Cereals and pulses are staple foods for a majority of the world’s population. They supply a large portion of nutrients in the human diet. Data have shown that cereals provide approximately 120 kg/capita/year, 880 kcal/capita/day and 25.8 g protein/capita/day, while pulses supply smaller amounts at roughly 7.8 kg/capita/year 74 kcal/capita/day and 5.1 g protein/capita/day (FAO, 2010). In addition, cereal and legume grains also have been recommended for healthy eating due to their content of health-promoting constituents such as dietary fiber and antioxidants. The USDA’s Dietary Guidelines recommend about three to eight servings or ounce equivalents of grains per day subject to age, sex, and level of physical activity (USDA, 2010). At least half of the recommended grain servings should come from wholegrain. This recommendation is based on a body of evidence that has shown the positive relationship between consumption of wholegrain foods and health promotion such as reduced risk of cancer (Nicodemus et al., 2001; Kasum et al., 2002), type II diabetes (Meyer et al., 2000; Fung et al., 2002), and cardiovascular disease (Jacobs et al., 1998; Anderson et al., 2000). Canadian and European dietary guidelines also recommend consumption of similar amounts of grains to the USDA.
Grains are rich sources of many health-enhancing and/or disease-preventing components known as bioactive compounds. These components are mainly concentrated in the outer layers of the grain, which make wholegrain products healthier than their corresponding refined ones. Bioactive compounds include a wide array of plant constituents with diverse structures and functionalities such as dietary fiber, β-glucan, phenolics, anthocyanins, carotenoids, isoflavones, lignans, sterols, etc. Many of the bioactive compounds are phytochemicals produced by plants primarily for protection against predators and diseases. Phytochemicals also have been found to protect humans against certain chronic diseases. In general, phytochemicals are natural and non-nutritive bioactive compounds produced by plants that act as protective agents against external stress and pathogenic attack (Chew et al., 2009). They are secondary metabolite that are crucial for plant defence and enable plants to overcome temporary or continuous threats integral to their environment. Phytochemicals could exhibit bioactivities such as antimutagenic, anticarcinogenic, antioxidant, antimicrobial, and anti-inflammatory properties (Okarter and Liu, 2010). Only a small number of phytochemicals in grains has been investigated closely in terms of health benefits and stability during processing. The current chapter aims to discuss phytochemicals found in cereal and legume grains in terms of their occurrence, compositional properties, and stability during processing. Emphasis is put on dietary fiber, phenolics, carotenoids, anthocyanins, isoflavones, saponins, and lignans due to their potential role in human health. Examples of food applications that have demonstrated positive health effects in humans are also provided.
Cereal grains are a type of fruit called caryopsis that are composed of endosperm, germ and bran. The grains are a staple food that provides the main food energy supply. They also are rich in a variety of phytochemicals including dietary fibers (β-glucan, inulin, arabinxylan, resistant starch), phenolics (phenolic acids, alkylresorcinols and flavonoids), carotenoids (lutein, zanthein), anthocyanins and deoxyanthocyanins, tocols (tocopherols and tocotrienols), lignans, γ-oryzanols, sterols, and phytate. Antioxidant properties of cereal grains are mainly attributed to phenolic compounds and other phytochemicals (Ragaee et al., 2011, 2012a). Phytochemicals found in cereals are unique and complement those in fruits and vegetables when consumed together. For example ferulic acid and diferulates are predominantly found in grains but are not present in significant quantities in fruits and vegetables (Abdel-Aal et al., 2001; Bunzel et al., 2001). The majority of phytochemicals are present in the bran/germ fraction in bound form (76% in wheat, 85% in corn, and 75% in oat) (Liu, 2007). In wheat, the bran/germ fraction contribute to 83% of total phenolic content, 79% of total flavonoid content, 78% of total zeaxanthin, 51% of total lutein, and 42% of total β-cryptoxanthin (Liu, 2007). In addition, the type and concentration of phytochemicals vary among grains and genotypes (Adom et al., 2003). The main phytochemicals in cereal grains are summarized in section 6.2.1.
Dietary fiber is one of the major health-enhancing components in cereals, located mostly in the outer layers (pericarp, testa, and aleurone) (Selvendran, 1984). The pericarp contains insoluble fiber along with some other antioxidants bound to the cell walls. The aleurone layer has soluble and insoluble fiber, antioxidants, vitamins, and minerals, and the testa layers are composed of soluble and insoluble fiber, phenolic compounds, and other phytochemicals (Raninen et al., 2010). The main dietary fiber components in cereals are cellulose, arabinoxylans, and β-glucan (Brennan and Cleary, 2005). Barley and oat are especially rich in β-glucan (Brennan, 2005; Wood, 2007, 2010), while the major dietary fiber constituent in wheat and rye is arabinoxylan (Ragaee et al., 2001; Kamal-Eldin et al., 2009). Concentrations and type of each class of dietary fiber depend on type of cereal and/or variety (Ragaee et al., 2001; Gebruers et al., 2008; Ragaee et al., 2012b).
β-glucan is an important dietary fibre fraction commonly found in cell walls of many cereal grains such as oat and barley. The health-enhancing effects of β-glucan have been extensively discussed in a review article by Wood (2010). The lowering effect of β-glucan in oat and barley products on serum cholesterol is well documented (Queenan et al., 2007, Smith et al., 2008), and a health claim in this regard has been allowed in the USA, Canada and Europe. Most of wheat and rye β-glucan is insoluble and ranges 0.5–1.4% and 2.1–3.1%, respectively (Genc et al., 2001; Ragaee et al., 2001; Li et al., 2006), while most of oat and barley β-glucan is soluble ranging 3–8% (Colleoni-Sirghie et al., 2003; Yao et al., 2007).
Arabinoxylan (AX) is a hemicellulose found in both the primary and secondary cell walls of cereal grains and constitutes the second most abundant biopolymer in plant biomass after cellulose (Gatenholm and Tenkanen, 2004). AX consists of copolymers of two pentose sugars, arabinose and xylose. Enzymatic hydrolysis of AX (during bread or beer production or in the colon upon ingestion of AX) yields arabinoxylan-oligosaccharides, consisting of arabinoxylooligosaccharides (AXOS) and xylooligosaccharides (XOS). There is evidence that AXOS and XOS exert prebiotic effects in the colon of humans and animals through selective stimulation of beneficial intestinal microbiota (Broekaert et al., 2011). AX is the main dietary fiber fraction in rye accounting for 9.1% (Åman et al., 1997; Ragaee et al., 2001), while wheat contains 6.7% AX (Lineback and Rasper, 1988).
Inulin and oligofructose are fructans with a degree of polymerization of 2–60 and 2–20, respectively. They both resist hydrolysis by human alimentary enzymes because of the structural conformation of their glucosidic bridge (β 2 → 1). Both inulin and oligofructose are fermented exclusively in the colon by colonic bifidobacteria and bacteroides (Flickinger et al., 2003). This fermentation process results in increased fecal bacterial biomass, decreased ceco-colonic pH, and the production of a large amount of fermentation products including short chain fatty acids which exert systemic effects on lipid metabolism. Wheat flour contains 1–4% fructan on a dry weight basis which provides 78% of the North American intake of oligosaccharides (Van Loo et al., 1999). Young barley kernels contain about 22% fructan (Van Loo et al., 1999) while rye grains contain a small amount.
Resistant starch is a member of dietary fiber fractions found in cereal grains. There are five types of resistant starch (Englyst et al., 1992). These include the following:
Phenolics include a variety of compounds bearing one or more hydroxyl groups such as phenolic acids and analogs, flavonoids, tannins, stilbenes, curcuminoids, coumarins, lignans, quinones, etc. They are ubiquitous in all plant organs and are therefore an integral part of the human diet (Kroon and Williamson, 2005; Balasundram et al., 2006; Dai and Mumper, 2010). They have been considered powerful antioxidants in vitro and in vivo. It has been proposed that the antioxidant properties of phenolic compounds can be mediated by the following mechanisms: (1) scavenging radical ROS (reactive oxygen species); (2) suppressing free radicals formation by inhibiting some enzymes or chelating trace metals involved in their production; (3) up-regulating or protecting antioxidant defence (Dai and Mumper, 2010). They also exhibit a wide range of physiological properties such as anti-allergenic, anti-artherogenic, anti-inflammatory, anti-microbial, and anti-thrombotic, and the relationship between plant phenolics intake and the risk of oxidative stress associated diseases such as cardiovascular disease, cancer, or osteoporosis has been evident (Rice-Evans et al., 1996; Manach et al., 2004; Lee et al., 2005; Scalbert et al., 2005). Phenolics are the main source of antioxidants in cereal grains concentrated mainly in the bran/germ fraction of the whole-grain wheat flour (83%) (Adom et al., 2005). The common phenolic compounds found in cereals include phenolic acids (mainly ferulic acid), flavonoids stilbenes, coumarins, tannins, proanthocyanidins, and anthocaynins. The content of phenolic compounds in cereal grains broadly vary and is dependent on grain type, genotype, part of the grain sampled, grain handling, and processing (Adom and Liu, 2002; Adom et al., 2003, 2005; Ragaee et al., 2012a). Most of the phenolic acids are found in the insoluble bound fraction (Moore et al., 2005). Ferulic acid (trans-4-hydroxy-3-methoxycinnamic acid) is one of the major phenolic acids found in wholegrain (Abdel-Aal et al., 2001) concentrated mainly in the aleurone, pericarp, and embryo cell wall. Among selected cereal grains and cultivars corn has been found to contain the highest concentration of ferulic acid followed by wheat, oat, and rice (Adom and Liu, 2002). Vanillic acid is the second abundant phenolic acid in wheat bran followed by syringic acid and p-coumaric acid (Kim et al., 2006). In wheat, the bran/germ fraction contributes about 79% of the total flavonoid content (Adom et al., 2005).
Anthocyanins are natural pigments located in the outer layers of specialty cereal grains such as blue and purple wheat, blue, purple and red corn, black and red rice, and blue barley (Abdel-Aal et al., 2006), while the natural pigments found in black sorghum are deoxyanthocyanins (Awika et al., 2004). The highest concentration of anthocyanin pigments in corn was found in the pericarp, whereas the aleurone layer contained small concentrations (Moreno et al., 2005). Anthocyanins have been recognized as health-enhancing substances due to their antioxidant capacity (Nam et al., 2006), anti-inflammatory (Tsuda et al., 2002), anti-cancer (Hyun and Chung, 2004), and hypoglycemic effects (Tsuda et al., 2003).
Anthocyanin pigments in cereal grains vary from a simple (few pigments) to complex (many pigments) profile (Abdel-Aal et al., 2006). Blue or purple wheat has an intermediate anthocyanin profile with four or five major anthocyanin pigments. Black and red rice grains exhibit a simple anthocyanin profile, while blue, pink, purple, and red corns show a complex profile having more than 20 anthocyanin pigments. The predominant anthocyanin compounds are cyanidin 3-glucoside in black and red rice, purple wheat and blue, purple and red corn, pelargonidin 3-glucoside in pink corn and delphinidin 3-glucoside in blue wheat (Abdel-Aal et al., 2006). The concentration of total anthocyanins vary among different cereal grains being approximately 3276 µg/g in black rice, 94 µg/g in red rice, and 27 µg/g in wild rice (Abel-Aal et al., 2006). In the same study, eight corn grains exhibiting blue, pink, purple, and red colors were found to contain a wide range of total anthocyanins as low as 51 µg/g and as high as 1277 µg/g, in which purple corn had the highest concentration followed by sweet scarlet red corn and shaman blue corn. The concentration of anthocyanins in a large population of blue wheat lines was found to range from 35 to 507 µg/g with a mean of 183 µg/g (Abdel-Aal and Hucl, 1999). Additionally, anthocyanin concentrations were significantly influenced by growing conditions and environment in blue and purple wheat grains and the environmental effect was much stronger in the purple wheat due to the pigment location in the outer pericarp or fruit coat (Abdel-Aal and Hucl, 2003).
Carotenoids constitute the yellow pigments in cereal grains. They are potent antioxidants because of the long series of alternating double and single bonds (Okarter and Liu, 2010). Their concentrations in cereal grains vary from very low in white and red wheat to relatively high in einkorn and durum wheat (Abdel-Aal et al., 2002, 2007). The common carotenoids detected in cereals include lutein, zeaxanthin, β-cryptoxanthin, β-carotene, and α-carotene. In wheat lutein is the major carotenoid present in relatively high concentration ranging from 26.4 to 143.5 µg/100 g grain, followed by zeaxanthin ranging from 8.7 to 27.1 µg/100 g grain, and then β-cryptoxanthin ranging from 1.1 to 13.3 µg/100 g grain (Adom et al., 2003). Similar carotenoids profile was found in various wheat species but their concentration was significantly higher (Abdel-Aal et al., 2002, 2007). Among all wheat species einkorn (Triticum monococcum) exhibited the highest level of all-trans-lutein averaging 7.41 µg/g with small amounts of all-trans-zeaxanthin, cis-lutein isomers, and α-carotene. Durum, Kamut, and Khorasan (Triticum turgidum) had intermediate levels of lutein (5.41–5.77 µg/g), while common bread or pastry wheat (Triticum aestivum) had the lowest content (2.01–2.11 µg/g) (Abdel-Aal et al., 2002). Other cereals such as corn flours contain reasonable concentrations of the different carotenoids (β-cryptoxanthin 3.7 mg/kg, lutein content was 11.5 mg/kg, and zeaxanthin content was 17.5 mg/kg) (Brenna and Berardo, 2004).
Tocols include two groups of related compounds called tocopherols (α, β, γ, δ- tocopherols) and tocotrienols (α, β, γ, δ- tocotrienols). They are fat-soluble antioxidants and also have vitamin E activity. Tocols are mostly present in the germ fraction (Liu, 2007). The concentration and distribution of tocols vary among cereal grains (oat, corn, barley, spelt wheat, durum wheat, soft wheat, and triticale) (Panfili et al., 2003). Barley and soft wheat have relatively higher concentration of tocols while spelt wheat has lower concentration. Barley has all eight tocol isomers, while spelt, durum wheat, soft wheat, and triticale have only five isomers. The α-tocopherol is present in all grains ranging from 4 mg/kg dry matter basis in corn to 16 mg/kg dry matter basis in soft wheat. β-tocotrienol is the predominant tocol in soft wheat, triticale, and spelt, followed by α-tocopherol, β-tocopherol and α-tocotrienol. α-tocotrienol was the predominant tocol in oat, followed by α-tocopherol, β-tocotrienol, β-tocopherol, and γ-tocopherol. γ-tocopherol is only present in oat, corn, and barley, and it is the predominant tocol in corn, followed by γ-tocotrienol, α-tocopherol, and β-tocotrienol, while γ-tocotrienol is only present in corn and barley. The main tocols in different wheat species and cultivars are β-T3 ranging from 9.6 to 23.2 µg/g, followed by α-T (5.5–11.9 µg/g), α-T3 (2.5–7.4 µg/g), and β -T (2.0–6.6 µg/g) (Abdel-Aal and Rabalski, 2008). Wheat species and groups showed significant differences in their contents of the four tocols due to the differences in genotype and origin. The contents of tocols in barley (Cavallero et al., 2004) and rice (Sookwong et al., 2007) were also found to be influenced by genotype and growing environment. Unlike wheat, γ-T3 and β-T3 were the predominant and smallest tocols in rice, respectively (Sookwong et al., 2007).
Lignans are a group of dietary phytoestrogen compounds found in the outer layers of cereal grains (Thompson et al., 1991; Tham et al., 1998). Total lignan content varies among cereal grains as well as within the same cereal species depending on genetic differences and environmental conditions (Smeds et al., 2009). For example, lignan content in rye wholegrain ranges from 2500 to 6700 µg/100 g, while the range is 340−2270 µg/100 g in wheat wholegrain, and 820 − 2550 µg/100 g in oat wholegrain (Smeds et al., 2009). There are seven dietary lignans: secoisolariciresinol, matairesinol, lariciresinol, pinoresinol, syringaresinol, 7-ydroxymatairesinol, and medioresinol. When consumed, plant lignans such as secoisolariciresinol and matairesinol are converted to the mammalian lignans, enterodiol, and enterolactone, by intestinal microflora in humans which have strong antioxidant activity and weak estrogenic activity that may account for their biological effects and health benefits (Thompson et al., 1991; Wang and Murphy, 1994).
Alkylresorcinols and alkenylresorcinols are mainly concentrated in the bran fraction of the grain (Ross et al., 2003). Rye has the most total alkylresorcinol (734 µg/g dry weight), followed by wheat (583 µg/g) and barley (45 µg/g), while alkylresorcinols are not detected in any oat products, wholegrain buckwheat grits, millet grits, long grain parboiled rice, and corn grits (Mattila et al., 2005). Rye is the only grain to have detectable amounts of the 15-carbon alkylresorcinol homologue. The 19- and 21-carbon homologues are prominent in wheat. The 25- carbon homologue is prominent in barley (Ross et al., 2003). About 60% of the alkylresorcinol is absorbed from the small intestine by humans. Therefore, its presence in the serum can be used as a biomarker of wholegrain cereal intake (Ross et al., 2003, 2004). These compounds also have antibacterial and antifungal protection and antioxidant activity in vitro.
Phytosterols are mainly found in oilseeds, wholegrain cereals, nuts, and legumes, and include stanols (sitostanol, campestanol, and stigmastanol) and sterols (sitosterol, campesterol, and stigmasterol). γ-oryzanols are compounds that consist of a phenolic acid esterified to a sterol. Common γ-oryzanol compounds include cycloartenyl ferulate, 24-methylenecycloartanylferulate, and campesteryl ferulate. γ-oryzanol is found in rice, particularly in the bran fraction (3000 mg/kg of rice) (Xu and Godber, 1999) and in wheat bran (300–390 mg/kg) (Hakala et al., 2002).
Phytic acid is concentrated in the bran fraction of wheat and other cereal grains. It has the ability to suppress iron-catalyzed oxidative reactions (Slavin, 2004). Although phytic acid has generally been considered an anti-nutritional factor, several studies have demonstrated its effect on the prevention of kidney stone formation, and protection against atheriosclerosis, coronary heart disease, and a number of cancers (Graf and Eaton, 1993; Jenab and Thompson, 1998). The average concentration of phytic acid in wholegrain corn and rice was reported to be 0.9% (De Boland et al., 1975). Jood et al. (1995) reported 482, 635, and 829 mg/100 g dry wholegrain of phytic acid in wheat, maize, and sorghum, respectively.
Legumes are crops of the family Leguminosae, which is also called Fabacae. They are mainly grown for their edible seeds, and thus are named grain legumes. The expression food legumes usually means the immature pods and seeds as well as mature dry seeds used as food by humans. Based on Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) practice, the term legume is used for all leguminous plants. Legumes such as French bean, lima bean, mung bean, chickpea, cowpea, lentil, or others, which contain a small amount of fat, are termed pulses, and legumes that contain a higher amount of fat, such as soybean and peanuts, are termed leguminous oilseeds (Riahi and Ramaswamy, 2003). The term “pulse” is limited to crops harvested solely for dry grain, thereby excluding crops harvested green for food (green peas, green beans, etc.), which are classified as vegetable crops. Also excluded are those crops used mainly for oil extraction (e.g. soybean and groundnuts) and leguminous crops (e.g. seeds of clover and alfalfa) that are used exclusively for sowing purposes (FAO, 1994). Pulses are present in almost every diet throughout the world because they are good sources of starch, dietary fiber, protein, lipid, and minerals and they are second only to the grasses (cereals) in providing food crops for world agriculture. In addition to their nutritive value, legumes contain significant quantities of health-promoting components (phytochemicals) such as phenolic compounds and phytoestrogens. Legume grains are gaining interest because they are excellent sources of bioactive compounds and can be important sources of ingredients for use in functional foods and other applications. Based on their biosynthetic origin, phytochemicals in pulses can be divided into several categories that include phenolics, alkaloids, steroids, terpenoids, etc. The common phytochemicals in pulses are discussed in this chapter.
Legume grains are good sources of dietary fibre (21–47 g/100 g sample) that are fermentable in the colon, and produce short chain fatty acids (SCFA) such as acetate, propionate, and butyrate (Mallillin et al., 2008). Dietary fiber content of dry bean, chickpea, lentil and pea are relatively high ranging 23–32, 18–22, 18–20 and 14–26%, respectively (Tosh and Yada, 2010). Soybean, jack bean, and cowpea contain even higher content of dietary fiber at levels of 54.7, 33.2 and 31.2%, respectively (Martín-Cabrejas et al., 2006). The main constituent groups of dietary fiber in legumes are cellulose and hemicelluloses, lignin, and pectic substances (Selvendran et al., 1987). The insoluble dietary fiber (IDF) components were found to be predominant in legumes ranging from 10 to 15% for lentil, chickpea, and dry pea (Berrios et al., 2010). Su and Chang (1995) reported a higher level of IDF fraction (72–90% of the total) in raw dry beans compared to soluble fiber (SDF). The SDF of eight whole legumes, namely Bengal gram, broad bean, cowpea, field bean, green gram, horse gram, lentil, and French bean have been found to range from 0.61 to 2.37% of total dietary fiber, with the highest being in French bean and the lowest in lentil (Khatoon and Prakash, 2004). Similarly, Berrios et al. (2010) observed that the concentration of SDF is significantly lower in lentil, chickpea, and dry pea, ranging from 0.27 to 0.75%. About 92–100% and 0–8% of the total dietary fiber found in different legume samples (black bean, red kidney bean, lentil, navy bean, black-eyed pea, split pea, and northern bean) were ISD and SDF, respectively (Bednar et al., 2001).
Milling and fractionation of pulse seeds have been used to isolate dietary fiber components for incorporation into commercial food products to enrich their fiber content and/or serve as functional ingredients (Tosh and Yada, 2010). Legume hulls contribute a significant portion of the insoluble fiber in whole pulses. Pulse hulls are rich in dietary fiber, ranging from dry weight contents of 75% (chickpea) to 87% (lentil), and 89% (pea) (Dalgetty and Baik, 2003). Field pea hulls contained 82.3% of the total dietary fiber with 8.2% hemicellulose and 62.3% cellulose (Sosulski and Wu, 1988). Reichert (1981) found that pea cotyledon cell walls are mainly composed of pectic substances (26%) and hemicelluloses (22%), whereas the hulls are primarily made of cellulose (69%).
The major phenolic compounds in pulses comprise mainly phenolic acids, flavonoids, and tannins. Pulses with the highest phenolic content have dark color and highly pigmented grains, such as red kidney bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), black gram (Vigna mungo), and black soybean (Glycine max). The dark-coat seeds with high amounts of phenolic compounds would contribute to high antioxidant capacity (Lin and Lai, 2006). The legumes, mung bean, field pea, faba bean, lentil, and pigeon pea, were found to contain 18–31 mg total phenolic acids per kg of seeds, while Navy bean, lupine, lima bean, chickpea, and cowpea, possess 55–163 mg/kg (Sosulski and Dabrowski, 1984). Lentil seeds contained the highest phenolic content (21.9 mg/g) compared to red kidney bean, soybean, and mung bean which contain 18.8, 18.7, and 17.0 mg/g, respectively (Djordjevic et al., 2010). The total phenols content (TPC) of 29 genotype of common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) with diverse origin and seed coat color varied from 5.8 to 14.1 mg/g (Akond et al., 2011). In addition, soybean showed wide variations of TPC, which varied from 6.4 to 81.7 mg/g (Prakash et al., 2007).
Phenolic acids are a major class of phenolic compounds widely occurring in the plant kingdom. Phenolic acids in legume grains are mainly concentrated in the seed coat. Sosulski and Dabrowski (1984) reported that defatted flours of ten legumes (mung bean, field pea, faba bean, lentil, navy bean, lupine, lima bean, chickpea, cowpea, and pigeon pea) contain only soluble esters of trans-ferulic, trans-p-coumaric and syringic acids. The total phenolic acids content of common bean (P. vulgaris L.) has been found to be 30 mg/100 g with ferulic acid as the prevalent compound, followed by p-coumaric acid (Luthria and Pastor-Corrales, 2006). Garcia et al. (1998) reported the presence of caffeic, p-coumaric, sinapic, and ferulic acids in de-hulled soft and hard-to-cook beans (P. vulgaris). The de-hulled soft beans contained 45 times more methanol soluble esters of phenolic acids than hard-to-cook beans.
Generally, the abundant phenolic acids in raw leguminous seeds are ferulic acid, p-coumaric acid, o-coumaric acid, sinapic acid, caffeic acid, protocatechuic acid, vanilllic acid, and p-hydroxybenzoic acid (Amarowicz and Pegg, 2008; Kalogeropoulos et al., 2010). Several phenolic acids have been identified in soybeans especially the black seed coated type. Four benzoic derivatives (gallic acid, 2,3,4-trihydroxybenzoic acid, vanillic acid, and protocatechualdehyde) and 3 cinnamic-type (chlorogenic, sinapic, and trans-cinnamic acid) phenolic acids are detected in free phenolic extract of both raw and processed yellow soybean. In addition, free phenolic extract of the black soybean have additional one benzoic-type (protocatechuic acid) and one cinnamic-type phenolic acid (p-coumaric acid). The predominant phenolic acids in both yellow and black soybean have been reported to be chlorogenic and trans-cinnamic acids. In addition, nine benzoic derivatives (gallic, protocatechuic, 2,3,4-trihydroxybenzoic, p-hydroxybenzoic, gentistic, syringic, and vanillic acid, protocatechualdehyde, and vanillin) and six cinnamic analogs (caffeic, p-coumaric, m-coumaric, o-coumaric, sinapic, and trans-cinnamic acid) were found in the bound phenolics extract of both yellow and black soybean (raw and cooked) with more concentration in the black seed coat varieties (Xu and Chang, 2008).
Isoflavones are a subclass of the more ubiquitous flavonoids. The primary isoflavones in soybeans are genistein (4’,5,7-trihydroxyisoflavone) and daidzein (4’,7-dihydroxyisoflavone) and their respective β-glycosides, genistein and daidzein (Akhtar and Abdel-Aal, 2006; Setchell, 1998). It has been hypothesized that isoflavones reduce the risk of cancer, heart disease, and osteoporosis, and also help relieve menopausal symptoms (Messina, 1999; McCue and Shetty, 2004; Isanga and Zhang, 2008). The dietary sources of isoflavones are almost exclusively soy foods made from whole soy beans or isolated soy proteins. The concentrations of isoflavones in soy products vary considerably ranging in most soy foods between 0.1 and 3.0 mg/g (Setchell, 1998). The isoflavones content of 48 cultivars of 16 food legume species (edible seeds) based on an isotope dilution gas chromatography-mass spectrometry technique was found to range from 37.3 to 140.3 mg/100 g in soybean (highest total concentration) followed by chickpea at range of 1.15 to 3.6 mg/100 g (Mazur et al., 1998). Reinli and Block (1996) compiled reference data on the levels of isoflavones found in a variety of food items. The content of genistein and daidzein in several soy products are 73 and 55 mg/100 g in green soybean, 32 and 19 in tempeh, 17 and 16 in soybean paste, 16.6 and 7.6 in tofu, 2.6 and 1.8 in soy milk, and 0.8 and 0.5 in soy sauce. These variations can be attributed to the various processing steps. Daidzein was not detected in 17 different types of dry bean, while genistein was found in only four samples with the highest being 1.3 mg/100 g.
Saponins are a diverse group of compounds commonly found in legumes (Oakenfull and Sidhu, 1990). Saponins derive their name from the Latin word sapo or soap, thus relating to their common surface-active detergent properties. Saponins are categorized into two distinctive groups including steroid and triterpenoid glycosides. Steroid saponins are further divided into two groups: furostanol glycosides including protoneodioscin, protodioscin, protoneogracillin, and protogracillin; and spirostanol glycosides, which include dioscin, prosapogenin A of dioscin, and gracillin. Saponins in foods have traditionally been considered as “antinutritional factors” (Thompson, 1993) and in some cases have limited soybean utilization due to the formation of a soap-like foaming characteristic (Sarnthein-Graf and La Mesa, 2004). However, food and non-food sources of saponins have come into renewed focus in recent years due to increasing evidence of their health benefits such as cholesterol-lowering and anti-cancer properties (Milgate and Roberts, 1995; Gurfinkel and Rao, 2003). The contribution of saponins in soybean foods to the health benefits has also been emphasized by Oakenfull (2001) and Kerwin (2004).
Saponins in soy are often referred to as soyasaponins; and they varied from 0.22 to 0.5% with more than 20 saponin compounds (Anderson et al., 1995; Güçlü-Üstündağ and Mazza, 2007). Soyasapogenols A, B, C, D, and E and their corresponding glycosides, which vary in the structure of the sapogenin aglycone and their attached glycosides, have been identified in the soy extract (Haralampidis et al., 2002; Isanga and Zhang, 2008). Kang and others (2010) have identified 16, 10, 4, and 6 compounds of soyasaponins under groups A, B, C, and D respectively.
Saponin is also present in other legumes and pulses but in smaller concentrations compared with soy. Ojasapogenol B has been identified as the predominant sapogenol in lima beans and jack beans (Oboh et al., 1998). Peas have been found to contain saponin with the amount ranging from 1.1 g/kg in yellow peas to 2.5 g/kg in green peas, whereas the levels in lentils are 3.7–4.6 g/kg (Savage and Deo, 1989). The amount of saponin in assorted types of common bean was reported to be 0.1–3.7 g/kg dry mater in broad bean, 0.03–3.5 in field bean, 2.3 and 2.16 in haricot and kidney bean, 3.4 in moth and mung bean, and 2–16 g/kg in navy beans (Price et al., 1987; Oomah et al., 2011). Chickpeas contain a wide range of saponin level (2.3–60 g/kg dry mater). Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum L) is another member of the family Leguminosae that was found to be rich in saponins. Three steroidal saponins namely, diosgenin, gitogenin, and tigogenin, have been found in fenugreek seeds (Dawidar et al., 1973). The Asian fenugreek seeds also contain steroidal saponins mainly in the form of diosgenin, which comprises approximately 5–6% of the seed (Petit et al., 1995). Fenugreek saponin “diogenin” is able to bind bile acids and thereby limit bile salt re-absorption in the gut, consequently accelerating cholesterol degradation and decreasing plasma cholesterol concentration (Sidhu and Oakenfull, 1986). Diosgenin also inhibits cell growth and induces apoptosis in the HT-29 human colon cancer cell line in vitro with a dose-dependent manner (Raju et al., 2004). The cholesterol-lowering effect of saponins has been demonstrated in animal and human trials (Oakenfull and Sidhu, 1990; Milgate and Roberts, 1995). The effect is attributed to inhibition of cholesterol absorption from the small intestine or to the re-absorption of bile acids (Oakenfull and Sidhu, 1990). Soybean saponins were reported to suppress the growth of colon tumor cells in vitro (Sung et al., 1995). Anti-tumor-promotion and growth inhibition of tumors or tumor cell lines by soy saponins have also been reported (Koratkar and Rao, 1997).
Anthocyanins are natural pigments belonging to the flavonoid family. They are responsible for the blue, purple, and red color of many fruits, vegetables, and grains. Several beneficial effects have been attributed to anthocyanins largely focusing on antioxidant properties, and ocular and anti-diabetic effects of an anthocyanin rich diet (Shipp and Abdel-Aal, 2010). Several in vitro studies, animal models, and human trials have shown that anthocyanins possess anti-inflammatory and anticarcinogenic activity, cardiovascular disease prevention, obesity control, and diabetes alleviation properties, all of which are more or less associated with their potent antioxidant property (Pascual-Teresa and Sanchez-Ballesta, 2008; He and Giusti, 2010). Black bean and soybean in general and their seed coat in particular have been reported to contain adequate amount of anthocyanin among pulses. The major anthocyanin pigment in black bean is delphinidin 3-glucoside with the presence of small amounts of cyanidin 3-glucoside, cyanidin 3,5-diglucoside, pelargonidin 3-glucoside, and pelargonidin 3,5-diglucoside (Stanton and Francis, 1966; Tsuda et al., 1994). Another study found delphinidin 3-glucoside (56% of total anthocyanins) along with petunidin 3-glucoside (26%) and malvidin 3-glucoside (18%) in black bean (Takeoka et al., 1997). Delphinidin 3-glucoside is also the principal anthocyanin in kidney bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) along with other four anthocyanins, cyanidin 3,5-diglucoside, cyanidin 3-glucoside, petunidin 3-glucoside, and pelargonidin 3-glucoside (Choung et al., 2003). The study also reported that total anthocyanins content in six red, two black, and three brown kideny beans vary from 0.27–0.74, 2.14–2.78 and 0.07–0.10 mg/g, respectively.
A number of studies have confirmed the presence of anthocyanins in the seed coat of black soybean. The total anthocyanins in the seed coat of ten black soybeans (Glycine max L.) was found to range from 1.58 to 20.18 mg/g, of which three anthocyanins are identified. These anthocyanins include delphinidin-3-glucoside, cyanidin-3-glucoside, and petunidin-3-glucoside and their contents ranging 0–3.7, 0.9–16.0, and 0–1.4, respectively. Recently, anthocyanins and anthocyanidins in black soybean seed coats have been identified primarily as cyanidin 3-glucoside with the relative order of anthocyanidin as cyanidin > delphinidin > petunidin > pelargonidin, while the yellow soybean seed coat has very little anthocyanins content (Park et al., 2011).
The lignans content of different food sources reported by Tham et al. (1998) confirmed that flaxseed meals and flours are the highest plant lignans source, having 675 and 526 µg/g dry matter, respectively. Among legumes lentil, soybean, kidney bean, and navy bean possess the highest lignans content with average amounts of 18.0, 8.6, 5.6, and 4.6 µg/g dry matter, respectively. The enterolactone structure has been found to form the major portion of lignan in lentil while enterodiol structure comprises the great part of soybean and dry bean lignan. It has been reported that flax seeds have extremely high contents of secoisolariciresinol and matairesinol, the most common lignans in food, being 3699 and 10.7 µg/g dry matter, respectively, while soybean and kidney bean contain 0.13–2.73 and 0.56–1.53 µg/g dry matter, respectively (Webb and McCullough, 2005).
Coumestans are one of the phytoestrogens which are less common in the human diet than isoflavones. They are found in legumes, particularly food plants such as sprouts of alfalfa and mung bean (Lookhart, 1980; Mazur et al., 1998). Soy sprouts also show good level (71.1 µg/g wet weight) of coumestrol, the main coumestans compounds (Ibarreta et al., 2001).
Catechin and epicatechin are found to be predominated phenolic compounds in boiled legumes followed by chrysin, genistein, and quercetin. These flavonoids have been reported in raw leguminous seeds and their extracts (Amarowicz and Pegg, 2008). The sum of flavonoids has been found to range from 20.1 to 2109.6 mg/100 g in selected pulses, and the highest flavonoids content was observed in lentil, followed by chickpea, pinto bean, and lupin. These components provide protective benefits due to their free radical scavenging ability and inhibition of eicosanoid synthesis and platelet aggregation (Dillard and German, 2000).
Phytic acid is the main storage form of phosphorus in soybean. The phytic acid content of soybean generally ranges from 1 to 2.3% (Liener, 1994). In general legume grains have high content of phytic acid around 1.75 g/100 g and in particular lupin, pea, common bean, and cowpea having 1.38, 1.02, 0.55, and 0.42 g/100 g phytate (Hídvegi and Lásztity, 2002).
Tannins are polyphenolic substances commonly divided into two groups, condensed and hydrolysable tannins (Liener, 1994). Dietary tannins may have negative or positive effects to humans as they may depress digestibility of protein and carbohydrate and absorption of minerals or they could act as anticarcinogenic and antimutagenic agents. Soybean contains about 45 mg/100 g of tannins that are mainly located in the hull of the seeds (Liener, 1994). Mung bean contains about 3.3 mg/g tannins (Mubarak, 2005), and faba bean possesses around 1.82 mg/100 g tannins (Fernández et al., 1996).
Since the majority of phytochemicals are present in the outer layers of cereal grains, milling of grains into white flours will result in the removal of high portions of these components. Thus more attention should be paid to minimize the loss of phytochemicals during the milling process, in particular those exhibiting beneficial health effects. In addition, more research is required on the development of new milling technologies and new varieties to produce wholegrain foods exhibiting health-enhancing properties.
Processing of grains could have various effects on dietary fiber. Several studies have shown conflicting results. Some data indicate no significant effects on soluble and insoluble dietary fiber (Varo et al., 1983), others claim reductions (Fornal et al., 1987) or increase in dietary fibers (Theander and Westerlund, 1987; Penner and Kim, 1991). Germination of pea seeds resulted in increased contents of both insoluble and soluble dietary fiber in conjunction with a decrease in the IDF/SDF ratio (Martín-Cabrejas et al. 2003). Pérez-Hidalgo et al. (1997) observed a total dietary fiber increase of 49.5% (from 16.8 to 25.1%) after cooking and decrease of 21.4% (from 16.8 to 13.2%) after frying of chickpeas. In addition, they also observed an increase in the insoluble fiber fraction after cooking by 108% with no significant change in the level of insoluble dietary fiber after frying. Mahadevamma and Tharnathan (2004) found that various cooking processes including deep fat frying, autoclaving, popping, extrusion cooking, and roller drying of Bengal gram and green gram affect dietary fiber causing either reduction or increase depending upon process-type and fiber fraction.
Processing may open up the food matrix, thereby allowing the release of tightly bound phytochemicals from the grain structure (Fulcher and Rooney Duke, 2002). Research on cereal products showed that thermal processing might assist in releasing bound phenolic acids by breakdown cellular constituents and cell walls (Dewanto et al., 2002). In addition, browning during thermal processing may cause increase of total phenolic content and free radical scavenging capacity. This increase could be due to the dissociation of conjugated phenolic during thermal processing followed by some polymerization and/or oxidation reactions and the formation of phenolics other than those endogenous in the grains. Other reactions such as Maillard reaction (non-enzymatic browning) (Bressa et al., 1996), caramelization, and chemical oxidation of phenols could also contribute to the increase in total phenols content.
Processing may also change the ratio between various phenolic compounds due to thermal degradation. Vanillin and vanillic acid can be produced through thermal decomposition of ferulic acid (Pisarnitskii et al., 1979; Peleg et al., 1992), while p-hydroxybenzaldehyde can be formed from p-coumaric acid (Pisarnitskii et al., 1979). Some phenolic acids are heat-sensitive such as caffeic acid, which could be reduced during heat processes, while others like ferulic and p-coumaric acids are susceptible to thermal breakdown (Pisarnitskii et al., 1979; Huang and Zayas, 1991). Degradation of conjugated polyphenolic compounds such as tannins as a result of heat stress (100 °C) could increase some phenolics such as ferulic, syringic, vanillic, and p-coumaric acids in wheat flour (Cheng et al., 2006). Some phenolics are also known to accumulate in the cellular vacuoles (Chism and Haard, 1996), and thermal processing may release such unavailable phenolics. The processing operating conditions could also affect changes in phenolic compounds. For instance, moisture content, time, and temperature during extrusion processing would significantly determine the release of phenolic compounds (Dimberg et al., 1996). Black soybean shows over three-fold higher phenolic content (6.96 mg GAE/g) than the yellow one (2.15 mg GAE/g) and thermal processes (boiling and steaming) dropped their levels by 43–63% and 10–27%, respectively (Xu and Chang, 2008).
Significant reduction in both antioxidant capacity (60–68%) and total phenolics (46–60%) in barley extrudates compared with that of the unprocessed barley flour has been reported (Altan et al., 2009). Roasting can differently affect total phenolics and antioxidant capacity. For example, roasting resulted in a marked reduction in phenolic content (13.2 and 18.3%), and antioxidant capacity (27.2 and 13.5%) in yellow and white sorghum, respectively (Oboh et al., 2010). A significant decrease in total phenols content (8.5–49.6%) and antioxidant capacity (16.8–108.2%) was observed after sand roasting of eight barley varieties (Sharma and Gujral, 2011). Significant increase in both antioxidant capacity and total phenols content of barley grains was obtained after roasting two layers of grains or 61.5 g in a microwave oven at 600 W for 8.5 min (Gallegos-Infante et al., 2010a; Omwamba and Hu, 2010).
Significant increase in the content of free phenolics and total antioxidant capacity were found following heating canned corn in a retort at 115 °C for 10, 25, or 50 min (Dewanto et al., 2002). In addition pressure cooking of corn (autoclaved for 40 min at 15 psi) caused substantial increase in the amount of free ferulic acid, p-coumaric acid, and vanillin (Steinke and Paulson, 1964). Heat treatment at high temperature (150 °C) of corn germ or other corn oil containing fractions resulted in significant reductions of γ-tocopherol, γ-tocotrienol, and δ-tocotrienol and the production of triacylglycerol oxidation products. Boiling red sorghum and finger millet at atmospheric pressure resulted in significant reduction in total extractable phenolics, while barley showed increase in total phenolic content and antioxidant capacity (Gallegos-Infante et al., 2010b). Processing durum wheat into spaghetti resulted in reduction of free phenolic acids content, primarily caused by p-hydroxybenzoic acid decrease, and increase in bound phenolics (Hirawan et al., 2010).
Baking of flat bread resulted in significant reduction in all-trans lutein being about 37–41% for the unfortified breads (no lutein added) and 29–33% for the lutein-fortified breads (Abdel-Aal et al., 2010). The extent of reduction for natural or added lutein was considerably high and varied slightly among wheat species, einkorn, Khorasan, and durum. The degradation of carotenoids is mostly related to their well-known susceptibility to heat (Mercadante, 2007). Storage of flat bread at room temperature for up to eight weeks had a slight impact on all-trans lutein in the case of unfortified products, whereas the lutein-fortified products showed a linear degradation following first-order kinetics for the fortified flat breads. Canning of corn in sugar/salt brine solution at 126.7 °C for 12 min did not significantly change the contents of lutein and zeaxanthin in white and golden corn, but α-carotene significantly decreased by about 62% (Scott and Eldridge, 2005). However, the study did not measure cis-isomers of lutein and zeaxanthin, which were found to increase in canned vegetable (Updike and Schwartz, 2003). Lutein in wholegrain pan bread dropped to a little extent compared with flat breads (Abdel-Aal et al., 2010). The small reduction in lutein in pan bread could possibly be because of the lower concentration of lutein in the baking formulas where no lutein was added. Hidalgo et al. (2010) showed carotenoids losses of 21 and 47% for bread crumb and crust, respectively. Bread leavening had almost negligible effects on carotenoids losses, while baking resulted in a marked decrease in carotenoids. In pasta, the longer kneading step had significant effects on carotenoids losses, while the drying step did not induce significant changes (Hidalgo et al., 2010). Lipoxygenase was found to play considerable role on stability of lutein/carotenoids during dough-making where a positive correlation was found between carotenoid losses and lipoxygenase activity (Leenhardt et al., 2006). The degradation rate of lutein loss in pan bread was much higher in the high-lutein pan bread compared with the control bread which indicates that lutein degradation kinetics is concentration dependent (Abdel-Aal et al., 2010). Storage of pan bread at room temperature for up to five days resulted in an additional decrease in lutein to some extent depending on the base composite flour. Pan bread made from wheat einkorn/corn blend had a slightly higher degradation rate as compared to wheat/einkorn/corn blend. Storage of einkorn flour and bread at various temperatures (−20, 5, 20, 30, and 38 °C) for up to 239 days had major effects on carotenoids degradation, and was influenced by temperature and time following first-order kinetics (Hidalgo and Brandolini, 2008).
Einkorn alone or in blend with corn flour either unfortified or fortified with lutein was processed into cookies (Abdel-Aal et al., 2010). Stability of lutein in cookies was found to decline considerably in fortified einkorn and control cookies, whereas a moderate drop was observed for the unfortified einkorn cookies. The percentage of lutein reduction, however, was consistent at 62, 65, and 63% for unfortified einkorn, fortified einkorn, and fortified control cookie, respectively. The degradation rate is dependent on concentration of lutein as well as the baking recipe. The high decline in lutein in cookies compared with bread could be due to the high fat content in the baking recipe that may make lutein and other carotenoids more soluble and exposable to oxidation and isomerization. Cookies made from einkorn and corn composite flours, and fortified with lutein, also exhibited a sharp decline in lutein during baking process, whereas the corresponding unfortified ones had lutein reduction at a lower rate. Zeaxanthin level also reduced on baking but at a much lower rate compared with lutein, perhaps due to its lower concentration in the baking formula. Water biscuit made without adding fat and non-fat dry milk to avoid interferences with the lipophilic oxidation mechanism had lower carotenoid degradation at 31% (Hidalgo et al., 2010). Storage of cookies for up to eight weeks at ambient temperature produced almost no effect on lutein or zeaxanthin. Lutein-fortified muffins also showed a noticeable decrease in lutein similar to fortified cookies (Abdel-Aal et al., 2010). The muffin recipe also contains a high percent of fat, which may make lutein more soluble and accessible to processing conditions causing more degradation by oxidation and isomerization. The reduction percentages for lutein were 64 and 55% in unfortified and fortified muffin, and for zeaxanthin were 57 and 56%, respectively. This indicates that the extent of reduction or degradation is independent from carotenoid concentration but the degradation rate is concentration dependent. Storage of muffins for up to three days at ambient temperature had no effects on lutein or zeaxanthin content.
Blue wheat anthocyanins were found to be thermally most stable at pH 1 (Abdel-Aal and Hucl, 2003). Their degradation was slightly lower at pH 3 as compared to pH 5. Degradation of blue wheat anthocyanins would increase upon increasing temperature from 65 to 95 °C. Addition of SO2 (500–1000 ppm for whole meals and 1000–3000 ppm for isolated anthocyanins) during heating of blue wheat had a stabilizing effect on anthocyanin pigments.
Traditional processing of legume grains such as dehulling, soaking, germination, boiling, autoclaving, and microwave cooking were found to reduce the content of tannin in mung bean seeds (Phaseolus aureus) (Mubarak, 2005). The tannins in uncooked raw dry seeds (3.3 mg/g) dropped by 66.7, 51.5, 45.5, and 62% in germinated, autoclaved, boiled, and microwave-cooked seeds, respectively. Fernández et al. (1996) found that tannins in faba bean (1.82 mg/100 g) became more accessible following cooking and the tannin/catechin ratio (an indicator of tannin polymerization) decreased. Soaking and cooking of five legumes (white kidney bean, red kidney bean, lentil, chickpea, and white gram) resulted in significant reduction in phytic acid and tannin contents. Maximum reduction of phytic acid (78%) and tannin (66%) was obtained with sodium bicarbonate soaking followed by cooking (Huma et al., 2008).
Changes in concentration of isoflavones and saponins in 13 pulse varieties including field pea, chickpea, and lentil was studied in whole seed, hydrated seed, and cooked seed (Rochfort et al., 2011). It was found that the concentration of isoflavones studied (genistein, daidzein, formononetin, and biochanin A) was highest in chickpea, in which soaking altered the amount of isoflavones while cooking eliminated these isoflavones.
Wheat, rice, corn, bean, and pea are major ingredients in the human diet. Other grain ingredients in the human diet include rye, oat, barley, sorghum, millet, buckwheat, amaranth, and triticale. These grains are good sources of phytonutrients, antioxidants, and dietary fiber exhibiting known health effects and they are present largely in the bran and hulls, and as a result wholegrain products are considered healthier foods. In addition, grain phytonutrients would complement those present in fruits and vegetables in the human diet. Indeed this makes wholegrains products promising healthy foods. Wholegrain foods, however, may exhibit poor color, taste, and textural properties, and perhaps require special processing treatments to enhance their sensory properties.
Cereal grains particularly wheat, rye, oat, and barley offer great opportunities for the development of functional foods such as bread, pasta, breakfast cereals, snack bars, and others. Functional foods from selected cereal grains and their content of phytochemicals have been reported by Sidhu et al. (2007). Wholegrain bread and pasta products are commercially produced as healthier foods due to their higher content of bioactive compounds compared with those made from their corresponding refined grain flours. Such foods are in increasing demand, in particular those with improved nutritional and sensory qualities. Still more research is required to develop a wide variety of improved wholegrain food products to meet the growing demand and also to enhance product quality and satisfy consumers’ needs. Many studies have shown the beneficial health effects of wholegrain foods (Anderson et al., 2000; Meyer et al., 2000; Nicodemus et al., 2001; Fung et al., 2002; Kasum et al., 2002). Wholegrain breakfast cereals have been found to be important dietary sources of antioxidants along with fruits and vegetables (Miller et al., 2000). Breads made with oat offer high satiety value and lower blood cholesterol level in human subjects (Frank et al., 2004). A number of diverse mechanisms are responsible for the protective effects of wholegrain products against chronic diseases (Slavin, 2003). They contain high levels of dietary fiber including oligosaccharides and resistant starch that escape digestion in the small intestine and are fermented in the gut producing short chain fatty acids. The short chain fatty acids serve as an energy source for the coloncytes and may alter blood lipids. Wholegrain products are rich in antioxidants that have been linked to disease and oxidative damage prevention. In addition, wholegrain products mediate insulin and glucose responses, and exhibit improvements in biomarkers such as blood lipid.
High-lutein wholegrain bakery products including bread, cookie, and muffin have been developed as staple foods to enhance lutein daily intake (Abdel-Aal et al., 2010). Lutein is the main carotenoid in wheat and accounts for 77–83% of the total carotenoids in relatively high-lutein wheat species such as einkorn, durum, Kamut, and Khorasan (Abdel-Aal et al., 2007). Specialty grains also have been employed for the production of functional and health foods. Blue, purple, or red corn is currently used for ornamentation due to its colourful appearance with only a small amount being utilized in the production of naturally coloured blue and pink tortillas as healthy additive-free foods (Abdel-Aal et al., 2006). Anthocyanin-pigemented corn especially purple corn with relatively high amounts of anthocyanins (965 µg/g) hold a promise for the development of functional foods and/or natural colorants. Purple wheat is crushed into large pieces, which are spread over the exterior of multigrain bread as a specialty food product (Bezar, 1982). Red rice has been used as a functional food in China, and is also commonly used as a food colorant in bread, ice cream and liquor (Yoshinaga, 1986). Black sorghum has also been shown to contain significant levels of anthocyanins and other phenols concentrated in the bran fraction being approximately 4.0–9.8 mg/g of anthocyanins mainly 3-deoxyanthocyanidins such as luteolinidin and apigeninidin (Awika et al., 2004). This amount is relatively high compared to pigmented fruits and vegetables (0.2–10 mg/g) on a fresh weight basis making black sorghum a good candidate as a functional food product.
Bean and pea are traditional foods in several parts of the world. In Latin America pulse consumption ranges from 1 kg/capita/year (Argentina) to 25 kg/capita/year (Nicaragua) with common beans accounting for 87% of the total consumption (Leterme and Muñoz, 2002). The pulse consumption in Europe is lower than other regions of the world with Spain, France, and the UK accounting for 60% of the total consumption (Schneider, 2002). In the USA only 7.9% of the population consumed beans, peas, or lentils on any given day based on dietary intake data from the 1999–2002 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey for adults aged 19 years and over (Mitchell et al., 2009). The main sources are pinto bean, refried bean (usually made from pinto bean), baked bean, chilli, and other Mexican or Hispanic mixed dishes. The US dietary guidelines recommend about 3.5 cups per week or 0.5 cup per day (USDA, 2010).
Beans and peas provide a diverse array of nutrients and phytochemicals that have demonstrated beneficial health effects. For instance, consuming about half a cup of dry beans or peas could increase intakes of fiber, protein, folate, zinc, iron, and magnesium, and lower intakes of saturated and total fat in the diet of Americans (Mitchell et al., 2009). According to a study by Sichieri (2002), a traditional diet that relies largely on beans and rice was associated with lower risk of being overweight and obese in logistic models in Brazil. Eating beans is also inversely correlated (r = −0.68) with colon cancer mortality based on epidemiological studies (Correa, 1981). In addition, consumption of beans may reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease via hypocholesterolemic effects and lowering of blood pressure, body weight, and oxidative status (Winham et al., 2007).
Baked bean is a common food form, and is traditionally made in a ceramic or cast-iron bean pot. Today, bean recipes are stewed, such as canned beans, as convenience foods. Consumption of baked bean has been linked to reductions in serum cholesterol in hypercholesterolemic adults (Winham and Hutchins, 2007). Baked beans also considerably reduced total plasma cholesterol in normo-cholesterolemic adults fed one 450 g can of baked beans in tomato sauce daily for 14 days as part of their normal diet (Shutler et al., 1989).
In general, cereal and legume grains are rich sources of phytochemicals and basic nutrients that would promote beneficial health effects and constitute the foundation for healthy diet. The protective functions of phytochemicals in human health and nutrition when consumed at the required daily amount are well recognized (Anderson et al., 2007; Chan et al., 2007; Cheng et al., 2009; De Moura, 2008; Alminger and Eklund-Jonsson, 2008; Binns, 2010). These compounds possess a number of relevant biological properties that depend in part on their antioxidant capacity. They may actively contribute to the control of oxidative reactions and provide protection in vivo via their capacity as free radical scavengers, reducing agents, potential ability to complex with pro-oxidant metals, and as quenchers of reactive oxygen species in addition to other physiological functions.
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