During the period known as Iron Age I, the Period of the Judges, the Israelites passed from a semi-nomadic society of shepherds, with a loose tribal organization, to a settled society of farmers. This is reflected in the design and development of their settlements. According to the archaeologist Ze’ev Herzog, it is possible to distinguish five main types. The first type of settlement comprises huts and pits. These settlements are mainly found in the northern valleys, the hill country, the Sharon Plain and the Negev. The structures consist of pits that were dug for water and as ovens. It seems that at this stage the population still lived in tents or huts. There is no clear indication of any system of defence. However, the fact that these pits are concentrated together may indicate that the settlers favoured a closer settlement, making it easier to defend.
A four-room house in the City of David, Jerusalem. The two rows of pillars mark the outline of the internal courtyard. (Author’s collection)
An urban plan of Tel Masos, Stratum II. This plan depicts the central settlement, which forms part of a cluster of enclosures. The external walls of the dwellings form an outer defensive belt for the settlement. (Dalit Weinblatt-Krausz)
The second type of settlement, comprising clusters of pens, developed at a slightly later stage. The best example is Giloh, south of Jerusalem. These enclosed pens, which probably hosted sheep or goats, also contained a single dwelling built of stone. At Giloh five such family pens have been excavated. The pens probably served to protect both the dwellers and their herds.
The third type of settlement is the enclosed settlement. Most of the Israelite settlements were of this type, and examples have been excavated and surveyed all over the country – in Upper Galilee at Horvat ‘Avot, in Western Samaria at Izbet Sartah, in the Judah region, in the Negev, in the area of the wilderness of Beer-sheba, at Hatira, Refed and Rahba, and at Tel Esdar. The best example from the northern Negev is Tel Beer-sheba, Stratum VII. This type of settlement consists of four-room houses encircling a central open area (probably used for herding animals at night); the outer walls of the dwellings form a defensive ring. Many of these settlements are adapted to the contours of the respective sites, and the houses are uniform in size. The families and the tribes would be responsible for the defence of such settlements from semi-nomadic tribes such as the Ammonites, Moabites, Edomites and Amalecites, but could do little against any regular armed force.
A reconstruction of Tell el–Full, Biblical Givat Shaul (‘Saul’s Hill’). (Author’s collection)
The two remaining types of settlement developed from the enclosed settlement. In the fourth type, Israeli settlement villages, there is no central open area. This settlement, which probably appeared towards the end of Iron Age I, indicates that the Israelite tribes had by now evolved from shepherds to farmers. Their decreasing dependence on herds of sheep and cattle allowed the central area of the settlement to be used for building further dwellings. Israeli settlement villages have been excavated at Ai and Beth-Shemesh.
A plan of of Tell el–Full, Biblical Givat Shaul. It seems that the building was a square structure with a central courtyard, with four huge square towers defending the corners. (Dalit Weinblatt–Krausz)
The fifth type of settlement, clusters of enclosures, comprised separate enclosed settlements that were built close to each other. The best example is the settlement of Tel Masos, which extended over an area of 50,000m2. This settlement consisted of three groups of separated enclosed settlements, each located on a nearby slope. An interesting characteristic is that it has no separate peripheral defence, instead relying solely on the outer walls of the dwellings in each of the settlements.
The main characteristic element of Israelite settlements throughout the Iron Age is the four-room house, which the archaeologist Shmuel Yeivin termed the ‘Israelite house’. According to Shiloh, its dispersal corresponds to areas of settlement of the Israelite tribes. The four-room house has clearly defined features, namely an oblong (occasionally square) overall plan, with a wide room at the rear. The three frontal chambers are built at right angles to the back room. The back room provides the main space, with solids walls enclosing it. A row of pillars or a wall separates the lateral front spaces from the central courtyard. That the central space was used as a courtyard is indicated by the fact that it was paved with beaten earth, while the other lateral spaces and the wide room at the back could be paved with stone. The row of pillars indicated that the space served to protect the family herd, or other domestic animals possessed by the family that owned the dwelling. It seems that there was a second storey, at least on top of the back room, and probably less often on the side chambers also. The best examples of Iron Age I four-room houses come from Tel Masos, Giloh and Izbet Sartah. According to Israel Finkelstein, the shape of the four-room house indicates that the plan developed from a tent or hut with an enclosed courtyard on the front, which is still used by Bedouins living in the Sinai area.
During the period known as Iron Age IIA (1047–931 BC), under the United Monarchy rule of Saul, David and Solomon, the material culture of the Israelites witnessed a clear development. The Israelites passed from a loosely organized tribal confederation to a modern, centralized state. The various tribal Judges were superseded by a king, albeit with limited powers. Moreover, the Israelites not only completed their conquest of the Canaanite cities, but dominated their Philistine neighbours in the south, the states of Moab, Ammon, and Edom in the east, and the various Aramaic principalities in the north. They also succeeded in establishing friendly ties with the Phoenician city of Tyre. Saul began the overall process, but it was David who established the capital of the united kingdom at Jerusalem, making it not only the political but also the religious centre of the Israelite state.
Around 1050 BC Samuel of the tribe of Ephraim, probably the most important tribe, was appointed Judge. He led the Israelites to victory against the Philistines at the battle of Mizpah, but was unable to unite the tribes. Thus, around 1047 BC Samuel appointed Saul (1047-1007 BC) from the tribe of Benjamin as the first king of Israel. He defeated the Ammonites under their king Nahash, and then the Amalecite tribes, capturing their king Hagag. The Israelites defeated the Philistines again at Michmash, but it was indecisive, and Saul would have to fight them throughout his reign. In 1007 BC, Saul and his son and heir Jonathan were defeated and killed at the battle of Mount Gilboa fighting against them. During his reign, Saul established his headquarters at Gibeah, not far from the Canaanite city of Jebus. The American archaeologist William Foxwell Albright, who excavated the site, discovered a small fortress, square in shape, with four towers at the corners. This small fortress is quite different to the contemporary four-room house, and perhaps stresses Saul’s different status as king of Israel.
The seal of Shemah, ‘servant of Jeroboam’. The seal is in Hebrew and depicts a lion. The name Jeroboam probably refers to King Jeroboam II of Israel. (Author’s collection)
The death of Saul brought civil strive between the tribes. Most of the northern tribes, including Benjamin, Ephraim and Manasseh, appointed Saul’s son Eshba’al as their king. However, the tribe of Judah chose David from Hebron (1007–967 BC). David’s army, under the command of Joav Ben Seruja, defeated the army of Eshba’al, and the Israelite tribes coalesced around the charismatic leader. David conquered the Canaanite enclave of Jebus (Jerusalem), and established his capital there. He then began a series of campaigns: against the Philistines, in Transjordan against the Moabites, the Ammonites, conquering their capital Rabath Ammon, and against the Aramean principalities of Aram Zoba and Damascus. He also brought Edom to submission. David’s last years were marred by civil unrest and the rebellion of his third son Absalom, and that of Sheba Ben Bichri.
The ‘seal of Jonathan’, depicting a winged sphinx, a motif characteristic of Phoenician artists. The writing on the seal is in Hebrew. (Courtesy of the Bible Lands Museum, Jerusalem, BLMJ Seal 1841)
When he died in c.967 BC, David was succeeded by his son Solomon (971–931 BC). He erected the Temple, as well as a huge palatial complex, in the city of Jerusalem. However the main reforms of King Solomon were administrative. He neutralized the strength of the tribes, and created a modern kingdom based on 12 administrative districts, each commanded by an official chosen by the king. Each officer was moreover responsible for tax collecting and a manpower levy for military service or work on the king’s building projects. It seems that Solomon did not erect any fortifications in the 12 districts. However, the Bible (First Book of Kings 9: 15, 17) mentions that he erected a city wall in Jerusalem, which defended the old Canaanite city, and the Temple Mount. Solomon did fortify the cities of Hazor, Megiddo and Gezer. According to Yigael Yadin, the Solomonic cities were characterized by casemate walls and huge six-chambered gates. According to the Bible, the purpose of these fortifications, together with the cities of Beth-Horon, Ba’alath and Tadmor, was to function as ‘store cities’, and to garrison the king’s chariots and horsemen. He also built huge palaces and the First Temple at Jerusalem, and in a joint venture with the Phoenicians of Tyre created a harbor at Etzion Geber, near modern Eilat. At Tel el-Kheleifeh, Nelson Glueck excavated a small fortification with casemate walls, which he dated to Solomon’s reign.
The Land of Israel during the period known as Iron Age II, after the division of the kingdoms of Israel and Judah c.922 BC.
The most interesting structures that can be dated to the period of the United Monarchy are a series of enclosures in the central Negev Highlands at ‘En Kadesh, Atar Haro’e, Hurvath Haluqim, Hurvat Rahba, Hurvat Ketef Shifta and Ramat Matred. These structures, which may be administrative centres or small fortifications, suggest an Israelite penetration into this area, probably as a result of economic prosperity.
An ivory plaque depicting a cherub. Plaques like this one typically decorated furniture. The cherub is another characteristically Phoenician artistic motif. (Courtesy of the Bible Lands Museum, Jerusalem, BLMJ 3428)
After the death of Solomon, the United Monarchy collapsed. In 926 BC Pharaoh Shishaq campaigned in the Land of Israel, destroying many of the settlements. Moreover, the northern tribes seceded from the Davidic kingdom, probably in resentment at Solomon’s expenditure and his tight control. Thus while the southern tribes of Judah, Benjamin and Simon coalesced around Rehoboam (922–915 BC), the northern tribes elected Jeroboam (922–901 BC) as king. The secession was sealed by the erection of alternative religious centres at Dan and Bethel. According to the Second Book of Chronicles (11: 5–12), Rehoboam built a series of fortifications in the areas of Judah and Benjamin. Some archaeologists date the main fortifications of Israelite Lachish to Rehoboam, pointing to its six-chambered gate similar to the Solomonic gates of Megiddo, Hazor, and Gezer. His successor, Abijah (915–913 BC), attempted to conquer the border area between Israel and Judah. Asa (913–873 BC) continued his father’s policy, and around 885 BC began a war against Baasha (900–877 BC), the king of Israel, in alliance with the Aramean king Ben Haddad I (who razed Hazor to the ground). As consequence of the war, Asa fortified the border cities of Mizpeh and Ramah (First Book of Kings 15: 16–22).
This plan depicts Jerusalem on the eve of Nebuchadnezzar’s conquest in 586 BC. The city includes the City of David and the Temple Mount to the east, and the ‘Broad Wall’, which encircled the Mishneh Quarter to the west. The site of the Gihon Spring and the course of Hezekiah’s Tunnel are also shown. (Dalit Weinblatt–Krausz)
Baasha’s defeat saw one of his generals, Omri (r. 876–869 BC), become king of the Northern Kingdom of Israel. The Omrides would rule with stability for more than 40 years. Omri set up a new capital at Samaria. It was Omri’s son Achab (r. 869–850 BC) who made the kingdom a regional power. Achab married the Tyrian princess Jezebel, forging an alliance with the Phoenician city of Tyre, and began a series of successful wars against various Aramean princes between 855 and 850 BC and against the Assyrian king, Shalmanezer III, whom he defeated at the battle of Kurkar.
Various fortifications were erected by the Omrides. The cities of Samaria, Hazor and Jezreel have similar rectangular plans, and header and stretcher ashlar stones were used to reinforce the brick walls. Solomonic casemate walls were common at first, but the clash with Assyria led the Omrides to introduce a new type of wall – a solid, thick one featuring inset and offset sections, the purpose of which was to withstand the powerful Assyrian besieging machines. City gates became smaller, moving from the six–chambered gate to four-chambered ones. However, gates were now reinforced by an outer mono-chambered gate. Inside the strongholds various administrative and storage buildings were erected, such as those excavated at Samaria, Hazor and Megiddo. Omride Megiddo IVA presents a gate complex together with an inset and offset wall, a palace (Palace 338), and two huge storage complexes, which were probably used for Achab’s chariots and horsemen.
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At this time most of the Solomonic structures were still in use. The city was by now surrounded by a solid inset and offset wall. A monumental six-chambered gate (bottom right) stood in the northern part of the site. Although Palace 1723 dates to the Solomonic period, Palace 338, and the pillared Southern and Northern Stable complexes date to the Omride period. The water system at Megiddo (shown in the bottom left) consisted of a shaft leading down to a horizontal tunnel, which in turn led to a natural spring cave on the edge of the site.
At the beginning of his rule, King Jehoshaphat of Judah (873–849 BC) decided to fortify his kingdom against a possible Omride attack. According to the Second Book of Chronicles (17: 1–19), he placed garrisons in all the fortified cities of Judah and in the cities of Ephraim. Later, however, as a consequence of the Omride successes, Jehoshaphat decided to ally himself with the Omride kingdom against the Arameans. During Jehoshaphat’s rule, Judah was divided into 12 administrative districts (Book of Joshua 15: 21–62 and 19: 25–28), and he suffered a rebellion by the Moabite king, Mesha, in central Transjordan in 855 BC. According to David Ussishkin, the fortifications of Lachish were erected by either Asa or Jehoshaphat. However, the only fortification that can be dated with certainty to Jehoshaphat’s reign is Stratum II of Etzion Geber.
Achab’s sons Ahaziah (r. 850–849 BC) and Jehoram (r. 849–842 BC) succeeded him on the throne. Jehoram continued his father’s campaigns, defeating the Moabites and waging war against the Aramean Hazael of Damascus. His successor Jehu (842–815 BC) submitted to the Assyrian king, Shalmaneser III, and paid tribute. Between 815 and 810 BC the Aramean kings Hazael of Damascus and Ben Haddad renewed the war against Israel, defeating its king, Jehoahaz (r. 815–801 BC), and taking Hazor. Hazael then conquered all the Transjordanian territories, subjugating Israel. The army of the Israelite kingdom was now reduced to 50 horsemen, 10 chariots, and 10,000 infantry (Second Book of Kings 13: 7). Hazael continued his expansion towards the Kingdom of Judah and the Philistine territories. However, Hazael’s conquests did not last long. Jehoash (801–786 BC), king of Israel, defeated the Arameans, and retook Hazor. The Assyrian king, Adad Nirari III, subjugated Ben Haddad III and the Aramean principalities, including Damascus. Although Jehoash had to pay tribute to the Assyrian king, Israel managed to recover. Towards the end of his rule, Jehoash waged war against Amaziah (800–783 BC), king of Judah, defeating him near Beth-Shemesh. The Israelite army sacked Jerusalem including the Temple and the royal palace. Amaziah fled to Lachish and was murdered there.
The last great Israelite ruler was Jeroboam II (786–746 BC). According to the Second Book of Kings (14: 25) and Amos (6: 14), he extended the borders of Israel to its former extent, from ‘Hamath to the sea of the plain’, but still paid tribute to Assyria. Jeroboam was succeeded by his son Zechariah (746–745 BC), who was murdered by the usurper Shallum (745 BC). From that point onwards Israel degenerated into political instability and a series of palace revolutions. Pekah (737–732 BC) waged war against King Ahaz of Judah, who sought help from the Assyrian Tiglath Pileser III. The Assyrians defeated the Israelites and conquered the whole of Galilee and the Jezreel Valley. The end of the Kingdom of Israel came in 724 BC, when the Assyrian king, Shalmaneser V, besieged and conquered Samaria, its sole remaining territory. Most of the Israelites were deported to Assyria, while others found refuge in Judah.
Meanwhile, in Judah, the murdered Amaziah was succeeded by his son Uzziah (783–742 BC). According to the Second Book of Chronicles (26: 9–15), Uzziah expanded the kingdom’s army and fortifications, including Jerusalem. However his most important military enterprise was building the ‘towers in the wilderness’, probably in the southern region of Judah. Arad, Stratum X, has been dated to his reign; here, a solid stone inset and offset wall replaced the earlier casemate wall, a feature common to other sites in Judah. The fortress of Hurvath ‘Uza, named after Uzziah, in the Northern Negev guarded the road descending towards the Dead Sea and Transjordan. This fortress, however, was surrounded by casemate walls, and was entered through an elaborate gate. At Kadesh Barnea, in the Southern Negev, the fortress was probably erected during Uzziah’s reign, and became the main Judahite base along the Gaza Road. This stronghold was also essential for controlling the nomadic population of the Negev and eastern Sinai. At Etzion Geber the fort was renovated, with Period III dating to Uzziah’s reign. Uzziah expanded his kingdom towards the northern Shephelah (Lowland) region, and Judah conquered Gath, Yavneh and Ashdod in the Philistine territories. In Transjordan, the Ammonites paid tribute to Judah. According to the Second Book of Chronicles (27: 1–4), Jotham (742–735 BC), son of Uzziah, built the Upper Gate in the Temple compound in Jerusalem, and erected ‘cities in the hill-country of Judah and in the forest castles and towers’. However, his successor Ahaz (735–715 BC) was a weaker ruler; Israel successfully campaigned against Judah in 734 BC, and the Philistines reconquered the territories taken by Uzziah.
In 732 BC, by the end of the reign of Tiglath Pileser III, the Assyrian territories included three provinces, taken from the Aramean kingdoms in Syria, Hamath, Mantzvoth and Damascus, as well as five provinces taken from the Kingdom of Israel, Megiddo (western Galilee), Dor (northern coastal area), Karnaim, Gilad and Horan (all three in the Transjordan). In 712 BC, by the end of the reign of Sargon II, the Assyrian provinces carved out of Israel consisted of Megiddo, Shomron (including Dor), the area around Samaria, and the three Transjordanian provinces of Karnaim, Gilad and Horan. A further Assyrian province called Ashdod was carved out of Philistine territory along the south-western coast.
When Hezekiah (r. 715–687 BC) became king of Judah he found himself surrounded by the Assyrian empire and hostile neighbors such as Ammon, Moab and Edom. Hezekiah forged an alliance with Luli, the Phoenician king of Tyre and conquered the Joppa area on the coast to secure a port in the Mediterranean. Then he conquered or subjugated much of Philistine territory, and forged an alliance with Egypt as well. Hezekiah reinforced many existing fortifications, and in Jerusalem he excavated the Siloam channel and pool to provide better water provision for the city in case of siege.
The reaction of Sennacherib, king of Assyria (r. 704–681 BC), was swift. Phoenician Tyre was conquered, followed by the Philistine territories. From there the Assyrian army entered Judah, where Lachish (Lachish III) was conquered after a long siege. The Assyrian army then moved northwards and besieged Jerusalem. According to the Bible, the Assyrian army was utterly destroyed by pestilence. It seems that the Edomites took the opportunity to destroy the city of Beer-sheba (Tel Sheba II) in the south. Hezekiah had to pay heavy tribute to Assyria, and cede various territories.
A reconstruction of Jerusalem in the First Temple Period, in the Bible Lands Museum, Jerusalem. This picture clearly shows the Temple Mount topped by Solomon’s Temple, and the southern Ophel (‘fortified hill’) with the Royal Palace. (Courtesy of the Bible Lands Museum, Jerusalem)
Hezekiah was succeeded by his son Manasseh (r. 687–642 BC), who faced an arduous task. He slowly gained the confidence of the new Assyrian ruler Esarhaddon (681–669 BC), and rebuilt much of Judah, including Lachish (Lachish II). Manasseh was succeeded by his son Amon (r. 642–640 BC) and then Josiah (r. 640–609 BC). During Josiah’s rule, the Assyrian empire was attacked by Media, Babylonia and Egypt, allowing him to annex the Assyrian territories carved out from the Kingdom of Israel; Judah now reached its largest territorial extent. The small fortress of Mezad Joshiahu, on the south-western part of the coast, was erected during this period. In 609 BC, King Josiah of Judah was killed at the battle of Megiddo, facing the Egyptian army of Pharaoh Necho II, and was succeeded by his son Jehoahaz. However, Necho II next besieged Jerusalem and exacted tribute and forced Jehoahaz to abdicate in favour of his brother Jehoiakim (609–598 BC).
The Ophel in Jerusalem. This photograph shows the Millo (‘filling’) and part of the wall. (Author’s photograph, courtesy of Israel Nature and Parks Authority)
When Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon defeated the Egyptians at Carchemish in 605 BC, Jehoiakim brought Judah into the Babylonian sphere of influence. In 598 BC, however, he rebelled against Nebuchadnezzar, leading the Babylonian king to lay siege to Jerusalem. King Jehoiakim’s son Jehoiakin (598–597 BC) was taken to Babylon as a prisoner. Nebuchadnezzar appointed Zedekhiah (597–587 BC), Jehoiakin’s uncle, to the throne. In 589 BC Zedekhiah made an alliance with Pharaoh Hophra of Egypt, and rose up against Nebuchadnezzar, causing a Babylonian army to march on Judah. The city of Lachish (Lachish II) was conquered. Nebuchadnezzar began a three-year-long siege of Jerusalem, which fell in 587 BC. Nebuchadnezzar deported most of the Judahite population to Babylonia.
Warren’s Shaft’ in the City of David, Jerusalem. This 14m-deep shaft was once thought to have been part of the city’s water system, but is now considered a natural fissure in the rock. (Author’s photograph, courtesy of Israel Nature and Parks Authority)
Hezekiah’s Tunnel in Jerusalem. The tunnel that was dug underneath the Ophel around 701 BC during Hezekiah’s reign. (Author’s photograph, courtesy of Israel Nature and Parks Authority)