plural "-im" indicates that Baal worship occurred at various locations) from her vocabulary (Zech. 13:2).

2:18 The list of animals alludes to Gen. 1:20-25; 8:17-19 as well as Hos. 2:12. The covenant refers figuratively to the peace God will bring between man and beast (Job 5:23; Isa. 11:6-9; Ezek. 34:25).

2:21-23 These verses refer back to Hosea's three children (1:3–2:1). God will hear Israel's cries for help and the earth's need for rain. Jezreel generally stood for bloodshed, but here it means "God plants" (cp. 1:10) and refers to Israel.

3:1 Even though Gomer, like Israel, had joined herself to her friend (lit "a neighbor"; cp. Deut. 5:21; Jer. 3:1,20) and so committed adultery, Hosea was told to take her back. She is called a woman rather than "your wife" because she had broken the covenant and had no claim on him. Like Hosea, God would show love to Israel even though she had forfeited her right to His love. Flagons of wine (or raisin cakes) were apparently used in Canaanite religious rites, possibly as an aphrodisiac. With its four uses of the word "love," this verse graphically depicts the foolishness of Israel's attitude toward God. Their relationship was best portrayed by "a marriage that is to all appearances senseless and grotesque" (A. Richardson). Gomer rejected Hosea's genuine love of her for the selfish "love" of another man. In the same way, Israel preferred ("love") raisin cakes to the faithful love Jehovah had for her.

3:2-5 Why Hosea had to buy Gomer is not stated. Perhaps she had sold herself to someone as a personal slave. Hosea's instructions to Gomer probably mean they would refrain from conjugal relations for a time after she returned to him. Verses 4-5 compare this to Israel's coming time of exile when they would be without ruler or worship. During this time the Lord would be expecting Israel to seek Him (5:15). The time would end in the latter days when Israel would seek their messianic king (descended from David, 3:5) in repentance and faith (Isa. 11:1-10; Jer. 23:5-6; 33:15-16; Matt. 1:1; 21:9; Rom. 11:23). It is apparently the same time that believing Israel will be reunited (Hos. 1:11).

4:1-5:15 This section is centered on the commands in 4:15. Three repetitions of indictment plus judgment both precede and follow these commands.

4:1-3 This central indictment section begins with a prophetic call to hear, a summary of the Lord's charges, and a call to the true children of Israel to recognize the moral and spiritual corruption of the rest of their countrymen who have abandoned their God and forfeited their right to be called His people. These adulterous inhabitants have abandoned (1) truth or integrity, the quality of being reliable and genuine; (2) mercy or faithful love and mercy to friends and associates; and (3) the knowledge of God. They had ceased to care about knowing Him or the truth about Him (Rom. 1:18-32). As a result they were violating the Ten Commandments (Hos. 4:2) and suffering the consequences (v. 3).

4:4-7 The common people are identified as guilty, but especially guilty were the priests who were responsible for teaching the people. Leaders of God's people who shirk or violate that responsibility invite special punishment (Mal. 2:1-9; Matt. 18:6; James 3:1).

4:8 The term for sin can also mean "sin offering," which the priests were to eat (Lev. 6:25-26). The priests were using Israel's sin and the sacrificial system for their own advantage.

4:10 The fertility religion that had infected apostate Israel, even the priesthood, was about prosperity, but Jehovah would see to it that the opposite results occurred. They would not increase. More references to promiscuity occur in verses 10-15 and 18 than anywhere else in the book (10 of the 22 times in Hosea).

4:12 Stocks were wooden idols and a staff was a divining rod.

4:14 God's statement that He would not punish your daughters must be understood as a rhetorical way of saying that God placed heavier blame on the men who supported the vile practice of cult prostitution. All would suffer when God brought judgment against Israel.

4:15 This verse contains the first of three exhortations (cp. 5:1,8) that divide this section into three warnings. Although the warnings are mainly directed against Israel, Judah was also in danger of following Israel in apostasy and punishment (5:5,10,12-14). Although there was a Benjamite city Beth-aven (Josh. 18:12), Hosea used it as a derogatory term for Beth-el, which meant "house of God" (Hos. 5:8; 10:5; cp. "Aven" in 10:8; Amos 1:5). Beth-aven meant "house of disaster, wickedness, nothingness, or idolatry." Another Hebrew word with the same consonants as 'aven but different vowels meant "wealth, strength" (Hos. 12:3,8). Gilgal and Beth-el had become centers of Israelite apostate religion (Amos 5:5). The name of God continued to be used, but its attachment to idolatry made its utterance not only hypocritical but blasphemous. To offend is the legal description of unpunished lawbreakers; shame was the appropriate emotional response (Ezra 9:6).

4:17 This verse has the first of 37 references to Ephraim in Hosea, more than in any other book. The name was given to Joseph's second son, then to the tribe he fathered, then to the northern hill country where they lived. It was popularly derived from the Hebrew word parah, "be fruitful" (Gen. 41:52), a verb used ironically in Hos. 13:15. "Fruitful" Ephraim would no longer be fruitful because of their foolish pursuit of fruitless pagan fertility rites.

4:19 Because of Israel's adulterous idolatry, arrogance, and stubbornness, they were warned that God would blow them away as with a whirlwind, the first of three metaphors used in this section to make vivid the coming judgment. He would also eat away at them like rot or a moth (5:12) and tear them to pieces like a lion (5:14).

5:1 Verses 1-7 contain a second exhortation directed against the corrupt leaders. House of Israel probably refers to unofficial leaders of society (Jer. 2:26). The unauthorized sanctuary at Mizpah (Jer. 41:4-6) was a snare, and a high place on Mount Tabor, where false religion was practiced, was a net.

5:3-4 Although God knew all about Ephraim, they did not know Him (4:1). Israel's many evil doings (cp. 7:2; 9:15; Deut. 28:20; Judg. 2:19; Neh. 9:35; Jer. 4:18) had so enslaved them to sin that they were unable to repent (Rom. 6:16-20).

5:6 Although unable to repent (v. 4), Israel sought God's favor with flocks and herds (1 Sam. 15:14-15; 2 Chron. 18:2; Ps. 50:7-15). Some people seek the Lord and do not find Him because they come with gifts and labor rather than "a broken and a contrite heart" (Ps. 51:17; see Isa. 1:10-15; Amos 5:21-24).

5:7 Israel's leaders had produced a generation of illegitimate children who did not know God and were therefore "not My people." The month refers to the festival held when the new moon first appeared. This signaled the beginning of each month, thus establishing the chronology for all the festivals according to the lunar calendar. It was accompanied by trumpets and special offerings of animals, grain, and wine (Num. 28:11-15; Ps. 81:3). Rather than grateful celebrations of Jehovah's blessings, Israel had turned all the festivals into hypocritical, idolatrous drains on the economy (Isa. 1:13-14; Hos. 2:11). In return, God would end the feasts with destruction (Amos 8:10). The sense may be that with every "new moon" God would send another wave of judgments.

5:8 These cities were in Benjamin between Ephraim (the northern kingdom of Israel) and Judah. A battle would be fought there. The outcome would be desolation for Israel (v. 9) and divine wrath for Judah (v. 10).

5:10 On the imagery of God's wrath like water, see Isa. 8:6-10.

5:12-13 Moth and rottenness are striking similes for God to use of Himself. The term for "moth" can also mean "maggot" or "pus." It pictures a man whose festering wounds were divinely inflicted. Israel's efforts to heal these wounds through human means would be futile. Jareb is Tiglath-pileser III.

5:14-15 God is pictured as a lion carrying its prey to its den. This image is parallel to the message of verse 6.

6:1-3 This exhortation to repent is accompanied by the assurance that all God's punishments—even death—would be reversed. After a short time in exile, Israel would be resurrected. Hosea 6:2 may be the verse Paul had in mind in 1 Cor. 15:4. The NT viewed as messianic fulfillment certain events in Israel's history which Jesus paralleled or completed (Hos. 11:1).

6:4 The Lord was to Israel like a father whose heart was broken by a rebellious child (11:3).

6:6 Quoted by Jesus in Matt. 9:13 and 12:7, this verse does not reject sacrifice but rather ritualism and worship that is not accompanied by faithfulness and love and is not based on the knowledge of God (4:1). This section describes a nation full of violence and immorality. The king and national leadership neglected the nation and devoted themselves to debauchery and striving for power. As a result, the nation was decaying around them and being assimilated and swallowed up by surrounding nations. A remedy for the crisis was sought everywhere but in the Lord.

6:7 Men is literally "Adam." A place called Adam is known from Josh. 3:16, but no sin or covenant violation is known to have occurred there. The reference is probably to the first man. Although the term "covenant" is not used in Genesis 1–3, the relation between God and the first man is often described as covenantal. The covenant is sometimes called the "covenant of works," in which Adam's divinely bestowed life would be maintained in return for obedience. The significance of Adam's sin for the human race is clarified in Rom. 5:15-17.

6:11 Judgment approaching Judah is here described as a coming harvest because the people were growing ripe with wickedness (Jer. 51:33; Joel 3:13; Rev. 14:14-16). The phrase literally translated returned the captivity means that God would "restore the fortunes" that were lost when Judah went into captivity.

7:3-7 Several parallels unite these verses with a chiastic (a-b-b-a) structure. The king cared nothing for God but loved to hear of evil, deceptive schemes, for which reason he would fall. All in the government burned with passions like a baker's oven. The king's conspiratorial counselors lured him into drunkenness, passion, and death. The baker may be an image of the king whose debauchery allowed evil to flourish.

7:8-10 Ephraim's leaders were negligent in allowing the people to become like the other nations. They were like careless cooks who failed to turn the cake, allowing it to burn on one side. Yet they did not even notice what was happening. For similar uses of return or "turn" and seek, see 3:5; 5:15; 2 Chron. 7:14; Isa. 9:13; Dan. 9:3; Zeph. 1:6.

7:11-12 Israel was like a bird that had forgotten its way home. What they heard was probably news that their efforts to find security in foreign governments had failed.

7:13 The section that begins in 6:1 with a call to return to Jehovah and be healed ends here with a lament that Israel had done just the opposite. Woe unto them is a declaration of coming judgment (9:12; Isa. 3:9; Jer. 50:27; Jude 11). The term for fled is often used of birds (Isa. 16:2; Jer. 4:25) and can also refer to restless wandering (Prov. 27:8). Israel could flee from God in rebellion, but they could not escape destruction. The phrase I have redeemed refers to the exodus (Deut. 7:8; 9:26; Mic. 6:4). God's deliverance should cause His people to declare the truth about Him.

7:15 Here is the second contrast between "I" and "they" (cp. v. 13; 11:1-4). God had strengthened Israel to be a mighty nation, but they had turned their might against Him.

7:16 Israel's leaders were as helpful as a faulty bow that could not send arrows to hit the mark (Ps. 78:57). Israel's raging tongue may reflect their bitter words against God or the prophets (2 Chron. 36:16). The consequent derision may be what they would experience when they sought help from Egypt (7:11) or when they were destroyed (v. 13).

8:1-3 God speaks in verses 1-14. An alarm was to sound because God was sending an army to swoop down on Israel like an eagle on its prey (Deut. 28:49; Lam. 4:19; Hab. 1:8). Israel was treating their covenant with God (we know thee) as if it were a blank check for sin. House of the Lord may refer to Israel (9:8) rather than the temple.

8:4-6 Samaria, Israel's capital, refers here to the entire northern kingdom (Isa. 10:10-11). Israel had arrogantly sought success and security through idolatry, military might, and political power (two "crimes" in the summary passage in Hos. 10:10 probably refer to the military and politics). All their efforts would produce just the opposite of what they desired.

8:7 Idols were worshipped because they were thought to grant fertility. But the "planting" of idolatry would be like planting wind, and the harvest would be nothing but a whirlwind—a storm representing divine judgment (Prov. 1:27; 10:25; Isa. 17:13; 29:6; 66:15; Nah. 1:3). Whatever sprouted would be blown away. Foreigners would take everything the people produced. Israel's idols, temples, and fortresses would be destroyed, and military alliances would drain them dry, enslave them, and carry them away. For their wickedness and rebellion in trusting in the fertility cult of Baal, Jehovah would reject them and make the land barren.

8:11-12 Israel built altars to cleanse them from sin (Lev. 4:35), but the altars only increased Israel's sinning, perhaps by giving them a false sense of security. Their hypocritical sacrifices only added to their sin (Isa. 1:14; Jer. 7:11; Amos 5:21; Mark 11:17). Having God's written law likewise did them no good because they disregarded it as something strange and adopted Baal worship as their native religion.

8:13-14 Return to Egypt is probably not literal but indicates the people would have to start over in foreign slavery (9:3). The northern kingdom fell to Assyria in 722 b.c. (2 Kings 18:9-12), but Hosea did not neglect Judah, which was to suffer invasion by the Assyrians in 701 b.c. (2 Kings 18:13).

9:1-3 Hosea speaks in verses 1-9. Israel was seeking prosperity by serving pagan fertility gods as the Gentiles did, just as a woman would seek the reward of a prostitute. They could not rejoice at "the Lord's feast" (v. 5), however, because Jehovah had withheld the harvest. On Egypt see note at 8:13-14.

9:4-6 Israel's failed harvest would leave the people with barely enough to eat, with nothing for offerings and sacrifices. The bread of mourners was food defiled by association with death. It could not be offered to God. Israel would seek refuge from destruction in Egypt, but they would die outside their land.

9:7-9 God had sent prophets to warn the people, but their iniquity and hatred were such that they considered God's spiritual messengers to be mad. Nevertheless, God was with them. Watchman is a common biblical image for prophets (Jer. 6:17; Ezek. 3:17; 33:2). The fowler's snare may be what the prophet was to the ways of foolish Israel (Isa. 8:14; 2 Cor. 2:16). On the days of Gibeah, see note at 10:9.

9:10 God speaks in verses 10-17. Israel initially brought God much pleasure, but that changed with the incident of pagan sexuality at Baal-peor (Num. 25:1-9; Ps. 106:28-30) where the people tried to ensure fertility by worshipping Baal. Israel was now repeating its foolish behavior.

9:11-12 Ephraim's glory was the Lord, whose departure would end their fertility.

9:13 God had placed both Ephraim and Tyre in surroundings in which they should have flourished (Ezek. 17:5-8), but both had turned to Baal worship and practiced child sacrifice. Both Tyre and Samaria were besieged by the Assyrian king Shalmaneser V. Both cities fell to Sargon II of Assyria in 722 b.c.

9:15-17 Just as verses 10-14 begin with an allusion to Baal-peor, these verses begin with an allusion to Gilgal (cp. 4:15; 12:11), a town so full of evil that God had rejected them.

10:1-4 Hosea speaks in verses 1-8. The empty vine is one that has poured out much fruit (Jer. 51:2). Although once productive (cp. Isa. 5; John 15), Israel now only yielded fruit for itself. They had turned the Lord's blessings into gifts for the calf idols of Baal. Rather than producing fruit for harvest, they acted like poison hemlock (cp. Deut. 32:32; Jer. 2:21). They recognized no external authority, but pretended to worship Jehovah with false oaths. Judgment can also be rendered "justice," the fruit God was looking for.

10:5 The calves of Beth-aven refer to the calf god worshipped at Beth-el (see note at 4:15). The mourning (possibly over the mythological "death" of the god in the dry season) and rejoicing (possibly over his rising again) were likely part of the fertility worship. Departed could also be "went into exile" and is explained by verse 6.

10:6 For an account of Israel's troubles with Assyria, see 2 Kings 15:19-20,29; 17:3-6. Jareb is Tiglath-pileser III.

10:8 When the high places were destroyed, the people would cry out to be buried by the very places of their idolatry (Deut. 12:2; Luke 23:30).

10:9 God speaks in verses 9-15. Allusions to Gibeah in 9:9 and 10:9 (see also 5:8) recall the civil war occasioned by a Levite's concubine being abused (Judg. 19–21). Like Samaria, Gibeah was a hill with a fortress; it served as Saul's capital during his kingship but was later deserted. So it represents both depravity and militarism and may have figuratively referred to Samaria.

10:10 Two furrows is a wordplay implying two crimes (see note at 8:4-6).

Canaanite altar (10:2) at Tel Hazor in Galilee

10:11 Heifers were sometimes allowed to walk atop fresh grain stalks that had been laid out on the ground in order to separate the husks from the kernels (Mic. 4:13). Little effort was involved, and the calves could eat some of the grain (Deut. 25:4; 1 Cor. 9:9; 1 Tim. 5:18). Israel would cease to be like the calf and would have to plow with the yoke of discipline.

10:12-13 The exhortations to sow . . . reap, and seek are essentially the same. Israel was to seek righteousness . . . mercy, and the Lord. This recalls the threefold charge against Israel in 4:1 and is the summary of a life that pleases God (2:19; Ps. 33:5; 36:10; 89:14; 103:17; Prov. 21:21; Jer. 9:24). But Israel had sought wickedness . . . iniquity, and lies. The latter is probably the "false fruit" of idolatry and military power, which looks good (Gen. 3:6) but is unsatisfying and poisonous (Hos. 10:4).

10:14-15 The identities of Shalman and Beth-arbel are uncertain, but Shalman may refer to the Assyrian king Shalmaneser.

11:1-4 In these verses the Lord alternates between "I did this" and "but Israel did that" (cp. 7:13,15)

11:1 A. Richardson notes that Hosea 11 comes close to saying that God is love, just as the NT says (1 John 4:7-8). I loved him speaks of Jehovah's drawing Israel into His affectionate heart and of His faithfulness to His covenant with the patriarchs in redeeming Israel and choosing them for a covenant relationship (Deut. 7:7-8). As a loving Father (Exod. 4:22; Mal. 2:10) God had brought (where "brought" is a strong use of the word "call"; cp. Exod. 2:7; Isa. 41:4; Amos 5:8) Israel to Himself and to a destiny. But now He grieved as a father abandoned by his son (Hos. 6:4). Like 6:2, 11:1 is understood in the NT to have messianic significance in that Jesus, God's Son like Israel, was also brought out of Egypt with a background of hatred (Matt. 2:15; cp. Exod. 4:22). Jesus came as Israel's representative to fulfill the righteousness that the people lacked (Matt. 3:15). Whereas Israel was freed from Egypt but became slaves to sin, Jesus followed through in righteousness so that He could die as their substitutionary atoning sacrifice.

11:2-3 The expression as . . . so speaks of Israel's sin increasing as God's blessing increased (cp. 4:7; 10:1). The first they may refer to God's prophets—the more the prophets called Israel, the more Israel rejected the prophets. Israel's not knowing their own God, not recognizing Him at work in their lives, and not praising His faithfulness but instead attributing the effects of His grace to other causes, is a major theme in Hosea, where the Hebrew verb yada' ("know") occurs 16 times. Reference to God healing Israel is also found in 5:13; 6:1; 7:1; 14:4.

11:5 The Lord announces the penalty for Israel's ingratitude. Israel would be delivered to Assyria, who would oppress them as Egypt had done (7:16; 10:6). A symbolic return to Egypt is mentioned in 8:13; 9:3,6.

11:8-11 Admah and Zeboim were destroyed along with Sodom and Gomorrah (Deut. 29:23). Jehovah refused to annihilate Israel but promised a new exodus for a believing remnant. T. McComiskey declared, "The drastic change of emotion" between Hos. 11:5-7 and verses 8-11 "is one of the most significant aspects of Hosea's prophetic message . . . We see the grace of God here as we have not yet seen it in the whole prophecy."

11:8-9 Unlike man, God's anger and compassion may not be manipulated but are subject only to His infinite wisdom, His holy intentions, and His perfect will. The point of God's manner of speaking here is that nothing stands in the way of the deserved abandonment and destruction of Israel but God's gracious compassion. Rather than a change of heart, what may be in view here is a broken heart, as the verb is used in Lam. 1:20.

11:10 Whereas the Lord is like a lion as Israel's fierce predator in 5:14 and 13:7, here the comparison is a positive one as the divine Lion is Israel's champion restoring them to the land. The trembling signifies submissive excitement at hearing the Lord's voice (Job 37:1-4).

11:11 The phrase saith the Lord concludes the promise of restoration in verses 8-11 and echoes its use in a similar blessing passage in 2:16,21.

11:12 The last two lines of this verse are difficult. The Hebrew term for God is not the usual Elohim but El, which can refer to the Canaanite god of that name. The term for ruleth is rare but suggests rebellion (Gen. 27:40; Jer. 2:31). Saints elsewhere refers to godly people or to angels (Ps. 16:3; 89:5; Dan. 7:18; 8:13), but it could refer in this context to Canaanite deities or cult prostitutes. So this could be saying that Judah is still rebelling with El and honoring the deities.

12:1-8 Dependence on foreign alliances meant trusting in deceit and violence. In doing so, Israel was playing with fire (2 Kings 18:21; Isa. 30:12-13).

12:3-5 Hosea rebuked Israel by pointing out that although their namesake Jacob (whose name God changed to Israel) had once been a faithless, self-centered conniver, he met God first at Beth-el and was later changed in the encounter at the Jabbok River. The people of Israel, on the other hand, met Baal at Beth-el (Beth-aven) and, in effect, died (13:1).

12:10-11 Though God provided visions, Israel disposed of God's revelation and pursued pagan sacrifices at Gilead and Gilgal, for which they would receive nothing but heaps of rocks.

12:12-13 The prophet took up here where he left off in verse 4 and compared Israel's experience in Egypt to that of Jacob in Syria. Both man and nation went seeking for refuge in a foreign land but ended up being enslaved instead. But whereas Jacob came out shepherding flocks (Gen. 31:17-18), the nation was led like a flock by a shepherd (Moses; see Exod. 13ff).

12:14-13:1 Ephraim had preeminence among the northern tribes but threw it away through their contempt of God's law. Their worship of Baal is called blood guilt because it was a capital offense.

13:7-9 Those who are lulled into believing God is indulgent of our sins are shocked into reality by this picture of God being like a lion (cp. 11:10), a leopard, or a bear, tearing, ripping, and devouring. Israel had no help but God, so rejecting Him brought self destruction. Thus was the fate of a people who continually turned their backs on God.

13:10-11 God would have been Israel's king, but they rejected Him, and the king they demanded could not save them.

13:14 As in 6:1-2, although Israel was doomed, the Lord is able to bring life out of death. As Paul declared in 1 Cor. 15:55, God's power makes personal, bodily resurrection possible, as well as national renewal.

14:1-3 This final invitation to repent (6:1-3) even gives a "sinner's prayer." The calves are symbolic of thank offerings, that is, praise.

14:4 A believing remnant will experience restoration and blessing. God's promise to heal their backsliding, as Garrett noted, "implies that apostasy is more than an act of the will, but is also a kind of mental derangement . . . that God himself must cure."

14:6-7 God promised to restore life and beauty to Israel as to a dead, abandoned garden. Israel would again be a blessing to the nations as they were originally intended to be (Gen. 12:1-3; Isa. 2:2-4), signified by the fragrant olive tree furnishing not only food, fuel, and medicine but also shade (Luke 13:18-19). The scent is literally "his memory," probably referring to God's remembrance of Israel that will prompt Him to restore them by His grace (Gen. 8:21). Lebanon is referred to three times in verses 5-7 but nowhere else in the book. The reason may be that flourishing Lebanon had been the origin of Israel's Baal cult (1 Kings 16:31-33).

14:9 Hosea concluded by exhorting readers to persevere in the study of his prophecy, so as to understand and know the things he had communicated.

Hosea Cross-References

a 1:2 So ch. 3:1

bDeut. 31:16; Ps. 73:27; Jer. 2:13; Ezek. 23:3, etc.

c 1:4 2 Kings 10:11

d2 Kings 15:10,12

e 1:5 2 Kings 15:29

f 1:6 2 Kings 17:6,23

g 1:7 2 Kings 19:35

hZech. 4:6; 9:10

i 1:10 Gen. 32:12; Rom. 9:27

jRom. 9:25-26; 1 Pet. 2:10

kch. 2:23

lJon. 1:12; 1 John 3:1

m 1:11 Isa. 11:12-13; Jer. 3:18; Ezek. 34:23; 37:16

a 2:2 Isa. 50:1

bEzek. 16:25

c 2:3 Jer. 13:22,26; Ezek. 16:37,39

dEzek. 16:4

eEzek. 19:13

fAmos 8:11,13

g 2:4 John 8:41

h 2:5 Isa. 1:21; Jer. 3:1,6,8-9; Ezek. 16:15-16, etc.

iver. 8,12; Jer. 44:17

j 2:6 Job 3:23; 19:8; Lam. 3:7,9

k 2:7 ch. 5:15; Luke 15:18

lEzek. 16:8

m 2:8 Isa. 1:3

nEzek. 16:17-19

o 2:9 ver. 3

p 2:10 Ezek. 16:37; 23:29

q 2:11 Amos 8:10

r1 Kings 12:32; Amos 8:5

s 2:12 ver. 5

tPs. 80:12-13; Isa. 5:5

u 2:13 Ezek. 23:40,42

v 2:14 Ezek. 20:35

w 2:15 Josh. 7:26; Isa. 65:10

xJer. 2:2; Ezek. 16:8,22,60

a 2:15 Exod. 15:1

b 2:17 Exod. 23:13; Josh. 23:7; Ps. 16:4; Zech. 13:2

c 2:18 Job 5:23; Isa. 11:6-9; Ezek. 34:25

dPs. 46:9; Isa. 2:4; Ezek. 39:9-10; Zech. 9:10

eLev. 26:5; Jer. 23:6

f 2:20 Jer. 31:33-34; John 17:3

g 2:21 Zech. 8:12

h 2:22 ch. 1:4

i 2:23 Jer. 31:27; Zech. 10:9

jch. 1:6

kch. 1:10; Zech. 13:9; Rom. 9:26; 1 Pet. 2:10

l 3:1 ch. 1:2

mJer. 3:30

n 3:3 Deut. 21:13

o 3:4 ch. 10:3

pExod. 28:6

qJudg. 17:5

r 3:5 ch. 5:6; Jer. 50:4-5

sJer. 30:9; Ezek. 34:23-24; 37:22,24

tIsa. 2:2; Jer. 30:24; Ezek. 38:8,16; Dan. 2:28; Mic. 4:1

u 4:1 ch. 12:2; Isa. 1:18; 3:13-14; Jer. 25:31; Mic. 6:2

a 4:1 Jer. 4:22; 5:4

b 4:3 Jer. 4:28; 12:4; Amos 5:16; 8:8

cZeph. 1:3

d 4:4 Deut. 17:12

e 4:5 See Jer. 6:4-5; 15:8

f 4:6 Isa. 5:13

g 4:7 ch. 13:6

h1 Sam. 2:30; Mal. 2:9; Php. 3:19

i 4:9 Isa. 24:2; Jer. 5:31

j 4:10 Lev. 26:26; Mic. 6:14; Hag. 1:6

k 4:11 Isa. 28:7; See Eccl. 7:7

l 4:12 Jer. 2:27; Hab. 2:19

mch. 5:4; Isa. 44:20

n 4:13 Isa. 1:29; 57:5,7; Ezek. 6:13; 20:28

oAmos 7:17; Rom. 1:28

p 4:14 ver. 1,6

q 4:15 ch. 9:15; 12:11; Amos 4:4; 5:5

rch. 10:5; 1 Kings 12:29

sAmos 8:14; Zeph. 1:5

t 4:16 Jer. 3:6; 7:24; 8:5; Zech. 7:11

u 4:17 Matt. 15:14

a 4:18 Mic. 3:11; 7:3

b 4:19 Jer. 4:11-12; 51:1

cIsa. 1:29; Jer. 2:26

d 5:1 ch. 6:9

e 5:2 Isa. 29:15

f 5:3 Amos 3:2

gch. 4:17; Ezek. 23:5, etc.

h 5:4 ch. 4:12

i 5:5 ch. 7:10

j 5:6 Prov. 1:28; Isa. 1:15; Jer. 11:11; Ezek. 8:18; Mic. 3:4; John 7:34

k 5:7 ch. 6:7; Isa. 48:8; Jer. 3:20; 5:11; Mal. 2:11

lZech. 11:8

m 5:8 ch. 8:1; Joel 2:1

nIsa. 10:30

och. 4:15; Josh. 7:2

pJudg. 5:14

q 5:10 Deut. 19:14; 27:17

r 5:11 Deut. 28:33

s1 Kings 12:28; Mic. 6:16

t 5:12 Prov. 12:4

u 5:13 Jer. 30:12

vch. 7:11; 12:1; 2 Kings 15:19

wch. 10:6

x 5:14 ch. 13:7-8; Lam. 3:10

yPs. 50:22

z 5:15 Lev. 26:40-41; Jer. 29:12-13; Ezek. 6:9; 20:43; 36:31

aaPs. 72:34

a 6:1 ch. 5:14; Deut. 32:39; 1 Sam. 2:6; Job 5:18

bJer. 30:17

c 6:2 1 Cor. 15:4

d 6:3 Isa. 54:13

e2 Sam. 23:4

fPs. 72:6

gJob 29:23

h 6:4 ch. 8:11

ich. 13:3

j 6:5 Jer. 1:10; 5:14

kJer. 23:29; Heb. 4:12

l 6:6 1 Sam. 15:22; Eccl. 5:1; Mic. 6:8; Matt. 9:13; 12:7

mPs. 50:8-9; Prov. 21:3; Isa. 1:11

nJer. 22:16; John 17:3

o 6:7 ch. 8:1

pch. 5:7

q 6:8 ch. 12:11

r 6:9 ch. 5:1-2; Jer. 11:9; Ezek. 22:25

s 6:10 Jer. 5:30

tch. 4:12-13,17

u 6:11 Jer. 51:33; Joel 3:13; Rev. 14:15

vPs. 126:1

w 7:1 ch. 5:1; 6:10

x 7:2 Jer. 17:1

yPs. 9:16; Prov. 5:22

zPs. 90:8

aa 7:3 Rom. 1:32

ab 7:4 Jer. 9:2

ac 7:7 ch. 8:4

ad2 Kings 15:10,14,25,30

aeIsa. 64:7

af 7:8 Ps. 106:35

ag 7:9 ch. 8:7

a 7:10 ch. 5:5

bIsa. 9:13

c 7:11 ch. 11:11

dch. 5:13; 9:3; 12:1; See 2 Kings 15:19; 17:4

e 7:12 Ezek. 12:13

fLev. 26:14, etc.; Deut. 28:15, etc.; 2 Kings 17:13,18

g 7:13 Mic. 6:4

h 7:14 Job 35:9-10; Ps. 78:36; Jer. 3:10; Zech. 7:5

i 7:16 ch. 11:7

jPs. 78:57

kPs. 73:9

lch. 9:3,6

m 8:1 ch. 5:8

nDeut. 28:49; Jer. 4:13; Hab. 1:8

och. 6:7

p 8:2 ch. 5:15; Ps. 78:34

qTitus 1:16

r 8:4 2 Kings 15:13,17,25

sch. 2:8; 13:2

t 8:5 Jer. 13:27

u 8:7 ch. 10:12-13; Prov. 22:8

vch. 7:9

w 8:8 2 Kings 17:6

xJer. 22:28; 48:38

y 8:9 2 Kings 15:19

zJer. 2:24

aaIsa. 30:6; Ezek. 26:7; Dan. 2:37

ab 8:10 Ezek. 16:37

acIsa. 10:8; Ezek. 26:7; Dan. 2:37

ad 8:11 ch. 12:11

a 8:12 Deut. 4:6,8; Ps. 119:18; 147:19-20

b 8:13 Jer. 7:21; Zech. 7:6

cch. 5:6; 9:4; Jer. 14:10,12; Amos 5:22

dch. 9:9; Amos 8:7

ech. 9:3,6; 11:5; Deut 28:68

f 8:14 Deut. 32:18

gIsa. 29:23; Eph. 2:10

h1 Kings 12:31

iJer. 17:27; Amos 2:5

j 9:1 ch. 4:12; 5:4,7

kch. 2:12; Jer. 44:17

l 9:2 ch. 2:9,12

m 9:3 Lev. 25:23; Jer. 2:7; 16:18

nch. 8:13; 11:5; Not into Egypt itself, but into another bondage as bad as that

oEzek. 4:13; Dan. 1:8

pch. 11:11; 2 Kings 17:6

q 9:4 ch. 3:4

rch. 8:13; Jer. 6:20

sDeut. 26:14

tLev. 17:11

u 9:5 ch. 2:11

v 9:6 ver. 3; ch. 7:16

wch. 10:8; Isa. 5:6; 32:13; 34:13

x 9:7 Ezek. 13:3, etc.; Mic. 2:11; Zeph. 3:4

y 9:8 Jer. 6:17; 31:6; Ezek. 3:17; 33:7

z 9:9 ch. 10:9; Isa. 31:6

aaJudg. 19:22

abch. 8:13

ac 9:10 Isa. 28:4; Mic. 7:1

adSee ch. 2:15

aeNum. 25:3; Ps. 106:28

afch. 4:14

agJer. 11:13; See Judg. 6:32

ahPs. 81:12; Ezek. 20:8; Amos 4:5

ai 9:12 Job 27:14

ajDeut. 28:41,62

akch. 5:6; Deut. 31:17; 2 Kings 7:18

alSee 1 Sam. 28:15-16

am 9:13 See Ezek. 26-28

anver. 16; ch. 13:16

a 9:14 Luke 23:29

b 9:15 ch. 4:15; 12:11

cch. 1:6

dIsa. 1:23

e 9:16 ver. 13

f 9:17 Deut. 28:64-65

g 10:1 Nah. 2:2

hch. 8:11; 12:11

ich. 8:4

j 10:2 1 Kings 18:21; Matt. 6:24

k 10:3 ver. 7; ch. 3:4; 11:5; Mic. 4:9

l 10:4 See Deut. 29:18; Amos 5:7; 6:12; Acts 8:23; Heb. 12:15

m 10:5 ch. 8:5-6; 1 Kings 12:28-29

nch. 4:15

och. 9:11; 1 Sam. 4:21-22

p 10:6 ch. 5:13

qch. 11:6

r 10:7 ver. 3,15

s 10:8 ch. 4:15

tDeut. 9:21; 1 Kings 12:30

uch. 9:6

vIsa. 2:19; Luke 23:30; Rev. 6:16; 9:6

w 10:9 ch. 9:9

xSee Judg. 20

y 10:10 Deut. 28:63

zch. 8:10; Jer. 16:16; Ezek. 23:46-47

a 10:11 Jer. 50:11; Mic. 4:13

b 10:12 Prov. 18:21

cJer. 4:3

d 10:13 ch. 8:7; Job 4:8; Prov. 22:8; Gal. 6:7-8

e 10:14 ch. 13:16

f2 Kings 18:34; 19:13

gch. 13:16

h 10:15 ver. 7

i 11:1 ch. 2:15

jMatt. 2:15

kExod. 4:22-23

l 11:2 ch. 2:13; 13:2; 2 Kings 17:16

m 11:3 Deut. 1:31; 32:10-12; Isa. 46:3

nExod. 15:26

o 11:4 Lev. 26:13

pch. 2:8; Ps. 78:25

q 11:5 See ch. 8:13; 9:3

r2 Kings 17:13-14

s 11:6 ch. 10:6

t 11:7 ch. 4:16; Jer. 3:6, etc.; 8:5

uch. 7:16

v 11:8 ch. 6:4; Jer. 9:7

wGen. 14:8; 19:24-25; Deut. 29:23; Amos 4:11

xDeut. 32:36; Isa. 63:15; Jer. 31:20

y 11:9 Num. 23:19; Isa. 55:8-9; Mal. 3:6

a 11:10 Isa. 31:4; Joel 3:16; Amos 1:2

bZech. 8:7

c 11:11 ch. 7:11; Isa. 60:8

dEzek. 28:25-26; 37:21,25

e 11:12 ch. 12:1

f 12:1 ch. 8:7

gch. 5:13; 7:11; 2 Kings 17:4

hIsa. 30:6; 57:9

i 12:2 ch. 4:1; Mic. 6:2

j 12:3 Gen. 25:26

kGen. 32:24, etc.

l 12:4 Gen. 28:12,19; 35:9-10,15

m 12:5 Exod. 3:15

n 12:6 ch. 14:1; Mic. 6:8

oPs. 37:7

p 12:7 Prov. 11:1; Amos 8:5

q 12:8 Zech. 11:5; Rev. 3:17

r 12:9 ch. 13:4

sLev. 23:42-43; Neh. 8:17; Zech. 14:16

t 12:10 2 Kings 17:13

u 12:11 ch. 5:1; 6:8

vch. 4:15; 9:15; Amos 4:4; 5:5

wch. 8:11; 10:1

x 12:12 Gen. 28:5; Deut. 26:5

yGen. 29:20,28

z 12:13 Exod. 12:50-51; 13:3; Ps. 77:20; Isa. 63:11; Mic. 6:4

aa 12:14 2 Kings 17:11-18

abDan. 11:18

acDeut. 28:37

ad 13:1 ch. 11:2; 2 Kings 17:16,18

ae 13:2 ch. 2:8; 8:4

a 13:2 1 Kings 19:18

b 13:3 ch. 6:4

cDan. 2:35

d 13:4 ch. 12:9; Isa. 43:11

eIsa. 43:11; 45:21

f 13:5 Deut. 2:7; 32:10

gDeut. 8:15; 32:10

h 13:6 Deut. 8:12,14; 32:15

ich. 8:14

j 13:7 ch. 5:14; Lam. 3:10

kJer. 5:6

l 13:8 2 Sam. 17:8; Prov. 17:12

m 13:9 ch. 14:1; Prov. 6:32; Mal. 1:9

nver. 4

o 13:10 ver. 4; ch. 10:3; Deut. 32:38;

p1 Sam. 8:5,19

q 13:11 ch. 10:3; 1 Sam. 8:7; 10:19; 15:22-23; 16:1

r 13:12 Deut. 32:34; Job 14:17

s 13:13 Isa. 13:8; Jer. 30:6

tProv. 22:3

u2 Kings 19:3

v 13:14 Isa. 25:8; Ezek. 37:12

w1 Cor. 15:54-55

xJer. 15:6; Rom. 11:29

y 13:15 See Gen. 41:52; 48:19

zch. 4:19; Jer. 4:11; Ezek. 17:10; 19:12

aa 13:16 2 Kings 18:12

abch. 10:14-15; 2 Kings 8:12; 15:16; Isa. 13:16; Amos 1:13; Nah. 3:10; about 725

ac 14:1 ch. 12:6; Joel 2:13

adch. 13:9

ae 14:2 Heb. 13:15

af 14:3 ch. 5:13; 12:1 Jer. 31:18

agDeut. 17:16; Ps. 33:17; Isa. 30:2,16; 31:1

ahver. 8; ch. 2:17

aiPs. 10:14; 68:5

aj 14:4 Jer. 5:6; 14:7;ch. 11:7

akEph. 1:6

al 14:5 Job 29:19; Prov. 19:12

am 14:6 Ps. 52:8; 128:3

anGen. 27:27; SS. 4:11

ao 14:7 Ps. 91:1

a 14:8 ver. 3

bJer. 31:18

cJames 1:17

d 14:9 Ps. 107:43; Jer. 9:12; Dan. 12:10; John 8:47; 18:37

eProv. 10:29; Luke 2:34; 2 Cor. 2:16; 1 Pet. 2:7-8