Notes on Sanskrit

Diacritics

The most common script for writing Sanskrit or Hindi in modern India is devanāgarī. It is a common misconception that Sanskrit (askta) is devanāgarī; in fact, Sanskrit has been written in many different scripts over its long history, and indeed was originally an oral language with no written form. Thus, Sanskrit may be represented in the Roman script in different ways and a number of “standard” transliteration systems have evolved.

We have adopted the IAST (International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration) system, which uses a series of diacritic marks to represent the range of Sanskrit characters (there are more characters in Sanskrit than in English). Although not a phonetic representation of Sanskrit, it has the advantage of representing each Sanskrit character uniquely, which many of the phonetic systems without diacritics do not.

Pronunciation

There are many books and resources available that provide a pronunciation guide to Sanskrit and so we have chosen not to go into too much detail. However, a few well-chosen remarks will help to guide the reader in avoiding the most obvious errors. In our experience, the single most important thing that a native English speaker can do to make words sound roughly correct is to pronounce the vowels correctly and differentiate between “short” and “long” vowels. Long vowels are given twice as much “air time” as short vowels, and are generally emphasized. The short vowels are a, i, u and , and the long vowels are ā, ī, ū, e, o, ai and au (although ai and au are two letters, they represent single Sanskrit vowels). Making the short vowels short, and the long vowels long is key!

Native English speakers naturally emphasize the penultimate syllable of a word. For example, mispronouncing āsana as “asaana,” as opposed to the correct “aasunu” (the two short a-es like the “u” in “sun”). Similarly, the first and last “a” in dhāraā are elongated.

Sanskrit roots: The source of everything

In ancient times the oral language of Sanskrit was analyzed by Indian grammarians and organized into a formal structure. This was a monumentally complex task requiring the shoe-horning of the language into some kind of system. This system then became a benchmark for the Sanskrit that followed, particularly with regard to erudite philosophical texts. According to grammatical tradition, all Sanskrit words come from a set of approximately 2,000 verbal roots (dhātu), which are then used to form nouns and verbs according to various rules. It is common to understand words and make links between words by analyzing their roots. For example, the root of the word āsana is ās—to sit.

Why are there so many different forms of the same word?

Sanskrit is an inflected language: the form of a word changes to express grammatical function such as tense, mood, person or case. Typically the endings of words change, so as a subject of a sentence we might have one āsanam (posture) and many āsanāni (postures). With nouns there is also a theoretical stem form to which the endings are added and this is generally what we use when explaining a Sanskrit noun in isolation. Hence, we explain the meaning of the word āsana (stem form) which appears in YS 2.47 as sthira sukham āsanam (where the grammatical ending has been added).

The situation becomes a little more complex with the principle of sandhi (joining together). In Sanskrit, the often subtle changes in pronunciation that occur when two words are pronounced sequentially are reflected in the written language: typically the ending of the first word changes and the two words may join together. So for example “tat artha” becomes tadartha. Or the familiar phrase śānti śānti śānti is written “śāntiāntiśśanti.”

We are not suggesting that yoga students need to become Sanskrit scholars, but understanding some rules about how the language works can help you to recognize the more common forms.

Sanskrit compounds

Compounds are nouns linked together with the relationship between them understood but not explicitly stated (in English we often express relationships between words explicitly with prepositions and conjunctions, such as “of,” “by” and “and”). There are a number of types of compounds in Sanskrit. The Yoga Sūtra is full of compounds and this is the source of many differences of translation and interpretation. In YS 2.47, for example, sthirasukham is a compound of the words sthira and sukha. The relationship between them is inferred and understood in this context as indicating that that āsana is defined by the qualities of sthira and sukha. But theoretically it could be different: sukha may be achieved by means of sthira.

Glossary

We have listed the Sanskrit terms in an English alphabetical order as though all the letters were English and without diacritics. Strictly speaking this is a nonsense, because it ignores the significance of the different Sanskrit letters, but from a practical point of view, it is much easier for English speakers to quickly find the word and its definition.

Glossary of Sanskrit terms

abhāva – not arising, not becoming

abhibhava – overpowering

abhimata – agreeable, desired

abhiniveśa – profound fear (ultimately, of death); clinging to life

abhyantara – the “inner” domain

abhyantara vtti – the movement towards the inside; i.e., the inhale

abhyāsa – diligent practice, the effort to stay with something

ādara – enthusiasm, zeal

ādaya – and the rest, etc., from ādi

ādhibhautika dukha – suffering caused by other creatures

ādhidaivika dukha – suffering caused by divine forces

adhikāra – qualification or suitability for something

adhimātra – intense

adho mukha – downward facing

ādhyātmika dukh – suffering caused by myself

adhyāya – chapter or section

adhyayana – Vedic chanting, study

agni – fire (often related to our health and vitality when used in certain contexts)

āhāra – food

ahisā – Nonviolence

ajñāna – misunderstanding

ākāśa – the “element” of space

ākepī – transcended

alabdhabhūmikatva – failing to actualize or to reach a goal

ālambana – support, something to rest on

ālasya – dullness, lack of lustre

āma – undigested material

amta – elixir of immortality

anāgata – in the future, yet to come

ānanda – bliss, joy

ananta – mythical serpent, also “without end” or infinite

anātma – not-self, non-essential

anavaccheda – unseparated, unlimited, unbounded

anavacchinna – unlimited, unbounded

anavasthitatvāni – slipping back, instability

aga – limb

agamejayatva – trembling of the limbs (and by implication, body instability)

anitya – impermanent

anta kumbhaka – the pause at the end of the inhale (AK); literally “holding within” (antar)

antaraga – inner limbs, usually with reference to the last three of Patañjali's eight limbs

antarāya – obstacle or interruption

anugama – following on from

anukāra – resembling

anuloma – with the hair, with the grain

anuloma ujjāyī – prāāyāma technique in which the exhale is directed through alternate nostrils; literally “with-the-hair ujjāyī”

anumodita – approved, agreeable

anuśāsana – a wisdom teaching (to be followed and practiced)

anuśayī – flowing on from

ānuśravika – “that which has been heard,” referring to spiritual aspirations and goals

anuttama – unsurpassed

anya – other

apāna – the energetic principle associated with elimination, often described as apāna vāyu

aparāma – untouched, free from, untainted

aparigraha – non grasping

āpatti – falling into, entering a state or condition

apavarga – freedom, liberation

aprīti – pain

artha – purpose or essence

asaprayoga – disconnection, separation

asaprajñāta – not accompanied by wisdom or insight

asasarga – lack of contact

āsana – originally a seat, or seated posture; later it came to mean any yoga posture

āśaya – deposit, residue āsevita – cultivated, practiced diligently

asmitā – the sense of self; literally “I-am-ness”

āśrama – stage of life

āśraya – support

āśrayatva – connectness, correspondence with

aāga – eight-limbed

asteya – not stealing

aśuci – impure

aśuddhi – impurity

asura – demon

atha – now

ātmaka – nature, belonging to

ātman – Self, essence

āvaraa – that which obscures (synonymous with tamas)

avasthāna – dwelling, abiding, standing

avidyā – misunderstanding

avirati – intemperance, over-indulgence

āyāma – stretching, extending

āyurveda – traditional Indian medical system

bādhana – bondage, oppression

bahir aga – external limbs, usually with reference to the first five of Patañjali's eight limbs

bāhya kumbhaka – holding outside (bāhya), the pause at the end of the exhale

bāhya vtti – the movement towards the outside; i.e., the exhale

bandha – lock or seal

Bhagavad Gītā – song (gītā) of the Lord (bhagavan)

Bhagīratha – name of legendary sage

bhakti – devotion

bhastrikā – prāāyāma technique that combines rapid breathing and nostril control; literally “bellows”

bhauma – occasion, circumstance

bhāvana – feeling, cultivation of something, means to bring something into being

bhoga – experience, enjoyment

bhrāmarī – prāāyāma technique that involves humming like a bee; literally “relating to a bee”

bhrāntidarśana – confusion, wrong view

bhūmi – level, ground, situation

bhūta – element, being

brahma/brahman – the absolute

Brahma – the creator God, one of the trinity that includes Viu and Śiva

brahmacarya – discipline, or as one of the four stages of life, studentship

brahmavihāra – the disposition or abode of Brahma

Bhadārayaka Upaniad – the “Great Forest” upaniad

bhaa – expanding

buddhi – the most subtle part of the mind

cakravāka – mythical bird

cala – moving

candra – the moon

caturtha – the fourth

cetanā – consciousness, state of mind

cikitsā – healing practice, therapy

cit – “pure awareness” or “true self” (synonymous with purua)

citta – the mind, “that which relates to or is subservient to cit”

darśana – point of view, often used as designating a philosophical view

daurmanasya – negative thinking, pessimism, literally “bad mind”

deśa – place

deva – god, a class of divine beings

devaloka – realm of the gods

devatā – form of God or the divine

dhāraā – holding the mind to a point of focus

dharma – our responsibilities and purpose in life, the order of things, fundamental nature

dhyāna – contemplation, meditation

dīrgha – long (of the breath)

dīrghakāla – a long time

doa – fault, defect

dra – “the one who sees” (synonymous with purua or cit)

dhabhūmi – stability, solid ground, firmly established

dś – the seer, one who sees (appears as dk/dg)

da – what is seen, material objects

dśya – the observable world, the “seen” (synonymous with prakti)

dukha – limited or restricted space, usually translated as pain, suffering or distress

dvandva – pairs

dvea – habitual aversion

eka – one

ekāgra – one-pointed

ekāgrya – one-pointedness

ekatānatā – single continuity

eka tattva – a single or essential principle

ekātmatā – a single entity, a single continuity

ekatra – in one place, together

Gagā – the goddess personifying the river Ganges

gati – movement or flow

graha – grasped

ghastha – householder

gomukha – cow face

gua – literally quality, often referring to the trigua of rajas, tamas and sattva

guru – teacher, literally heavy

hāna – that which is to be given up or relinquished

haha – “forceful,” symbolically understood as “sun and moon”

hetu – cause

heya – that which is to be overcome or avoided

hisā – violence

iā – nāī originating at left nostril

indriya – senses/the organs of our senses

ia – chosen, desired

īśvara – a higher power, the Lord, God

Īśvara Ka – author of Sākhya Kārika

itaratra – at other times, elsewhere

iva – as if

jala – water

jālandhara – “water holder” as in jālandhara bandha

janana – generating, giving birth to

janma – birth, circumstances of life

japa – meditation using repetition of a mantra

jāti – birth

jñāna – knowledge

jugupsā – dislike, disgust

jyotimatī – having light, luminous

kaivalya – freedom, literally “aloneness”

kāla – time

kāma – sensual pleasure and enjoyment

kapālabhāti – a krīya (cleansing action) involving rapid breathing controlled using the abdominal muscles, literally “shining skull”

kārita – caused

karma – action

karuā – compassion

katham – how

kathatā – “how-ness,” the nature of something

Kaha Upaniad – the upaniad of the sage Kaha

kāya – body

khecarī – a Haha Yoga practice that involves turning the tongue backwards in the mouth

khyāti – perception, knowledge

kleśa – an affliction, something that will cause distress

kriyā – activity, action, in the Yoga Sūtra used as a name for rajas

krodha – anger

kta – deed, or action that has been done

kaya – destruction, reduction

kema – well-founded, secure or maintained

ketra – field, ground

kipta – scattered, deranged

kiyate – dissolved, diminished

kumbhaka – pot or vessel

lābha – obtaining, attaining

laghu – light

lakaa – essential quality, mark, sign

laghana – making light, fasting

laya krama – the phase of dissolution, old age

lobha – greed

madhya – moderate, middling

Mahābhārata – epic narrative, the “great tale of the Bharat dynasty”

mahāvrata – great vow or commitment

maitrī – friendliness

mālā – garland, rosary

manas – the mind, particularly the coordinating and thinking aspect of the mind

mānasa – mental, of the mind

mantra – a word or phrase that is repeated in meditation, literally “instrument of the mind”

mātra – only, exclusively

miśra – mixed

mithuna – pairing, copulation

moha – delusion

moka – liberation

mdu – mild, weak

mgi mudrā – hand position used to control the breath in the nostrils during prāāyāma, literally “the symbol of a deer”

muditā – goodwill, joy, gladness

mudrā – a seal or gesture

mūla – the root

mūrcchā – prāāyāma technique in which the exhale is lengthened to the maximum, literally “swoon or faint”

nāī – river or channel

nāī śodhana – prāāyāma technique in which the breath is directed through alternate nostrils, literally “purification of the channels (nāī)”

nairantarya – without interruption

nāma – name

Narasimha – an incarnation of viu, half-man and half-lion

Naarāja – Lord of the Dance, Śiva

nidrā – dreamless sleep

niratiśaya – unsurpassed

nirbhāsa – shining out, appearance

nirbīja – without seed

nirgua – without qualities

nirodha – a state of arrest, restraint, obstruction, covering

niruddha – alternative term for the state of nirodha

nitya – permanent

niyama – restraint, personal discipline

niyoga – application

nyāsa – placing, applying

ojas – vigor, the most refined product of the digestive process according to āyurveda

O – sacred syllable

pāda – foot, root, verse or chapter

pañca – five

para – other

paramparā – “from one to another,” lineage or the sequence of transmission in a tradition

parida – viewed from all around

pariāma – the process of change

paripāka – cooked on all sides

parivtti – twisting, turning around

pārśva – flank, side

pat – to fall

phala – fruit

pigalā – nāī originating at right nostril

plāvinī – prāāyāma technique involving a long hold after inhalation, literally “that which causes floating”

Prajāpati – the primordial person, literally “the Lord of creatures”

prakāśa – luminosity, “that which shines,” in the Yoga Sūtra used as a name for sattva

prakti – the phenomenal world, everything of which we can be aware, also our natural constitutional state in āyurveda

pramāda – intoxication or obsession

prāa – life force or energy, literally that which “travels well,” connected with the breath

prāacalana – circulation of energy

prāasthāna – the place of prāa (i.e., the chest)

praava – sacred sound or symbol, traditionally taken as O

prāāyāma – seated breathing practice, literally: the concentration of vital energy

praidhāna – surrender, devotion, literally “placing down in front of”

prasādana – clear, peaceful, calm

praśānta vāhitā – a peaceful flow

prasupta – dormant

praśvāsa – breathing out

pratikriyā – opposite action

pratikriyāsana – opposite action posture, counterposture

pratiloma ujjāyī – a prāāyāma technique using a combination of anuloma ujjāyī and viloma ujjāyī

pratipaka – the other “wing,” the other side, alternative view

pratiprasava – against the flow, returning to the origin

pratihā – established, grounded

pratyāhāra – withdrawal of the senses

pratyakcetanā – inward-looking consciousness

pratyaya – idea, response in mind to a perception

pravtti – activity towards, appearance

prayatna – special effort

prīti – joy

puya – virtuous, auspicious

pura – a city or palace

pūraka – filling up, inhaling

purua – “dweller in the city,” the essence of a person, pure awareness

puruārtha – the aims or purpose of life

pūrva – former, earlier, preceding

pūrvaka – preceding

pūrvāga – preliminary limbs, preparation

rāga – habitual desire

rahasya – secret

rajas – one of the trigua, literally “that which colors,” associated with activity and stimulation

rakaa – protective, as in rakaa krama; a protective or maintenance practice

ratna – jewel

recaka – emptying, exhalation

i – sage or seer

ta – eternal truth, divine law

rudh – root of nirodha, meaning to obstruct, arrest, restrain or cover

rūpa – form, appearance

sabīja – with seed

sādhana – the means to achieve something, the practices that one adopts

sagua – with qualities

śaithilya – relaxation, making loose or smooth

śakti – energy, power

samādhi – a deep state of complete meditative absorption

śamana – calming, soothing

samantraka – with mantra, usually with reference to prāāyāma accompanied by mental recitation of word or phrase

samāpatti – a state of meditative absorption, to join or “fall into” completely

samārūdha – firmly rooted

samavtti – equal movements or equal parts

samaya – circumstance, condition

sakhya – number

sanyāsin – renunciate

saprajñāta – accompanied by wisdom

saprayoga – contact with

saśaya – doubt

saskāra – habit, impression in the mind that causes habitual pattern of thought or action

satoa – contentment

sayama – meditative enquiry, literally “completely restraining or holding”

sayoga – complete linking, in the Yoga Sūtra used in a negative context to suggest a confused relationship

śamukhī – the whole face, as in śamukhī mudrā

sannidhi – nearness, proximity

sārūpya – similarity of form

sarva – all

sārva – universal, another grammatical form of sarva

sat – true, right, real, “being”

satkāra – “doing it right,” doing something with care

satsaga – good company, good association

sattva – one of the trigua, literally pure being, associated with clarity and lightness

satya – truthfulness

śauca – cleansing, purity, cleanliness, “that which shines”

saumanasya – cheerfulness, positivity

śea – remainder, residue

siddhi – power, mastery, accomplishment

śikaa – teaching, as in śikaa krama; an uncompromised or classical practice

śīla – nature, disposition

śītalī – a prāāyāma technique in which one breathes in through the curled tongue extended beyond the lips, literally “cooling”

sītkārī – a prāāyāma technique in which one breathes in through the mouth, literally “making the sound sīt”

Śiva – literally “the auspicious one,” the God of destruction and transformation

smita – smiling, smile

śodhana – cleansing

śraddhā – faith, trust, conviction, literally “holding to truth”

si krama – the phase of growth, youth

śruti – “that which has been heard,” referring to texts said to be of divine origin

stambha vtti – a suspended movement, the pause between inhale and exhale, or between exhale and inhale

sthairya – stability (having the quality of sthira)

sthira – firmness, stability

sthiti – standing, remaining, stability, in the Yoga Sūtra used as a name for tamas

sthiti krama – the phase of stability, middle age

styāna – stagnation, rigidity

śuci – pure

śuddhi – purity

sukha – ease, “free space,” comfort, happiness, bliss

sūkma – subtle

śūnya – empty

sūrya bhedana – a prāāyāma technique in which inhalation is directed through the right nostril and exhalation through the left nostril, literally “piercing the sun”

sva – self, one's own

svādhyāya – reciting or studying sacred texts, repetition of mantra, literally “moving towards the Self”

svāiga – “one's own limbs”

svapna – dream

svarasa – taste of oneself

śvāsa – breathing in

śvāsapraśvāsa – literally “inhale-exhale,” but understood in āyurveda and the Yoga Sūtra as a disturbed, irregular or unconscious breathing pattern

svastha – “established in oneself,” the term for health in āyurveda

tad – that

tamas – one of the trigua, literally “darkness,” associated with heaviness and obscuration

tanu – thin, small

tāpa – pain, heat, anguish

tapas – heat, discipline, setting and observing boundaries

tapasvin – one who engages in tapas

tasminsati – established in this

tatas – there, then, usually appears as tata

tattva – essential principle, literally “that-ness”

traya – a “three,” triplet

tyāga – giving up, abandoning

udāra – fully arisen

ujjāyī – literally “mastery of the upward,” a means of regulating the flow of the breath

upāu – at the lips

upastambhaka – exciting, stimulating

upasthāna – coming near, presence

upāya – means, method

upeka – equanimity

utpanna – arisen, produced

vā – “or,” in some cases, “and”

vācaka – sound, verbal expression

vācika – voiced

vāhi – carrying or bearing

vaira – hostility

vairāgya – detachment, openness

vanaprastha – “forest dweller,” the third of the Vedic life stages

varaaka – obscuring, covering

vaśīkāra – complete mastery

vāyu – wind, often a synonym for prāa

vibhūti – “special powers,” the name of the third chapter of Yoga Sūtra

vicāra – contemplation, in Yoga Sūtra indicates a subtle level of perception

viccheda – cutting or regulating

vicchinna – interrupted, cut off before their prime

vidua – wise one, sage

vidyā – knowing, knowledge

vijñāna – wisdom

vikti – a state of imbalance, away from our prakti

viloma – against the hair, against the grain

viloma ujjāyī – prāāyāma technique in which the inhale is directed through alternate nostrils, literally “against-the-hair ujjāyī”

viniyoga – special or specific application (from viśea – special or specific, and niyoga – application)

vinyāsa – an arrangement or placing in a particular way

vinyāsa krama – a special or intelligent arrangement to progress in steps

vipāka – fruit, effect, result

virāma – cessation

vīrya – vitality, vigor, strength

viāda – despair

viamavtti – unequal movements or unequal parts

viaya – object of sensory perception

viśea – special or specific

Viu – the God who preserves or sustains, one of the trinity that includes Brahma and Śiva

viśokā – without sorrow

vīta – free, released

vitarka – conceptual or discursive thought

viveka – discrimination or discernment

vrata – vow or commitment

vddhi – growth

vtti – a “turning,” movement, activity

vyādhi – sickness, literally “displaced”

vyutthāna – emergence, arising

yama – restraint or attitude

yatna – effort

yogyatā – fitness or suitability for

yogyatva – fitness or suitability for

Āsana glossary

adho mukha śvānāsana – downward facing dog posture

apānāsana – knee-to-chest posture

ardha matsyendrāsana – seated twist, literally “the half-posture of Matsyendra”

bhagīrathāsana – posture of sage Bhagīratha (also known as vkāsana, or tree posture)

bhujagāsana – cobra posture

cakravākāsana – cat posture (although cakravāka is in fact a mythical bird)

daāsana – staff posture

dhanurāsana – bow posture

dvi pāda pīham – two foot support

gomukhāsana – cow's face posture

halāsana – plough posture

jānuśīrāsana – head-to-knee posture

jahara parivtti – lying twist, literally “churning of the abdomen”

kapotāsana – pigeon posture

kūrmāsana – turtle posture

mahā mudrā – the great seal

padmāsana – lotus posture

pārśva uttānāsana – flank forward bend

paścimatānāsana – symmetrical seated forward bend, literally “west side” stretch posture

śalabhāsana – locust posture

samasthiti – equally or evenly stable, standing with attention

sarvāgāsana – shoulder stand, literally “all limbs posture”

śavāsana – corpse posture

sihāsana – lion posture

śīrāsana – headstand

tāāsana – mountain posture

trikonāsana – triangle posture

ūrdhva dhanurāsana – elevated or upward bow posture (often known as “the wheel”)

utkaāsana – squat, literally “fierce” posture

uttānāsana – standing forward bend, literally intense stretch posture

vajrāsana – kneeling posture

vīrabhadrāsana – warrior posture (Vīrabhadra was a mythical hero)