Nutritional and Therapeutic Potential of Spices

Mian K. Sharif; Rebia Ejaz; Imran Pasha ^{University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan}

Abstract

Spices are seeds, fruit, roots, bark, berries, buds, or vegetable substance, and have been used primarily for flavoring, coloring or preserving food since antiquity. Major spices produced and used in the subcontinent, especially India and Pakistan, are black pepper, cloves, cinnamon, flax seeds, cardamom, poppy, fenugreek, cumin, sesame, fennel, carom, coriander, turmeric, tamarind, ginger, onion, garlic, and red chilies. These spices are a hidden treasure of numerous therapeutic components like thymol, eugenol, curcuminoids, linalool, zingiberene, piperine, alpha crocin, coriandrol, cuminaldehyde, and capsaicin, and are helpful for therapy against various health disorders. Moreover, these possess pharmacological activities including antimicrobial, antioxidant, anticarcinogenic, antiemetic, antimutagenic, antihypertensive, antidiabetic, anticonvulsive, antifungal, antiviral, hypolipidemic, chemoprotective, and prebiotic activities. Spices are widely used in food products, like syrups, jams, preserves, pickles, snacks, biscuits, and candies. Additionally, modern food technologies have made possible extraction and utilization of active nutrients from spices for their addition to processed foods. This chapter will comprehensively elaborate various Asian spices, along with their therapeutic role and food applications. Furthermore, this chapter will explore the multiplicity of potentially beneficial nature of spices, as well as the possible strategies to obtain maximum outcomes without exposure to undesirable side effects.

Keywords

Asian spices; South Asia; Subcontinent; Therapeutic foods; Pharmacological effects; Food applications

1 Herbs and Spices

1.1 Preamble

Spices are seeds, fruits, roots, bark, berries, buds, or vegetable substances, and have been used primarily for flavoring, coloring, or preserving food since antiquity. Major spices produced and used in the subcontinent, especially India and Pakistan, are black pepper, cloves, cinnamon, seeds of flax, cardamom, poppy, fenugreek, cumin, sesame, fennel, carom, coriander, turmeric, tamarind, ginger, onion, garlic, and red chilies. These spices are a hidden treasure of numerous therapeutic components like thymol, eugenol, curcuminoids, linalool, zingiberene, piperine, alpha crocin, coriandrol, cuminaldehyde, and capsaicin, and are helpful therapies against various health disorders. Moreover, these possess pharmacological activities including antimicrobial, antioxidant, anticarcinogenic, antiemetic, antimutagenic, antihypertensive, antidiabetic, anticonvulsive, antifungal, antiviral, hypolipidemic, chemoprotective, and prebiotic activities. Spices are widely used in food products, like syrups, jams, preserves, pickles, snacks, biscuits, and candies. Additionally, modern food technologies have made possible extraction and utilization of active nutrients from spices for addition to an array of processed foods. Herbs and condiments are a blend of one or more spices, mostly added in cuisines before serving for flavor enhancement and aroma. These are natural plant parts, having delicate stems and utilized as crude powder and flavoring after purification of principle components to impart pungency in food items. Herbs are also a subset of spices and considered as flavor potentiators. These terms date back to ancient times. They are still frequently used for the purpose of preservation, color enhancement, and aroma activators. Due to their chemical, nutritional, and medicinal attributes, these have been the focus of recent studies for improving human health (Farkas, 2000).

1.2 Importance

Due to some characteristics of spices and herbs, they are also defined as fragrant plants or plant parts. They have great potential to promote health and act as curative agents for treatment of many physiological disorders. As well as being utilized as food additives or preservatives, they are used to play the roll of therapeutics, medicines, and pharmaceuticals because they are comprised of unique biological compounds like antioxidants and phenols. Spices are assumed to play a significant part in the advancement of nations and civilizations. They are basic supplements for improving sensory attributes, as well as for creating numerous culinary dishes. Furthermore, spices are considered to retain many pharmacological properties and new ways for the manufacturing of valuable pharmaceuticals are being discovered. These provide additional nutritional benefits as well, which make them an essential food item. Some of them act as inhibitors of microorganism growth while others reduce mycotoxin production. Spices play a significant role in everyday life of humankind, as essential additives in traditional, and large scale cooking, of beverages and pharmaceuticals. Immediately after picking and extraction, and up to the point of consumption, spices can be attacked by microorganisms, such as yeast, mold, and bacteria.

1.3 Origin

The most important spices, like pepper, cardamom, cloves, ginger, cinnamon, and turmeric, are generally present all over the world, especially in tropical regions. Coriander, cumin, mustard, and sesame seeds are the spices grown in nontropical areas. Agro-climatic conditions (humidity and temperature) of these environments offer difficulties in the production and management of spices. Proficient and viable drying systems are mandatory and important to increase the shelf life stability of food products incorporated with spices in humid areas.

2 Historical Perspective

Spices are central to the historical cultural and economic background of nations. Marco Polo investigated Asia in 13th century and determined that Venice as a better place to exchange goods. After that, Vasco de Gama, another explorer, focused his world investigation from India to Africa. He came back with spices, such as pepper, cinnamon, and ginger, and also focused his efforts on developing and continuing trade with India. In 1942, Columbus arrived in the Americas and established a direct route for Western Europe to the Spice Islands. He collected red peppers and other aromatic plants to send to Spain, for further research by his colleagues. During the 15th century on through the 17th century, war between European countries over the Indonesian Spice Islands was a constant. A war was fought for spice trade between the Dutch and English in 1780, and eventually the Dutch were defeated, loosing all their spice sources and trade centers. In 1962, the United Stated entered in the global spice race. United States is currently the major spice importer, followed by Germany, Japan, and France. Spices are exchanged through various routes throughout the world, and have been the most important trade item since prehistory, through to present times. Asia is still the largest grower of most spices including pepper, clove, ginger, and cinnamon. However, a few spices are also cultivated and harvested in the West, which has its own comprehensive assortment of herb and spice crops. The major supplier of pepper is Brazil, a leading producer of cardamom is Guatemala, and ginger is mostly bred in Jamaica. Europe, the United States, and Canada produce most of sesame seeds and as well as several herbs.

3 Production and Trade: Global Scenario

3.1 Production

Peppers are the most important and valuable spices in the worldwide trade, followed by capsicum. The top three exporting countries of spices are from tropical environments such as those in the Mediterranean and continental regions. China, India, and Indonesia are the major spice trading countries, while the most significant buyers are Vietnam, Brazil, and Sri Lanka. Area and production statistics of spices are limited, as compared to other horticultural crops. Spices were cultivated in an area of 7587 thousand hectares, with a production of 31,859 thousand tons. The total world export and import of spices and herbs was 3592 and 3454 thousand tons, respectively (Anon, 2007). India and China are the largest producers of medicinal spices, and are also converting these herbs and species into powders, essential oils, oleoresins, specialty extracts, and other numerous blends. India has established Spice Agri Export Zones, as well as crafting advancements in packaging, quality management, processing, and innovation in production and handling of herbs. The main aromatic plant importer is the European Union, where approximately 55%–60% of the total produced spices are used for human consumption, 35%–40% by the processing industries, and 10%–15% for the culinary purposes. United States and Japan are the largest single country merchants of spices. They represent a high-value commodity and serve as an excellent source for foreign exchange and commerce. Currently 40–50 spices have global economic and culinary significance.

3.2 Spices Trade

Around the globe, there are 112 types of aromatic plants that are utilized as spices and vegetable seasonings. More than 3 million tons of spices per year are produced by India alone, which comprises about 50% of the entire world export. The trade distribution structure in spices can be divided into three comprehensive segments: industrial, catering, and retail. It is predicted that approximately 85% of the global trade of spices is in dried and cleaned form, or utilized as crude spice without further processing. The major international markets of spices are the United States, the European Union, Saudi Arabia, Japan, Singapore, and Malaysia. China, Indonesia, Vietnam, India, Madagascar, Brazil, Spain, Guatemala, and Sri Lanka are the principal supplying countries. There was a developing fashion toward the trade of treated herbs and species that procure greater income. The swelling demand for value-added processing of spices, such as capsicum and ginger, present business prospects for the foodstuff and processing activities in worldwide markets. The major producers and exporters of black pepper are Vietnam, Malaysia, Indonesia, Brazil, and India. In Japan more than 50% of ginger consumed is imported from other countries. The European as well as American Spice Trade Associations have set stringent quality criteria for safe exports and imports of spices and herbs.

4 Overview of Spices

Most organic compounds obtained from spices do not contribute directly to human development or health. Certain compounds, conventionally termed secondary metabolites, have great significance. Compounds that form volatile and nonvolatile natural products are commonly presumed to be biologically unimportant because they have complex chemical formation and biosynthetic pathways. In the past few years, owing to the newly discovered abundance of hidden benefits in spices, scientific research to explore new hypothesis has led to progress in both chemistry and new synthetic remedies and practices. Most aromatic plants have bioactive secondary metabolites that possess multipurpose pharmacological and therapeutic properties. The fields of molecular biology and nanotechnology together can definitely play a role in the exciting new research of the chemical structure of these compounds. The following spices are mostly produced and consumed in South Asia:

● Clove
● Black pepper
● Turmeric
● Coriander
● Cumin
● Flaxseed
● Cinnamon
● Cardamom

Additionally, some spices are used as fresh vegetables and did not require any type of drying. These include:

● Ginger
● Garlic
● Onion

4.1 Cloves

The most precious spice, derived from an evergreen tree having a height of 15 m, is known as the clove tree (Syzygium aromaticum). It has been used around the globe for centuries in preservation of food items and formulation of medicinal items. Buds are produced by the tree, which are used whole, or ground as a spice. The principle phenolic components of clove are eugenol, terpenoids, tannins, and gallic acid, which have great potential for pharmaceutical, food, and agricultural applications (Shan et al., 2005). Historically, clove is generally cultivated in Indonesia, but it is now cultured in other parts of the world, including Brazil. It possesses a higher percentage of antioxidant and antimicrobial activity as compared to several other fruits, vegetables, and spices, and should deserve special attention (Fig. 1). Dengue, a serious health problem prevalent in Brazil and other tropical countries, is countered by clove, due to its larvicidal activity (Cortés-Rojas et al., 2014). Organic acids, diterpenes, flavonoids, and volatile acids are the major phenolic compounds in spices and herbs. Among the spices, clove is one of the richest sources of natural antioxidants.

Fig. 1 Therapeutic impact of clove on human.

4.6 Flaxseed

Flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum) originated from the temperate areas of India and Pakistan, and is rich in dietary fiber and oil. It is noteworthy for its unique omega-3 profile (Kronberg et al., 2006). It is a good dietary source of omega-3 for vegetarians who cannot consume fish (Trebunova et al., 2007). Flaxseed is recognized as one of the most important nutraceuticals, and needs more scientific attention (Basch et al., 2003). Flaxseed, and its various forms such as backed products, possesses many health and nutritional benefits. Canada (35%), Argentina (21.8%), China (18.9%), India (13.8%), and the United States (11.3%) are the major flaxseed producing countries. The use of flaxseed in cuisines is not high, however, it is widely used in pharmaceutical industries (Madhusudhan, 2009). Sauces and preserves made from this spice have a short shelf life, and can be stored only for few days. In spite of this, they are still considered a source of healthy bioactive amalgams supporting vitality, and commonly thought of as appropriate food for long excursions (Opara and Chohan, 2014). Volatile oils, lignans, fiber, protein, vitamins, and minerals are the basic components present in flaxseed. The consumption of about 100 g of dry flaxseed provides 450 kcal energy due to its high percentage of oil (41%), protein (20%), moisture (8%), ash (4%), and total dietary fiber (27%). When compared with other common protein sources, such as soybean, fish oil, and corn, it delivers a superior content of fatty acids. Flaxseed is a source of good-quality protein (globulins) which ranged from 58% to 66% of the total seed protein. Flaxseed is an essential contributor of omega-3 and omega-6 which provides, 57% and 16% respectively, or fatty acids in the human diet. These omega fatty acids are vital for proper cerebral function, epidermal health, nervous system health, renal function, and sexual organs health (Peter, 2004). Flaxseed is recommended for premenopausal women to enhance the luteal phase for its antiestrogenic effect. In addition to their weak estrogenic/antiestrogenic properties, lignans in general have also exhibited antioxidant activity, antiangiogenic activity, antimitotic activity, and cytotoxic effects on nonestrogen-dependent human breast cancer and promyelocytic leukemic cell lines (Gulcin, 2005). Flaxseed inhibit platelet aggregation, thereby irritating the action of platelet-activating factor (PAF). Recently, flaxseed’s therapeutic effects are under consideration as antimalarial, antiviral, antifungal, and antibacterial agents (Fig. 6). Moreover, its beneficial effects are also linked to cures for diabetes, cancer, and cardiovascular diseases (Penumathsa et al., 2007). Higher blood estrogen levels in Western populations are due to the lower intake of dietary fiber. This has led the stimulation of tumor cells growth (Prasad, 2009). Flaxseed has proved its potential for reducing cholesterol and risk of cancer, and heart related illnesses.

Fig. 6 Therapeutic impact of flaxseed on human health.

4.7 Cinnamon

Cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum) is the hardiest tree among the spices and belongs to Lauraceae family and genus Cinnamomum. It can tolerate harsh conditions of soil and temperature, and its height is 2–3 m. Ideal high quality seeds are small, flat, uniform, and yellowish in color. The presence of volatile oils, monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, and phenyl propenes, in all parts of cinnamon possess a faint and pleasant aroma. Bark from the cinnamon trunk contains oil contents ranging from 5% to 75%, and include cuminaldehyde and cinnamyl acetate (Fig. 7).

Fig. 7 Therapeutic impact of cinnamon on human health.

4.8 Cardamom

Cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum) belongs to family Zingiberaceae. It is a high, budding (< 5 m), perennial herb, with fruit harvested from panicles at the bottom of the plant. The fruit has a trilocular shell that contains 15–20 seeds. It is native to India and various parts of Europe. The therapeutic benefits of cardamom are given in Fig. 8.

Fig. 8 Therapeutic impact of cardamom on human health.

4.9 Ginger

Ginger (Zingiber officinale) belongs to family Zingiberaceae, and is native to Asia. It is one of the most important vegetables spices used, and is consumed whole or as a ground spice. Ginger is closely related to two other cooking spices, turmeric and cardamom. The odor of ginger is mainly due to its volatile oil constituents, which varies from 1% to 3%. The pungency is primarily due to gingerols, which are a homologous series of phenols. Zingiberene is an essential component in ginger, and its concentration varies according to soil conditions. The pungency of ginger powder results from dehydrated gingerols known as shogaols. Shogaols are formed from high temperature heating of the respective gingerol. Fresh ginger contains moisture (80.9%), protein (2.3%), minerals (1.2%), fiber (2.4%), and carbohydrates (12.3%). Iron, calcium, and phosphorous are important minerals present in ginger, followed by vitamins such as thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, and vitamin C. The nutrient profile varies with growing conditions, variety, agronomic applications, preserving methods, and dry or humid storage conditions. The health benefits associated with the consumption of ginger are given in Fig. 9.

Fig. 9 Therapeutic impact of ginger on human health.

4.10 Garlic

Garlic (Allium sativum) is a member of the onion family Alliaceae. It has been used since antiquity for domestic, therapeutic, and food applications. Its unique and distinctive flavor is due to presence of sulfur containing compounds which comprise about 1% of its dried weight. l-cysteines and sulfoxides are vital biological constituents of garlic. Additionally, garlic composition plays a significant role for its potential health benefits, due to the high availability of carbohydrates, proteins, minerals, and phenolic components, though their quantity are dependent on agro-climatic and crop conditions (Fig. 10).

Fig. 10 Therapeutic impact of garlic on human health.

5 Therapeutic Impact of Spices on Human Health

Worldwide, Pakistan, and India have been well known for their enormous production of herbs and spices. It is globally accepted that a wide range of physiological and pharmaceutical benefits can be derived from spices. Many heath disorders, like degenerative diseases and oxidative stress, are controlled and cured with plant based diets, because they contain numerous beneficial chemical compounds and antioxidants (Carlsen et al., 2010). A number of metabolic ailments and age-related issues are connected with oxidative mechanisms in the human body. Due to nonhazardous effect of spices on humans, they are considered safe for use in food without any detrimental side effects. The health benefits associated with the consumption of various spices are briefly discussed below.

5.1 Antiinflammatory Activity

Several health disorders, such as back pain, rheumatism, skin eruptions, paralysis, hemiplegia, and related inflammatory diseases, can be cured with the topical application of black cumin seed oil. Thymoquinone in black cumin seed oil is responsible for antiinflammatory action by inhibiting the eicosanoid generation and membrane lipid peroxidation, through the inhibition of cyclooxygenase and 5-lipoxygenase (5-LO) pathways of arachidonate metabolism. The liquid extract obtained from black cumin has been investigated for analgesic, antipyretic, and antiinflammatory activities in mammal models (Parthasarathy et al., 2008). Additionally, the combined effect of both cumin and turmeric are accountable for removal of certain toxins and poisonous substances, by triggering the action of enzymes that then repair and prevent DNA damage.

5.2 Antiemetic Activity

Ginger is an excellent remedy against vomiting (antiemetic), sickness, nausea, and loose BMs. It has direct impact on the gastrointestinal tract, as opposed to mitigating the pain through the central nervous system. Antimotion action is generally produced by ginger, due to its fundamental and marginal anticholinergic and antihistaminic attributes. Likewise, nausea related with motion sickness is moderated by ginger, due to its ability to hinder the growth of gastric dysrhythmias and the rise plasma vasopressin. The active constituents of ginger inhibit the multiplication of colon bacteria and eliminate flatulence caused by undigested carbohydrates. However, fresh extraction of ginger seems the most compelling, as compared to aged or dried extracts or ethanolic extracts. Some digestive problems and other illness can be treated easily with the consumption of black cumin as a diaphoretic, liver tonic, stomach, and diuretic. Symptoms, including loss of appetite, puerperal diseases, dropsy, and vomiting, can be easily cured by taking black cumin seed with buttermilk. Obesity and dyspnea can also be cured by eating black cumin seed with other herbs and species (Jenkin et al., 1999).

5.3 Antitumor Activity

The extraction of ginger exerts a therapeutic antitumor effect in vitro on certain tissue destroyed with the Epstein-Barr virus, and also against antioxidant effects, which could have applications in cancer treatment. According to some researchers, ginger also possess the ability to protect nerve cells, and is also helpful in diagnosis of Alzheimer’s disease. Ginger aggrandizes insulin-sensitivity and is also beneficial for the treatment of acute diseases, such as diabetes. This was shown in research using mouse adipocyte cell cultures (Sekiya et al., 2004). Similarly, other spices, like onions and garlic, have proved their potential against the process of carcinogenesis (Tapsell et al., 2006; Krishnaswamy, 2008; Martos et al., 2011).

5.4 Antimicrobial Activity

The ginger extract of 2000 mg/mL has shown antimicrobial action in previous studies. Aspergillus, a mold recognized for making aflatoxin, a carcinogen, is also inhibited by ginger. At atmospheric temperatures ginger reflects inhibitory action against Aspergillus niger, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Mycoderma, and Lactobacillus acidophilus at 4%, 10%, 12%, and 14% respectively. In conventional Chinese medicine ginger is used to increase the flow of body fluids. The antimicrobial effect of the black cumin extract and its constituents against an extensive range of parasitic organisms, bacterial, and fungal disease, has been comprehensively explored. The ethanolic abstract was shown to have an anticestodal effect in children (Basch et al., 2003). Finally, black cumin seed extract, and its main component, which is thymoquinone, was thoroughly studied for use in treating cells diseased with schistosomiasis.

5.5 Antihypertensive Activity

Ginger also enhances circulation of blood by augmenting cellular metabolic activity. Through this benefit, it can play a role in the relief of cramps and tension. According to Japanese studies, constituents in ginger are very helpful in mitigating the blood pressure and reducing cardiac workload.

5.6 Antibilious Activity

Black cumin has antibilious property, and may be administrated internally in sporadic fevers. The aromatic plant is considered a priceless remedy in hepatic and digestive disorders as well, because it is a restorative for a wide range of circumstances connected to mode swings, e.g., it restores and amuses the persons in the feeling of sadness and depression situation. Black cumin as a remedy has applications in chronic headache and migraines, and is also useful in treating in sores, mercury poisoning, and leprosy. It alleviates swelling from the hands and feet when soaked in water. Externally, it is used for afflictions such as in pimples, abscess, alopecia, eczema, freckles, and leukoderma. They can also be used for its anthelmintic and antibacterial properties (Bhatia et al., 2006).

5.7 Antispasmodic Activity

Black pepper is comprised of a variety of active biological components which exhibit pharmacological activities. These components include piperine, alkaloids, amides, and other essential volatile oils, which account for 98% of black pepper’s mass. Bioavailability of specific drugs and nutrients, like beta carotene, was enhanced by the rich alkaloids content of in pepper. Some spices, because of their medicinal composition, act as tranquilizers and sedative agents, giving relief to pain or reducing irritation and discomfort (De La Torre et al., 2017). In the southern Asian regions, turmeric has been used in natural healing against injuries, bone disorders, stomach aches, parasites, inflammation, and other internal malfunctions. Several studies demonstrate its potential against oxidation, cholekinetic, and inflammation (Names, 2013). Recent animal and human efficacy trials explored its role against precarcinogenesis and atherosclerotic.

5.8 Anticonvulsive Activity

Remedial effects of spices include antiinflammatory, antihistamine, analgesic, anticonvulsive, antiparacitic, antiinfectious, and expectorant. Spices act as mucolytic drugs, that penetrate the thick mucus layer made on lungs of persons suffering from respiratory ailments, and relieve involuntary muscle contractions. The most well known spices having a high percentage of antioxidants and antimicrobials in their composition, are cumin (cuminaldehyde), clove (eugenol), and cinnamon (cinnamaldehyde). Cardamom and turmeric powder showed therapeutic effects and are traditionally used for the prevention of inflammation, intestinal disorders, stomach pains, and constipation. Both of these spices improving the taste and mouthfeel of food products, and act as antidiuretic, antioxidant, antimicrobial, and carminative agents. (Peter, 2004). Apart from culinary benefits, cardamom can be used for relaxation of the nervous system, stimulation of skin fibers, and decreasing pain. A lot of work was done to access the functional and chemical properties of spices, which revealed significant inhibition of cancer cells and oxidative damage, activation of enzymes responsible for brain stimulation, maintenance of human body temperature, and topical irritation (Rubio et al., 2013).

5.9 Antioxidant Activity

Efficacy trials that are conducted to develop antioxidants, showed spices as intermediates of disease inhibition. From a dietary perspective, the functionality of herbs and spices will be revealed through examination of their properties as foods. Current research on essential oils from herbs focuses or their chemical constituents and therapeutic values. In developed countries, widespread study is being done to determine the healthy constituents of spices, and discovering their genetic attributes. Currently, foods which contain a high ratio of herbs and spices are accepted and desired. Hopefully in the near future, the common use of aromatic plants in the preservation of health and security from disease, will be largely supported by scientific evidence. The cognitive dysfunction related to aging, and the severe effects of cerebral and cognitive function on the mental health of a living being, is also reduced using herbs and species. There are very limited studies available on the use of spices with diabetic patients; the best witnessed effect is that of the ginseng compound on hyperglycemia Tapsell et al., 2006).

5.10 Chemopreventive Activity

Chemotherapy is a modern treatment in which carcinogens are removed or destroyed at cellular or molecular level. This type of treatment is promising for patients suffering from cancer. In this process, certain natural and synthetic chemicals, or their mixture, are employed to decrease, retard or suppress the process of cancer forming cells. Health promoting properties of cumin and turmeric possess cancer preventing activity, and increase the sensitivity of specific drugs against cancer cells, increasing the effectiveness of chemotherapy. Likewise, these spices also reduce the progression of other severe neurological or mental disorders, like sclerosis and Alzheimer disease. The activity of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) enzyme integrase causes or increases viral proliferation. These effects were greatly reduced by intake of curcumin, due to its numerous antiviral attributes (Daood et al., 2006).

6 Clinical Studies: Animal vs Humans

6.1 Animal Studies

There was an observed substantial increase in glutathione levels and mucin contents, with little reduction in intestinal histamine concentration of rat stomach, by the intervention of black seed oil, causing demonstrable protection from ulcers induced by chemicals (Ammon, 2008). In another study, hypotensive activity of the seeds was established. It was found that crude extract of cumin considerably reduces the high blood pressure of rats, similar to that of the drug Nifedipine. These studies showed that the plant contains a variety of constituents that can be used for the treatment of hypertension. Blood homeostasis, body weight, and toxicity of rats were investigated by employing cumin oil and seeds, for the control of hypercholesterolemia and hyperglycemia. According to other research, a progressive increase in hematocrit and hemoglobin concentration was noted, while significant decreases in lipid profiles, including LDL, triglycerides, serum cholesterol, leukocytes, and platelets, and glucose concentration were observed (Cortés-Rojas et al., 2014). There is evidence that 9% of cholesterol, and other undesirable compounds, were eliminated from the body by consumption of half a piece of garlic daily. Garlic possess activity for anticlotting (in vivo studies) and antihypertensive (5.5% decrease in blood pressure). In a recent finding, it was found that the use of ginger for the treatment of nausea and vomiting during pregnancy was the most effective, and possibly safest, option_. The pharmacological properties of ginger, as an antioxidant and free radical scavenger, have shown a protective and beneficial impact in both animal and human studies. Risk of high blood pressure could be reduced by giving an effective dose of ginger to person with hypertension. Animal studies have shown that gingerol, a main active constituent of ginger, has both antiinflammatory and pain relieving effects. Many controlled clinical trials have reported that risks associated with rheumatoid arthritis, cancer, and headaches, could be reduced by flaxseed intake. Epidemiological studies showed that rates of certain cancers, particularly hormone-dependent cancers, are predominantly lower in Asia, Africa, and Eastern Europe, than in Western world. Lower cancer rates are associated with their fiber enriched diet that reduces blood lipids and blood glucose level, and lowers CVD chances.

6.2 Human Studies

Equal portions of men and women were selected for trial from a college. They were given ginger extract and asked to monitor stomach and intestinal functioning. At the same time, a drug dimenhydrinate used to control motion and sickness was given to another group, and results were recorded (Elgayyar et al., 2001). All individuals using only the drug were more prone to the disorder. According to health studies, ginger is extensively used for reducing the of diarrhea, loose stools, and sickness. It was concluded from research that consumption of ginger powder four times a day for sick, weak children and pregnant women, significantly reduced vomiting, fever, and nausea (Subbulakshmi and Naik, 2002). Further studies regarding lower blood pressure was due to less production of glucose in liver through gluconeogenesis and showed that by administration of spices in food may be a good option for control of diabetes. In recent research, it was showed that one gram of cumin seeds twice daily reduced blood glucose levels in human subjects after 2 weeks of oral intervention. Cumin grains act as nutraceuticals and have a protective effect against induction of oxidative pressure and cancer, by reducing the production of nitrogenous compounds. There was an 80% protection from neurological disorders and other types of inflammation. Moreover, in a latest study, normal women consumed black cumin seed oil, and powder. Following analysis examined their hemoglobin profile, such as creatinine kinase, prolactin, red, and white blood cells, platelets, and hemoglobin. All previously mentioned parameters decreased significantly, except prolactin levels, by incorporating these seed into the diet. Flaxseed supplemented muffins were prepared by replacing wheat flour, and for 3 weeks, were fed to 29 individuals (22 men and 7 women) suffering from higher cholesterol levels. One serving consists of 20 g fiber/day which is equal to 50 g flaxseed without fat/day. This dietary administration of flaxseed greatly reduced total cholesterol (1.2%), low density lipoprotein (1.8%), apolipoprotein B (1.4%), and apolipoprotein A-I (1.9%), however no significant impact on lipoprotein levels was observed, as compared to the control group who consumed muffins prepared from wheat flour without supplementation of flaxseed (Ballabh et al., 2008).

7 Food Applications

Herbs, spices, and their supplements consist of notable antioxidant-rich products. The most common antioxidant-rich foods are berries, fruits, nuts, chocolate, vegetables, and their products. Herbs and spices are used in amounts that do not adversely affect the taste and flavor of the final product and are acceptable to the consumer. Large quantities of herbs and spices are not generally not used in healthy foods. They are incorporated in moderate amounts to substitute, or partially replace, other pleasing food components like like sugar, salt and saturated fat in desserts, marmalades, soups, Mediterranean cuisines and dressing (Table 1). These spices make vegetable dishes and vegetarian cuisine more sumptuous and delicious (Tapsell et al., 2006). The consumption of medicinal herbs, spices, and their derived products are increased owing to their use in pharmaceuticals, food colorants, and flavors, as well as other consumable products, like tea, tablets, capsules, creams, syrups, and liquids (Aggarwal and Kunnumakkara, 2009).

Table 1

Major Flavoring Components of Spices and Their Value-Added Products
Spices	Flavor Components	Value Added Products
Black pepper	Piperine	Dehydrated and freeze-dried pepper, frozen green pepper, white pepper, green pepper in brine, pepper oil, pepper oleoresin, ground pepper, organic pepper, sterile pepper, canned tender green pepper
Cardamom	Linalool	Green cardamom, cardamom oil, cardamom oleoresin
Ginger	Gingerol	Ginger oil, oleoresin, candy, preserves, vitaminized effervescent ginger powder, plain effervescent powder, starch from spent ginger, wine, beer, medicinal beverages, encapsulated ginger oil, dehydrated ginger
Ginger	Shogaol
Turmeric	Curcuminoids	Dehydrated turmeric powder, oil, butter, margarine, cream desserts, fruit wine, bread, biscuit, and cakes
Cumin	Cuminaldehyde	Cumin oil, cumin powder
Cinnamon	Cinnamaldehyde	Cinnamon sticks, oil, powder, bakery products like bagels
Cinnamon	Eugenol	Cinnamon sticks, oil, powder, bakery products like bagels
Chilli	Capsaicin	Chilli powder, used in sauces and pickle
Clove	Eugenol	Whole or ground cloves, powder, incorporate in beverages
Coriander	Linalool	Coriander powder
Flaxseed	Linatine	Flaxseed meal, oil, jam, flakes, flaxseed balls, flaxseed flour
Flaxseed	Glucosides

7.1 Role of Food Industries

The appeal of spice use to the food industry is significant and growing, due to the important role of aromatic compounds in food products. They are categorized by phytochemical groups, for example: aldehydes, alcohols, amines, esters, ethers, ketones, terpenes, thiols, and other miscellaneous compounds. Interest in the potential of spices is noteworthy, arising from the chemical compounds contained in spices, such as phenyl propanoids, terpenes, flavonoids, and anthocyanins. A diverse range of products are prepared with value and apparent quality or appeal increased through spices, mostly on the level of farm operations. Basic quality characteristics of spices in food products, like aroma, flavor, pungency, and color, should be properly preserved through effective preparations. Because of the increasing utilization of herbs and spices in processed foods, cultural foods, natural scents, and new beverage products, the herbal industry is growing at a rapid speed, and is estimated to be more than 10 billion dollars, increasing at a rate of 3%–4% per year. Essential liquid extract from plants having volatile elements are an indispensable part of the production of cosmetics, perfumes, and pharmaceuticals (Charkraverty et al., 2003).

7.2 Value Added Products of Spices

Cumin, clove, and cinnamon have the potential to be used as preservatives in many foods, namely in processed meat, to replace chemical preservatives. Spices provide beneficial effects, in addition to being a natural alternative to synthetic preservatives (De La Torre et al., 2017). The primary products harvested for spices are divided from portions of the plant, such as fruits, seeds, leaves, stems, flowers, buds, roots, rhizomes, bark, wood, and resins. Flaxseeds are ground to flour and a wide range of bakery products, like breads, muffins, and cereals, are prepared to provide a pleasant nutty flavor, as well as increased nutritional value in the final product. Black pepper has been used for preparation in dehydrated, freeze dried and frozen foods, and brined and canned tender products. Ginger powder has been used for candy preparation, preserves, vitamin enriched, and plain effervescent drinks, wine, beer, and medicinal beverages. Spices are also incorporated in dairy products to form a complete protein food. The amino acid and protein profile of flaxseed is closely related to legumes such as soybean flour. Cumin seeds can be utilized to form many food items, can be added to tea, coffee, breads, canned food, extracted for wine or vinegar, mixed with honey or sprinkled on salads. Black cumin oil in capsule form is taken by some for its therapeutic effects (Heindl, 2003).

7.3 Artificial vs Natural Colorants

Manmade food colorants used in the food sector pose a threat for severe health ailments, such as different types of cancer, asthma, allergic reactions, hyperactivity, and thyroidism. This creates an alarming situation, as compared to natural colorants, and has influenced change in regulations, as well as human inclination. Spices, like red chilies, turmeric, and saffron, were widely used in food cuisines to improve color and flavor before synthetic colors became available. The Indian center has created technology for production of accepted food colors, such as red chilies, for safe addition in food, and without posing any health hazards. Developing countries can benefit from the incredible agricultural prospects of spice crops as a source of natural flavors. The recovery of essential oil, oleoresin, and aromatic compounds from various spices are the greatest focus. Several methods, using chemical and physical processes, are used for the extraction of oils and oleoresins from the spices, such as by the use of steam, hydrocarbons, chlorine, enzymes, various acids, gases, and bacterial cultures. Currently, technologies like recombinant DNA and genetic engineering have been employed for extraction of natural phenols, ketones, and other flavoring materials. Techniques, like single cell culture and cloning, should support the food technologist as well as persons who are engaged in flavor enhancing procedures (Gulcin, 2005).

8 Safety Issues in Spices and Their Management

The microbiological hazards connected with herbs and spices differ drastically, and are mainly dependent on plant type and the procedure to which it is subjected. This is a major factor impacting the method of production. Bulb and root crops are literally connected to the soil, and susceptible to tainting because of poor irrigation and watering practices.

8.1 Mycotoxins

Presence of mycotoxins pose danger to health of humans because of the existence of pathogen outgrowth and poison produced by it. Because of low moisture in herbs and dry spices, the movement of water is frequently under 0.60. As a result, these commodities are naturally stable during storage. Spices play host to many fungi and microscopic organism spores. These are mostly mesophilic anaerobes, mesophilic aerobes, and thermophilic aerobes. Spices are most likely to possess human pathogens like coliforms and Escherichia coli, the life organism known to arise from fecal pollution, and widespread hygiene problems. Aflatoxin is normally found higher in ginger and chili; the four kinds prevalent being: B1, B2, G1, and G2. Most hazardous among the four is B1. Aflatoxin, which is not destroyed by cooking, is cancer-causing. The higher levels in spices and herbs officially acceptable to the European Union are: for G1 + G2 + B1 + B2 (10 ppb), and for B1 (5 ppb). The European Union is trying to establish the maximum permissible limit for ochratoxin. There is an increased frequency of occurrence of human pathogens, that is, Bacillus cereus, E. coli, and Salmonella in spices (Pruthi, 1980). Because of low water movement, spices and herbs are inherently impervious to bacterial deterioration. A few spices possess strong antifungal and antibacterial properties, this is especially the case with such spices as ajowan, clove, and cinnamon. Insect pests frequently found to infest spices are confused flour beetles, cigarette beetles, Indian meal moths, and saw-toothed beetles. Spices can possess antioxidant (cancer prevention agents) and radio protective agents. These agents, along with antifungal and antibacterial properties, provide nutraceutical and therapeutic potential to spices. Mycotoxins are detrimental metabolites delivered by various molds types in favorable environments. Molds can pollute agricultural foodstuffs during gathering, handling, and storage. Most of them are capable of producing auxiliary metabolites, causing a wide range of ailments to both humans and animals. Amongst these, mycotoxins have the greatest impact overall. Currently, the ones considered most problematic are fumonisins, aflatoxins, T-2 poison zearalenone, ochratoxin A, and deoxynivalenol. Among spices and herbs, the most commonly experienced mycotoxins are ochratoxin and aflatoxin. Some mycotoxins being distinguished in herbs and spices were ochratoxin, aflatoxin, and fumonisin. Aflatoxin can be produced in red pepper both before and after harvest. Reddy et al. (2001) examined 124 specimens with three distinct characteristics in chili pods and established that aflatoxin contamination might be associated by sample grades. The most prominent concentration of 969 mg/kg AFB1 was determined in one specimen of grade 3 which was of low quality. Scientists studied 36 samples of ground red pepper acquired from several producers in four districts of Turkey. Levels of Aflatoxin B1 identified in five examples was 10.5–31.2 mg/kg.

8.2 Bacterial Contamination

Spices are used worldwide as flavoring agents and are a diet staple item. They are exposed to an extensive variety of natural tainting, during gathering, and preparing, by waste water, dust, humans, and animals, to name a few. Contaminated spices can be of microbiological concern, provided they are actually consumed. Cuisine using spices may represent a danger for the health of many because they are frequently used in food with minimal preparation activity or are eaten plain. Spices are a significant source for microscopic spore-forming organisms in various foods, such as casseroles, gravies, soups, and stews. Under favorable conditions, they can grow to critical levels. The main microorganisms liable for these are Clostridium perfringens, B. cereus, Salmonella, toxigenic molds, and E. coli. The number of microorganisms in spices fluctuates significantly, depending on the spice. Turmeric, dark pepper, allspice, and capsicum possess the most notable levels of microbes, whereas, cinnamon, and cloves have a tendency toward minute levels of contaminants. Microflora of numerous spices is comprised of mostly spore forming mesophiles come from contact with the soil. Scientists conducted experiment on 18 white 4 black pepper samples procured from India. The majority of examined samples were contaminated with two to four aflatoxins, nonetheless, they remained below the 20 mg/kg limit established by the European Union. Cinnamon oils can stifle the Aspergillus parasiticus development entirely. Cinnamon samples, gathered from Egypt and studied in the United States, were polluted by aflatoxin B1. Coriander was contaminated with two sorts of mycotoxins, especially AFB1. Ginger was contaminated with mycophenolic acid. Large amounts (110 mg/kg) of OTA was found in turmeric (Thirumala-Devi et al., 2001). It was observed in a study that spices, including cardamom and coriander, are tainted by aflatoxin B1 at levels above the resistance threshold set by the World Health Organization. Fungi can taint herbs and spices in the field, throughout collection, sorting, drying, granulating, handling, storage, and packaging. Preharvest mycotoxin generation happens in environmental conditions favorable to mold development. Control of contamination needs to occur at all various aspects of postharvest, like, handling, cultivation practices, throughout collecting, techniques, and time used for conditions amid storage, drying, and the seed quality in order to minimize harm. Among spices cinnamon, red cardamom, white and black peppers, cumin, mustard, peppermint, turmeric, and ginger, were observed to be contaminated with Aspergillus parasiticus or Aspergillus flavus. Coriander is spice most vigorously polluted with fungi. Clove, because of its microbial inhibitory influence, was the least contaminated spice. Cinnamon was observed to be tainted with numerous fungi (11 out of 20) comprised of mycotoxin delivering organisms.

8.3 Pesticide Residues

Pesticides are a collection of compounds intended for control of weeds, insects, disease, or different irritations upon harvests, such as animals or landscape plants. Judicious utilization of pesticides has assumed a basic role in nourishing the world's growing population by drastically expanding crop production. Nonetheless, safety of pesticides and their influences on the environment are a great concern. Importing nations will recognize pest contamination in spices and can reject delivery or demand lowered costs due to additional processing needed to ameliorate a contaminated import. Chili and paprika are not tainted by mold poisons like aflatoxins. One noteworthy issue may be insect pests or rodent infestation, but these are secondary causes due to poor facilities and storage practices. Pesticide residues found in these items are mostly carbamates and organophosphorus, and organochlorine mixes. A few pesticides will accumulate in the items unless they are denatured.

8.4 Management of Safety in Spices

8.4.1 Radiation

Radiation presents good opportunity to enhanced shelf life, upgrade microbial safety and quality without any change to the normal flavor in spices. Presently, this treatment is broadly carried out in North America and Europe to disinfect imported spices. Similarly, different spice generating nations have also began using this technique to ensure the quality of their produce. Radiation sanitization, alongside good manufacturing and agricultural practices, assist to produce high quality clean spices, devoid of synthetic and pesticide deposits. Good irradiation for pathogenic control and other measures to reduce organism growth in herbs, spices, and seasonings, has been practiced by the International Consultative Group on food Irradiation (ICGFI) underneath the aegis of WHO, IAEA, and FAO. The key points of interest, preirradiation treatment, packaging prerequisites, the light medicines, and the doses necessity for purification of radiation, along with edge dosages contributing to organoleptic changes. Low irradiation doses (< 1 KGy) hinder sprouting in ginger, garlic, onion. Medium quantity application (1–10 KGy) remove contaminating microorganisms and pathogens of food and high dose application (> 10 KGy) sterilizes food for unique prerequisites and for shelf stable food. The vast majority of whole spices are secured by the pericarp and their naturally occurring antioxidants; they require fewer protections from spoilage compared to ground spices. Radiation treatment includes controlled utilization of vitality of ionizing radiations, for example, gamma beams, X-beams to food products to accomplish the desired end result, such as, disinfestation, time span of shelf life expansion and disinfection.

8.4.2 Ionizing Radiations

Irradiations are electromagnetic. They possess g short wavelengths with high energy. These radiations launch electrons from a molecule of food to form electrically charged ions. Various refined systems can distinguish spices or herbs sanitized by ionizing radiation. A tag carried by the product is the best way for consumers to recognize that product is being irradiated.

8.4.3 Food Sterilization

Food sterilization can be utilized successfully to fight molds and different microbes in spices and herbs. Sterilization and disinfection is commonly by means of warmth, chemicals steam, low temperature utilization, lack of hydration, drying up, lyophilization, adjustment of acidity, use of concoction additives or irradiation. Steam cleansing or chemical fumigation is generally thought of as being the best practice for prepared or ground spices and herbs, because these procedures are simple and inexpensive to complete, particularly contrasted with radiation treatment requiring profoundly complex and expensive equipment. Chemicals allowed for cleansing are propylene oxide and ethylene oxide.

8.4.4 Fumigation

The most common fumigants are ethylene oxide, methyl bromide, and ethylene dibromide. Thy are utilized to treat herbs and spices for microbial sanitization and insect disinfestation. Less viable fumigants leave substance deposits on spices and are unsafe to humans. Numerous countries have forbidden fumigant use. Different nations comprising India are willing to ban aflatoxin. Storage pests cause significant loss of revenue and investment to ranchers and middlemen.

8.4.5 Pest Control

Pest control is focused on diminishing the loses caused by vermin feeding, which subsequently results in the deterioration, microorganism intrusion, and contamination of products. Only legitimately prepared workers, wearing proper defensive garments, (e.g., overalls, gloves, head protectors, goggles, face coverings), ought to apply agrochemicals.

9 Quality and Safety Standards

9.1 Food Safety and Quality Assurance

Food safety is one of the key issues confronting the entire chain of food production worldwide. Aromatic items are hygroscopic in nature and are exceedingly delicate with respect to moisture; absorption of moisture results in caking, discoloration, hydrolytic rancidity, mold development, and insect infestation. As spices contain unstable aromatic qualities, loss of these qualities, and the retention of foreign odors is the result of ineffective packaging, and may pose major safety issues. Moreover, warmth and light accelerate deterioration of fragrance and flavor constituents. Spices containing natural colors need to be safeguarded from light (capsicum, cardamom, turmeric, and saffron). The key oil segments normally exhibited in a large amounts of the spices, are liable to oxidation by barometrical oxygen, especially at high storage temperatures, bringing about the onset of off-flavors. Quality has stands out as the most vital and precarious factor in the world, and is equally important for herbs and spices. National sustenance laws and controls intend to shield consumers from health risks. Administrations have determined the maximum possible parameters of conceivable impurities for foods. These incorporate the nature of herbs and their individual flavors (Vasudeven et al., 2000). Contaminants include incidental material, microbial disease, insect invasion, excreta of birds, insects, and animals, pesticide residue, mycotoxin deposits, and heavy metals. Some importing countries are strict, to the point that food handling security brings levels of contamination so low, as to be dismissed as a danger. Contaminants by and large make spices and herbs completely lose their chemical and physical qualities, further contributing to unsafe ailments. Production of quality spices, with no residual pesticides or compounds is critical in the development of a free global trade. Organic spices get higher costs, about 20%–50%, owing to their production without chemicals and pesticides, and the resulting quality to the consumer is undisputed (McNamara et al., 2005). Consumers are turning out to be more quality cognizant, and agriculturists, merchants, exporters and processors must maintain the quality of their products at each phase, from production to end sale. In developed nations, the steps essential for quality assurance have become a required element of production (Szallasi, 2005).

9.2 Food Safety and Quality Assurance Systems

Quality assurance systems, like Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP), have played significant role in the manufacturing of quality spices. The European Spice Association (ESA) has developed quality criteria for spices and herbs, which function as a standard for different nations of the European Union. Beside this, nations like Germany, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom have established their own purity standards for spices. Beside purity requirements, importing countries demand a limit to measurable contaminants like heavy metals, microbial contamination, pesticide residues, and aflatoxin. Other countries like Japan, the United States, and countries of the EU, have set MRLs (maximum residue limits) for spices (Beristain et al., 2001). The International Organization for Standardization (ISO), an overall system of national norms standard institution working in together, creates specific benchmarks for an extensive variety of items that are exchanged globally. ISO benchmarks for particular spices and key oils have been defined and received by the specialized boards of trustees representing the producer countries, and are continually updated. For instance, the conventional strategy for assessing capsicum spiciness HPLC (High execution fluid chromatography) is performed with particular mixes which are distinguished, and levels are measured. In 1995, The Codex Alimentarius Commission established a Code of Hygienic Practice for Dried Aromatic Plants and Spices. This code points out hygienic necessities in the collecting and production of plants and spices, and of the foundational configuration and cleanliness of facilities for handling hygienic prerequisites (Ballabh et al., 2008). The food safety system includes good agricultural practices, quality management systems, good manufacturing practices, International Standards Organization and hazard analysis, and critical control points. All these measures are well adopted to monitor and mitigate the threats in herbs and spices. Numerous processing units in trading and importing nations have already been certified under one or more registered quality frameworks. Accreditation under HACCP is mandatory because herbs and spices are food items, and there must be no danger of contamination beyond permissible levels at any of the critical control points. The essential oil industry has to adopt frameworks specifically recognizing the common areas of jeopardy to food safety and excellence, in the production and supply chain. By realizing good agricultural practices on the farm, the yield of agriculture commodities can also improved.

Over 20 national industrial organizations are involved in the Canadian on Farm Food Safety Program (COFFS), including Canadian Herb, Spice and Natural Health Products. These industrial organizations are developing specific HACCP-based On Farm Food Safety Programs and Good Agriculture Practices. The mission of the COFFS system is to give assurance from contamination of the food chain, from the farm to the fork, through the use of HACCP standards. Regardless of the fact that it is challenging to get rid off all threats to food purity and cleanliness, an accurate detailed on-farm food safety program using good agricultural practices will curtail incidents of contamination. The herbs and spices standards cover natural health products, therapeutic, and culinary food stuffs (developed and wild crafted). There is a concern to identify the prime areas or phases (drying techniques or storage) that can considerably affect the quality result. Employing a hazard analysis and critical control point (HACCP) framework, focused on hindrance, as opposed to depending on final item testing, appears to be a valuable development for herb and spice safety. Sterilizing procedures, as well as secure packaging, and storage methods, are an important component in maintaining the natural properties of spices. Spices in their whole-seed form are of great interest and degrade much more slowly than spices that have been ground or reduced to powder form. The most ideal approach to limit health hazards in aromatic plants, is to assure that any chemical pesticides employed as part production, are used as per the maker's guidelines, with adherence to government controls for their application. Herbs and spices should be grown in soils with low levels of heavy metal concentration, and any foreign contaminating objects or substances, with continued avoidance during growth and postharvest operations.

10 Conclusion

Spices are an excellent source for a wide range of organic acids, phenolics, essential volatile oils, and aromatic compounds. The nutritional and pharmacological qualities of spices are the most versatile among all the other food ingredients, and possess numerous health promoting properties, such as antioxidant, antimicrobial, antihypertensive, anticonvulsive, and analgesic and antiulcer activities. Furthermore, spices should be made part of food to increase their therapeutic potential to promote general health, as well as for treatment of specific health ailments. Advancement in food technologies has developed more methods and possible products for extraction and utilization of these active nutrients in array of processed food products.